DS Week 7 Lecture Material

CHEMICAL PROCESS INSTRUMENTATION
Temperature Measurement
(WEEK – 7: LECTURE - 31 )
Dr. Debasis Sarkar

Department of Chemical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
1
Today’s Topic:
 Introduction to Temperature Measurement
 Temperature Scale
2
• Temperature represents a condition that is characteristic of the thermal
state of a body.
• Temperature is one of the most commonly measured and controlled
process variable in industrial applications.
 Chemical reaction • Polymer processing
 Product quality • Nuclear reactor
 Steam raising • Milk and dairy products
 Gas turbines • Plant furnace
 Heat treatment of steel and aluminum • Heating and air conditioning
alloys • Space vehicles
3
What is Temperature?
• Temperature is not easily defined!
• Ordinarily speaking, temperature is an intuitive concept that tells whether

a body is HOT or COLD.
• Temperature measurement is related to the measurement of Thermal

Energy associated with the material or environment.
4
Thermal Energy: Solid
• Solid: Atoms/molecules are bonded strongly, but atoms can vibrate

around their equilibrium position. No vibration means zero thermal
energy. If we add energy to the material, atoms start vibrating about their
equilibrium position and we say that the material has finite thermal
energy.
5
Thermal Energy: Liquid
• Add more and more energy to the solid material – molecular vibrations
will increase and finally overcome the bonding attractions that hold
molecules in their equilibrium position. Molecules now break away and
move about in the body, sliding randomly about each other.
• The average speed with which they move is a measure of the Thermal
Energy imparted to the body.
6
Thermal Energy: Gas
• Add further energy to the liquid material – the velocity of the molecules
increase and finally molecules gain enough energy to escape completely
from the attraction of other molecules. that hold molecules in their
equilibrium position. Unattached molecules move freely and randomly
throughout the container, collide with each other and the walls of the
container. We say the material has become gas.
• The average speed with which the gas molecules move is a measure of the
Thermal Energy imparted to the body.
7
Temperature is Different
• Process variables such as Pressure, Flow, Level etc. can be calibrated in
terms of primary standards: Mass, Length, and Time.
• Temperature is fundamentally different from Mass, Length, and Time.
L + L 2L Additive
T
+ T T Not Additive
8
• Second law of thermodynamics relates temperature to heat. Temperature
is a quantity that determines the direction of heat flow between two
bodies.
• Kinetic theory of gases and statistical thermodynamics relate temperature

to the average kinetic energy of the molecules of an ideal gas.
9
If two bodies have the same temperature, then they must be in thermal
equilibrium.
The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics: When two bodies are each in thermal
equilibrium with a third body, they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
Then all are at the same temperature.
If we have reproducible means of creating a range of temperatures (standard),
the unknown temperature of any other body may be established by bringing
the body in thermal equilibrium with the standard.
10
Temperature Scale
Liquid
and
vapor
11
Absolute Temperature Scale
• Temperature is a measure of the thermal energy in a body, which is the
relative hotness or coldness of a medium and is normally measured in
degrees using one of the following scales: Fahrenheit (F), Celsius or
Centigrade (C), Rankine (R), or Kelvin (K).
• An absolute temperature scale is one that assigns a zero temperature to a

material that has no thermal energy. At this temperature all molecular
motion ceases (no vibration) and the energy of the molecule is zero. There
are two such scales: Kelvin and Rankine.  T2   T2 
    
• 1 K = (180/100) °R = (9/5) °R  1
T  T1 
Kelvin Rankine
12
Relative Temperature Scales
• Two common relative temperature scales:
 Celsius scale (°C)
 Fahrenheit scale (°F)
• The relative temperature scales differ from the absolute scales in a

shift of zero axis.
• T(°C) = T(K) – 273.15, T(°F) = T(°R) – 459.6
13
Temperature Scales
To define the temperature scales, a set of calibration points (fixed points) is used. For
each of these calibration points, the average thermal energy per molecule is well
defined through equilibrium conditions existing between solid, liquid or gaseous states
of various pure materials.
Common Fixed Points:

Freezing point of water at std atm pressure: 0 °C and 32 °F
Boiling point of water at std atm pressure: 100 °C and 212 °F
The Celsius scale has 100 units between these points, where as the Fahrenheit scale
has 212 units.
Relationship: C/5 = (F‐32)/9 OR F = 1.8 C + 32
14
Temperature Scale Calibration Points
Calibration Point K °R °F °C
Zero Thermal Energy 0 0 ‐459.6 ‐273.15
Water: solid/liquid 273.15 491.6 32 0
Water: liquid/gas 373.15 671.6 212 100
15
Temperature Scales
International Practical Temperature Scale (IPTS):
Fixed Points Temperature (K) Temperature (°C)

Triple point of equilibrium 13.8033 ‐259.3467
hydrogen
Triple point of oxygen 54.3584 ‐218.7916
Freezing point of zinc 692.677 419.527
Freezing point of silver 1234.93 961.78
Melting point of platinum 2045 1772
16
Primary Temperature Points (IPTS 90):

Triple Point of Hydrogen 13.81 ‐259.34
Liquid/Vapor Phase of Hydrogen at 17.042 ‐256.108
25/76 std. atmosphere
Boiling Point of Hydrogen 20.28 ‐252.87
Boiling Point of Neon 27.102 ‐246.048
Triple Point of Oxygen 54.361 ‐218.789
17
Primary Temperature Points (IPTS 90):

Boiling Point of Oxygen 90.188 ‐182.962
Triple Point of Water 273.16 0.01
Boiling Point of Water 373.15 100
Freezing Point of Zinc 692.73 419.58
Freezing Point of Silver 1235.08 961.93
Freezing Point of Gold 1337.58 1064.43
18
Relation of Temperature to Thermal Energy
3
A good approximation of the average thermal energy of a molecule is: Eth  kT
2
where k is Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 ⨯10‐23 J/K and T is absolute temperature (K)
Thus average thermal speed or velocity of a gas molecule can be found from:
1 2 3
mv  Eth  kT
2 2 Here m is the mass of
3kT molecule
v
m
19
Thank You
20
Dr. Debasis Sarkar

1
Today’s Topic:
 Classification of Temperature Measuring Instruments
 Bimetallic Thermometer
2
Temperature Measuring Instruments: Classification
Various temperature dependent effect of materials can be used for temperature measurement
Thermal Expansion Methods
• Solid Expansion: Bimetallic Electrical‐
Radiation
Thermometer Resistance
Methods:
• Liquid Expansion: Liquid‐in‐glass Thermoelectric Sensors:
Total Radiation
thermometer, Pressure Sensors: Resistance
thermometer Pyrometer,
Thermocouples Temperature
• Gas Expansion: Gas Optical
Detectors (RTD),
thermometer, Vapor Pressure Pyrometer
Thermistors
Thermometer
3
Some Other Methods of Temperature
Measurements
Thermography
Resonant frequency change
Sensitivity of fibre optic devices
Acoustic thermometry
Colour change
Change of state of material
4
Thermal Expansion of Solids
If the temperature of a solid body is above absolute zero (–273.15°C), the
atoms of the solid will vibrate. When the temperature is increased, the
amplitude of vibration increases, and the average distance between atoms
increases. This leads to an expansion of the whole body with increase in
temperature.
The change in length ΔL is proportional to the change in temperature ΔT and
the original length L. Thus, ΔL= kLΔT where k is thermal expansion coefficient.
5
Thermal Expansion of Solids
Working Principle of Thermometers Based on Thermal Expansion of Solids:
All metals change in dimension when there is a change in temperature. The extent of
such expansion or contraction depend on the temperature coefficient of expansion of the
metal. This temperature coefficient of expansion is different for different metals. Hence
the difference in thermal expansion rates is used to produce deflections which is
proportional to temperature changes.
6
Bimetallic Thermometer
Bimetallic Strip
Two strips of metals with different coefficients of thermal expansion

are bonded (welded/riveted) together.
7
When the strip is subjected to a
temperature which is different
from bonding temperature, the
strip will bend in one direction
or other, forming a uniform
circular arc of radius of
curvature, r.
r
This radius of curvature can be
related to the temperature.
8
  1 
t 3(1  m 2 )  (1  mn)  m 2   
 
r 
mn
6( A   B )(T2  T1 )(1  m) 2
r = radius of curvature
t = total strip thickness, 0.0005 to 0.125 inch
n = elastic modulus ratio, EB/EA
m = thickness ratio, tB/tA
T2‐T1 = temperature rise
r
In most practical cases, tB/tA = 1 and
n + 1/n = 2, then
2t
r
3( A   B )(T2  T1 )
9
cantilever spiral
U‐shaped
Bimetallic strips are usually
configured as a spiral or helix for
compactness and can then be used
with a pointer to make an
inexpensive compact rugged
thermometer. Double‐Helix
Helix
10
11
• Material Used:
 Low Expansion Metal (B): Invar  Iron‐Nickel Alloy, containing 36%
Nickel, has nearly zero thermal expansion coefficient
Choice of Materials
 High Expansion Metal (A): Brass, Variety of alloy Depends on:
Coefficient of expansion
Modulus of elasticity
• Range: ‐30 to 550 oC Ductility
• Accuracy: ±1% of full‐scale deflection Metallurgical ability
12
Thermal Expansion Coefficient of Some
Common Materials
13
• Advantage: Simple, Robust, Inexpensive, Self‐generating type, Low
maintenance cost, Stable operation
• Disadvantage: Not suitable for measurement of rapidly changing
temperature
• Other Uses:
 On‐off control (thermostat) in electric irons, refrigerators, air‐conditioning, etc
 Over‐load cut‐off switches in electrical apparatus
 Compensating elements for the ambient temperatures in pressure
thermometer, aneroid barometers
 Balance‐wheel compensator in some watches
14
Bimetallic Thermometer: On-Off Switch
15
Bimetallic Thermometer: A Numerical Problem
A copper rod has length 4 m at 20°C. By how much it will expand when the
temperature is changed from 0 to 100°C?
Solution:
Let us first find the length at 0 °C. We know: ΔL = kLΔT
Then we can write: Lo = kL(To – T20) + L
Lo = (16.6 X 10–6/°C) 4 m (0 – 20)°C + 4 m  Lo = 3.9987m
Now let us find out length at 100°C.
L100 = (16.6 X 10–6/°C) 4 m(100 – 20)°C + 4 m  L100 = 4.00531 m
Thus, the expansion in the rod is L100 – Lo = 0.00661 m
16
Thank You
17
Dr. Debasis Sarkar

1
Radiation
Methods:
Total Radiation
Detectors (RTD),
Thermistors
Thermometer
2
Today’s Topic:
Liquid Expansion Thermometer
Liquid‐in‐Glass Thermometers
Liquid‐in‐Metal Thermometer (Pressure Thermometer)
3
Liquid-in-Glass Thermometer
The liquid in gas thermometers is one of the most
common types of temp measuring devices. The unit
consists of glass envelope, responsive liquid (temperature
sensitive) and indicating scale. The glass envelope
consists of a small bore graduated glass tube with a small
bulb containing the responsive liquid. An indicating scale
is etched on the glass tube.
Thermometer relies on the expansion of a liquid with
temperature. When there is a change in temperature, the
liquid contained in the sealed glass bulb expands into the
fine capillary in the thermometer stem. Temperature is
directly read using the scale etched along the stem.
4
Liquid-in-Glass Thermometer: Construction
The Bulb
The bulb of the thermometer is the thin glass reservoir that holds the
temperature sensing liquid. The bulb is carefully designed to contain a
calculated volume of liquid, based upon the length and diameter of the
capillary (or stem), as well as the thermal expansion coefficient of the liquid.
5
The Stem
The stem, or capillary is made of annealed glass. The type of glass used is chosen
based upon the temperature range of the device so as to minimize the effects of
expansion and contraction of the tube. The portion of the capillary above the liquid
level is often times filled with an inert gas, such as nitrogen, to prevent separation
of the liquid column or vaporization of the liquid at the top of the column.
6
The Auxiliary Scale
Some glass thermometers are equipped with an auxiliary scale. This is located
below the main scale. This is a short scale with graduations to check for the ice
point reference. This is useful for calibration purposes when ice point is not
included within the range of the main scale.
7
The Contraction Chamber
Sometimes a glass thermometer will have one (or more) contraction chamber
that is located just below the main scale of the thermometer. The purpose of this
chamber is to shorten the total stem length needed to reach the main scale. This
is achieved by accumulating the liquid in the chamber.
8
The Expansion Chamber
An expansion chamber is provided at the end of glass thermometers, and is used
to prevent the build‐up of pressure if the temperature of the liquid rises past the
top of the scale. Again, the volume of this chamber is carefully designed to
contain a certain volume of liquid.
9
Total and Partial Immersion Thermometer
Total immersion Thermometers:
Calibrated to read correctly when thermometer is
immersed so that the top of the mercury column is
level with the liquid surface.
Partial immersion Thermometers:
Calibrated to read correctly when the thermometer is
immersed to a specified depth.
Complete Immersion Thermometers:
Calibrated to read correctly when the entire device is
immersed in the test medium. Not very common.
10
Partial Immersion Thermometer
The depth to which the thermometer should be immersed is generally marked
on the body. A partial immersion thermometer has a line around it indicating
maximum immersion depth.
11
Incorrect Immersion of Thermometer: Correction
Partial immersion thermometer readings require no correction for immersion
depth provided they are immersed to a depth approximately near the
immersion line and provided that the air temperature at the exposed stem is
near 20C.
Total immersion thermometers require a stem correction when they are not
immersed to the full depth of the mercury column. The error introduced
becomes significant at elevated temperatures reaching 3 to 5 C at 200C.
12
The temperature correction for an exposed stem with a total immersion thermometer
is given by the following equation:
Stem correction ()  K  N  (Tmeasured - Texposed )
where K = net expansion coefficient of Hg in glass (Note: K depends on the difference of
expansion coefficients of thermometer liquid and glass)
for C, K = 0.000164 @ 100C and 0.000174 @ 300C (for Pyrex glass)
for F, divide K by 1.8
N = length, measured in degrees, of the exposed section of the Hg column
Tmeasured = observed temperature
Texposed = mean temperature of the exposed section of the Hg column (determined
using an auxiliary thermometer placed along side with its bulb at the
middle of the exposed section of the Hg column)
13
Problem: Determine the corrected temperature reading for a total immersion Pyrex
thermometer that is immersed to the 0C mark and reads 200 C. Ambient temperature
at the midpoint of the exposed Hg column is 35 C.
Solution:
Given: K = 0.000164 @ 100C and 0.000174 @ 300C (for Pyrex glass)
Take average: K = 0.000169 @ 200C
Stem correction = 0.000169*200*(200‐35) = 5.57
Corrected temperature = 200 + 5.57 = 206 °C (approx)
14
Glass Thermometer: Parallax Error
Parallax error occurs when the thermometer is not
viewed with the eyes at level with top of the mercury
column.
If viewed incorrectly, the mercury column will appear
either higher or lower than it actually is. To avoid
parallax, always keep your eyes at the same level as the
mercury column.
If a thermometer is difficult to read, use a magnifying
glass or a telescope to avoid parallax error.
15
Thermometer Liquids
The most common liquids are Mercury, Toluene, Ethyl alcohol, Xylene, Ethyl ether
(or a similar organic substance), and low‐hazard biodegradable liquids. Also there
are proprietary liquid (with mercury‐like performance, but no toxicity).
The range of a liquid‐in‐glass thermometer is limited by the liquid, by the glass,
and by the construction. Organic liquids are used for lower range: upto ‐200 °C.
Mercury is one of the best liquid in liquid‐in‐glass thermometer. Expansion rate of
mercury is linear and can be calibrated accurately. Opera ng range: −35 to 450°C
(freezing point of mercury is −38°C). Accuracy: ±0.2 °C
Advantage: Simple, Stable, Portable, Economic.
Disadvantage: Mercury toxicity, Breakable, Not easy to automate.
16
Mercury-in-Glass Thermometer: Some Points
Soda‐Iime glasses can be used for the range: ‐38 °C to about 350 °C. Higher
temperature range require borosilicate or other special glasses.
The capillary above the mercury is filled with a dry gas (frequently nitrogen) to
prevent separation of the column and to inhibit distillation of the mercury. In the
higher‐temperature models, substantial gas pressures are required to raise the
mercury boiling point above the range of the thermometer.
Air is not a good filling gas because it may lead to oxidation of the mercury. A
eutectic alloy of mercury containing 8.5 weight percent of thallium is used to
extend the lower temperature limit to ‐56 °C.
17
Thank You
18
Dr. Debasis Sarkar

1
Radiation
Methods:
Total Radiation
Detectors (RTD),
Thermistors
Thermometer
2
Today’s Topic:
Liquid‐in‐Glass Thermometer
Liquid‐in‐Metal Thermometer (Pressure Thermometer)
Gas Expansion Thermometer
Gas Thermometer
Vapor Pressure Thermometer
3
Liquid-in-Metal Thermometers: Pressure
Thermometers
The two distinct disadvantages of liquid‐in‐glass thermometers are:
1. The glass is easily breakable (fragile)
2. The position of the thermometer for accurate temp measurement is not
always the best position for reading the scale of the thermometer.
Both of these disadvantages are overcome in Liquid‐in‐Metal (such as Mercury‐in‐
Steel) thermometer. The principle of operation is same as liquid‐in‐glass
thermometers ‐ the thermal expansion of liquid.
4
Thermometers
5
Thermometers
Pressure thermometers consist of:
1. A temperature sensitive element (bulb).
2. An interconnecting capillary tube.
3. A pressure or volume sensitive device
Tcap
such as Bourdon tube, bellows or T
diaphragms.
4. A device for indicating or recording a
signal related to the measured
temperature.
6
Pressure Thermometers: Temperature
Compensation
The measured variable in a pressure thermometer is the total internal pressure.
This pressure is the result of two factors:
the temperature around the bulb, and
the ambient temperature around the rest of the system.
Long capillary tubes (as long as 200 ft) may be used for remote measurement.
Then the temperature variations along the capillary and at the pressure‐sensing
device require compensation for the effect of ambient temperature.
7
Compensation: Full Compensation
When the ambient temperature effects are
compensated for in both the capillary and in
the readout instrument, the design is called
fully compensated.
The motion of the compensating system is
due to effect of ambient temperature only
and is subtracted from the total motion of
the main system, resulting in an output
dependent on only bulb temperature.
8
Compensation: Case Compensation
Case compensation is partial compensation. When
the capillary volume is very small relative to the total
volume of the system, it is possible to leave the
capillary uncompensated.
Case compensation provided by adding a bimetallic
spring that generates a force nearly equal to the one
caused by the changes in ambient temperature.
9
Pressure Thermometers: Range/Accuracy
Range depends on the thermometer liquid. Most bulbs are made of stainless
Thermometer Liquid Thermometer Range steel, which is relatively inert and
(°C) will withstand high temperatures.
Mercury ‐40 to 650 The speed of response increases
Xylene ‐40 to 400 with increase of bulb diameter
and tends to be the fastest with
Ethyl alcohol ‐45 to 150
vapor or gas and the slowest with
Ethyl ether 20 to 90 liquid filling.
Toluene ‐80 to 250 Accuracy of pressure
Pressure thermometers have good linearity.
thermometers: ±1 °C
10
Gas thermometer is filled with a gas such as
nitrogen at a pressure range of 1000 to
3350 kPa at room temperature. The device
obeys the basic gas laws for a constant
volume system (P1/T1 = P2/T2) giving a linear
relationship between absolute temperature
and pressure.
11
The operating principle for gas‐filled systems is that in a perfect gas confined
to a constant volume the pressure is proportional to the absolute
temperature. The error due to non‐ideal nature of the gas is small and the
measurement of pressure can be used to indicate temperature.
Nitrogen and Helium are most commonly used filling gas.
Gas‐filled systems approximate Charles’s law (absolute pressure of a confined
gas is proportional to its absolute temperature) by keeping the bulb volume
relatively large compared to the rest of the system.
12
• Gas thermometers has widest measurement range.
• Lower side of the range is determined by the critical temperature of the
filling gas. Higher side of the range is determined by the temperature
limits on the bulb materials.
• Range: ‐268 to 760 °C
• Nitrogen reacts with the steel bulb temperature at 427 °C. Use Helium for
such temperatures.
• The longer the capillary tube, the bigger the thermal bulb should be.
• Accuracy: ±1% of full scale. Calibration is linear.
13
Vapor Pressure Thermometer
Vapor‐pressure thermometer system is partially filled with liquid and vapor. The
pressure of the vapor above the liquid depends on temperature the liquid‐vapor
interface.
If we increase the temperature, more liquid is evaporated and the pressure
increases. If we decrease temperature, some amount of vapor will condense and
the pressure will decrease.
The change in pressure with change in temperature is substantial and can be
used for measurement of temperature.
14
15
Volatile liquids used are: methyl chloride, ethyl alcohol, ether, toluene, etc.
The lowest operating temperature must be above the boiling point of the liquid
and the maximum temperature is limited by the critical temperature of the
liquid.
The response time of the system is slow, being of the order of 20 s. This is similar
to gas expansion thermometer.
The temperature‐pressure characteristic of the thermometer is nonlinear.
16
Vapor Pressure of Common Volatile Liquids
Note the log scale Methyl chloride
17
The sensitive element is a reservoir partially filled with a
volatile liquid which is in thermodynamic equilibrium with
its vapor.
For vapor pressure thermometer to work, liquid ‐vapor
interface must exist in the bulb. The arrangement shown in
the figure ensures that the volatile‐liquid surface is always
in the bulb.
18
Vapor Pressure Thermometer: Common Liquids
Liquid Range 0C Pressure is logarithmic function
Methyl chloride 0‐50 of temperature, so scale in non‐
linear.
n‐Butane 20‐80
Ethyl chloride 30‐100 log(p) = a – b/T
Ether 60‐160
Toluene 150‐250
Argon Down to ‐253 Accuracy: ±1%
19
The vapor‐pressure thermometer does not need any ambient temperature
compensation. The pressure in the system is determined only by the
temperature at the free surface of the liquid. Changes of temperature
elsewhere in the system may cause an expansion or contraction of volume,
but it is automatically compensated by establishing a new vapor pressure
equilibrium at the liquid surface, thereby maintaining a constant pressure.
20
Thank You
21
Dr. Debasis Sarkar

1
Radiation
Methods:
Total Radiation
Detectors (RTD),
Thermistors
Thermometer
2
Today’s Topic:
Gas Expansion Thermometer Filled System Thermometers
Error in Filled System Thermometers
A Numerical Example
3
Filled System Thermometer
Types of filled‐in system thermometers:
– Liquid‐in‐glass thermometers
– Liquid‐in‐metal thermometers: Pressure thermometers
– Constant volume gas thermometers
– Vapour pressure thermometers
4
Filled System Thermometer: Characteristics
• Most common temperature measuring devices.
• Quite rugged, cheap, need no maintenance, fairly good response.
• Accuracy and sensitivity is not as good as compared to electrical types.
• Self‐contained and self operated, range is limited by the thermometer
fluid.
• Need total replacement in case of failure.
• Remote indication up to about 100 m possible with capillary lines.
5
Filled System Thermometer: Another Classification
The Scientific Apparatus Manufacturers Association classifies filled system thermometers as
follows:
Class‐I : Liquid Filled Thermometers (filled with a non metallic liquid, mercury‐filled
thermometers not included, operate on the principle of liquid expansion)
Class‐II : Vapour‐Pressure Thermometers (partially filled with volatile liquid, operates on
the principle of vapour pressure)
Class‐III : Gas Thermometers (operates on the principle of pressure change with temperature)
Class‐IV : Mercury‐Filled Thermometers (filled with mercury or mercury‐thallium eutectic
amalgam and operates on the principle of liquid expansion)
Class‐V : Mercury‐Filled Thermometers
The manufacturers of American instruments classifies Mercury‐Filled Thermometers as Class‐
IV, but the Scientific Apparatus Manufacturers Association classifies Class‐V.
6
Errors in Filled System Thermometers
• The common errors in filled system arise due to:
– Effect of ambient temperature
– Head (or elevation) effect
– The barometric effect
– The immersion effect
– The radiation effect
7
1. Effect of Ambient Temperature: A change in ambient temperature will
cause volume changes in the capillary and the pressure spring (Bourdon
tube or diaphragm). Thus it will cause an error in measurement.
Use of large bulb
reduces the error.
Case
Temperature compensation
compensation is
possible. Full
Compensation
Compensation with bimetallic strip Compensation with differential link
8
2. The Head or Elevation Effect:
When the thermometer bulb is placed at a different height with respect
to the pressure spring, an elevation error will occur. If the thermal bulb is
above the pressure spring the hydrostatic head of the filling fluid will be
added to the total pressure at the Bourdon element. If the bulb is below
the pressure spring, the hydrostatic head will be subtracted from the total
pressure. Therefore, the reading will be higher if the bulb is placed at a
higher position (positive error) and vice versa (negative error).
9
The relative size of the error is a function of the
size of the hydrostatic head relative to the total
pressure.
Elevation Error
10
3. The Barometric Effect:
– The barometric effect is caused due to change in atmospheric
pressure.
– The deflection of the Bourdon element is a function of the difference
between the pressure of the filling fluid on the inside and the
atmospheric pressure on the outside. Thus, the change in atmospheric
pressure can result in measurement errors. The barometric pressure
can change by about 0.5 PSIG (25 mmHg). This may or may not be
large enough to introduce an error, depending on the filling pressure.
11
4. The Immersion Effect:
– If the thermometer bulb is not fully immersed in the medium
(“measurand”) and the head of the bulb is not properly insulated, heat
from the bulb is lost due to conduction through the extension neck
and thermal well. This will cause an error in reading which is called
immersion error.
– Immersion error is approximately proportional to the unexposed area
of the bulb.
12
5. The Radiation Effect:
– Radiation error occurs due to temperature difference between the
bulb and other solid bodies around it.
13
Filled System Thermometer: Pneumatic Transmitter
An increase in bulb temperature causes
the flapper to move closer to the nozzle,
increasing the nozzle back pressure. This
increases the output pressure, which
increases the force exerted by the
feedback bellows. The system returns to
equilibrium when the increase in bellows
pressure exactly balances the effect of the
increased diaphragm pressure. The bulb
temperature is directly related to the
output air pressure.
14
A Numerical Example
Problem : A mercury‐in‐steel thermometer uses a Bourdon pressure element
which has a range of 0 ‐ 5 MPa for the pointer rotation from 0 to 250 0C. During
temperature calibration, the pointer movement was set to 00 rotation at 00C and
the instrument indicated 2250 rotation corresponding to 2000C. The volume of
the bulb is 8 times that of combined volume of capillary and the bourdon tube.
Determine:
(a) The sensitivity of the thermometer in rad/0C.
(b) The error due to rise in ambient temperature of 200C.
(c) The error in measured temperature if the bulb is raised by 50 cm from the
calibration elevation.
15
A Numerical Example
Solution
(a) Sensitivity of the mercury‐in‐steel thermometer
total angular displacement in radians

= temperature range
225   /180
=  0.0196 rad/ 0 C
200
16
A Numerical Example
(b) The volume change in the capillary and the Bourdon tube due to change in
ambient temperature will introduce an error in the readings. To find this
error, we have to calculate the temperature rise in the bulb that will cause
the same volume change in the bulb. Thus, we can write:
  8V  T error   V  T ambient temp
Where α is the coefficient of volumetric expansion and V the combined
volume of the capillary and bourdon tube. Then, 20
Terror   2.5 C
8
Thus the error due to change in ambient temperature is 2.50C. Alternatively, the
correction to be applied to the observed readings would be ‐2.50C.
17
A Numerical Example
(c) The pressure exerted by a 50 cm column of Hg = ρHggh
 kg   m   50 
 13.69 103 3   9.81 2    m   6.7149 104 Pa  67.15 kPa
 m  s   100 
Angular movement caused by 67.15 kPa pressure in the Bourdon pressure element
 250   /180    67.15 103 

  0.0586 rad
5
So error due to elevation effect in measurement
 
angular movement due to elevation  0.0586 rad 
    2.980 C
sensitivity of thermometer  0.0196 rad 
 °C 
18
End of Week 7
Thank You
19

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