Monotonous Percussion Drumming and

Trance Postures: A Controlled Evaluation of

Phenomenological Effects
Lisa N. Woodside
West Chester University of Pennsylvania
and Holy Family College
Grant and Frankford Avenues
Philadelphia, PA 19114-2094
woodside@hslc.org

V. K. Kumar
West Chester University of Pennsylvania
Department of Psychology
The Peoples Building
West Chester, PA 19383

and

Ronald J. Pekala
Coatesville VA Medical Center
1400 Black Horse Hill Road
Coatesville, PA 19320

Abstract
Felicitas Goodman (1990) observed that naive participants experienced unique
trance states, characterized by specific visionary content, when they assumed
particular postures and listened to monotonous rattling. Students (n = 284), enrolled
in various sections of the course Introduction to Psychology, experienced one of four
conditions with their eyes closed: Sitting Quietly with and without Drumming,
Standing (Feather Serpent) Posture plus Drumming with and without Suggested
Experiences. Participants completed the Phenomenology ofConsciousness Inventory
(Pekala 1982, 1991c) and wrote narratives following their respective stimulus
conditions. Participants reported less imagery, joy, and absorption, but more internal
dialogue, self-awareness, and muscular tension in the posture, compared to the
sitting quietly, conditions. Goodman's results of specific posture (content-related)
effects with naive participants were not replicated.

Summary Statement
The major purposes of this study were to examine: (a) if monotonous percussion
drumming for 15 minutes is associated with phenomenological effects different from
a baseline condition of sitting quietly without such drumming; (b) if a certain
standing body posture, when combined with monotonous percussion, is associated

Anthropology of Consciousness 8(Z-3):69-87. Copyright © 1997 American Anthropological Association

69
70 Anthropology of Consciousness UK 2-3)]

with phenomenological effects different from baseline and monotonous percussion

drumming; and (c) if the inclusion of specific suggestions regarding the unique effects
to be achieved by the posture and percussion drumming was associated with
phenomenological effects different from posture and drumming without those
suggestions.

Background: Felicitas Goodman's Work

The present study derives its impetus from Goodman's (1990:20) theorizing on
31 postures depicted in drawings, primitive art collections, and statuary of ancient
cultures which she believes help facilitate achieving trance states. She claimed that
particular postures were utilized in ancient cultures to attain trance states so as to gain
information concerning solutions for a community or an individual's problem. She
observed that these postures, when combined with rattling, led to "distinctly
different experiences." Her work was conducted over a period of 5 years with 890
participants (217 repeaters) in 80 workshops.1 Goodman reported that she worked
with participants who were naive about the significance of the posture before they
went into a trance. She asked participants to assume a posture, take 50 deep breaths,
and concentrate as they heard 15 minutes of monotonous rattling. No instructions
were given as to the expected effects of the posture in terms of either type of imagery
or other subjective experiences.
An illustration of Goodman's work can be seen in the experiences described by
the participants when they assumed the posture represented by the Mexican figurine
called "the Prince" dated between 1100 and 600 B.C. (Goodman 1990:131). The
figurine comes from the Olmec culture where the jaguar was the primary spirit
animal. Wearing an unusual headdress, the figure sits cross-legged and bends slightly
forward onto stiff arms bent at the wrist. The fists are placed close together on the
floor in front of him and his tongue is between his lips. Goodman found that modern
trancers assuming this position while attending to monotonous rattling reported
experiences of becoming another being, often a jaguar or another member of the
family of large cats. Sometimes trancers reported focusing simply on the enormous
energy generated for metamorphosis.
Goodman's studies with postures have produced two main findings: (a) posture
plus rattling produces reliable visionary content across participants; and (b) the
subjective experiences obtained with a given posture correspond with such important
information as contained in myths, or involved in helping the participants with
healing, problem solving, or in making major life transitions.
To those familiar with ancient yogic practice and shamanism, Goodman's results
may hardly be surprising. Practitioners of yoga assume different postures (asanas) to
attain different objectives. One of these postures is the "sponge position" (Dacey
1989) taught in hatha yoga. The sponge position helps to relax the mind so that
imaginative ideas surface from the unconscious. The procedure involves simple
stretching exercises, then lying down on a firm, comfortable surface (e.g., floor with
a rug, but not bed or couch), followed by imagining relaxation from one's toes
upwards. Upon reaching the top of the head, the individual, is asked to imagine a
psychic hole in the forehead through which a warm, golden fluid flows and spreads
throughout the body, soothing all tensions and stresses. Thinking about this fluid
Jun-Sep 1997 Posture and Drumming 71

helps to empty the mind, to give the sensation of floating away, and to make sounds
seem to come from further and further away. At this point new ideas begin to surface
which are to be explored without straining. Dacey stressed the importance of proper
instruction and practice for the technique to work effectively. Dacey provided no
data, however, to support the validity of the technique in improving imaginative
ability.
However, Goodman's conclusions concerning participants' visionary content
and the relationship of posture to content, were based on a subjective analysis of the
narratives written by her participants in relation to their trance states. Consequently,
her interpretations might reflect personal beliefs about the existence of alternate
realities and her knowledge about mythology and culture. Her participants were
probably not fully naive; they might have recruited each other. Furthermore, they
might have been attracted to her workshops to experience "alternate realities" as this
workshop announcement (Course #1524, 1993:83) suggests:
Goodman says, "Depending upon the posture assumed, there might be a spirit
journey, a metamorphosis into an animal or plant, divination, healing,
empowerment, or the calling of the spirits. What makes the visionary
experience possible is the religious trance, a physical change which all
humans are capable of, and which acts as the doorway to the alternate
reality."
Cardefia (personal communication, February 24,1997), based upon his personal
attendance at Goodman's workshops, suggests that her research is highly contaminated
with demand characteristics and expectancy effects.

Shamanism
In her work, Goodman (1990) made references to shamans and the use of the
postures in undertaking a spirit journey (or a religious trance). Shamanism, a practice
known to cultures all over the world, dates back anywhere from 20 to 40 thousand
years. A shaman may act as a physician, psychologist, diviner, or a source of other
secular and sacred knowledge. To access information from the spirit world, or
alternate reality (Harner 1980), the shaman enters a trance state with the use of
monotonous percussion, such as the beat of a drum or rattle. Such journeying has
been referred to as "soul journey" or "magical flight" (Cardefia 1996:86; Eliade
1964:5; Winkelman 1986:175). The shaman voluntarily enters and leaves the
alternate reality, retaining full memory of the events which occurred in the spirit
world, to report on those events. However, Cardefia (1996:87) noted that such
control is not absolute since "unexpected images may suddenly appear, terrifying
sensations of dismemberment may ensue."
According to Hamer, the increase in interest in shamanic practices among
contemporary people, raised in a scientific world, derives from a need to conduct
"personal experiments" to test the limits of nature and reality not unlike those who
try out psychedelic drugs for personal enlightenment. Harner also cited the rise of
holistic medicine and greater interest in nature and the environment as compatible
with shamanic practice.
Shamanistic "trance states" may have phenomenological commonalities with
deep hypnosis (Cardefia 1988a, 1988b) and other altered states of awareness (Tart
]}_ Anthropology of Consciousness [8(2-3)1

1969; Winkelman 1986). They may represent a profoundly altered state of

consciousness for the shaman, just as hypnosis represents an extraordinarily altered
state of awareness for the hypnotic virtuosi (Cardefta 1996) vis-a-vis the average
person. According to Cardefta (1996:86), the literature of shamanism usually posits
two major forms of alteration of consciousness associated with shamanistic practices:
The first one refers to a mostly imaginal experience in which the person journeys
to an alternate spiritual region. The second one is a mostly embodied experience in
which a spiritual entity displaces the individual's personality and acts on the
"physical world."
The first type may be regarded as "shamanism proper," while the second type may
have more to do with possessions and mediumships (Cardefta 1996:86). Goodman's
work appears to concern the first type of alteration.
Acoustical Driving
An important component of Goodman's methodology for inducing trance is the
use of a rattle or drum beat. Goodman (1990:25) pointed to neurophysiological
changes which accompany religious trances. She noted in one her studies (with
Johann Kugler at the University of Munich), that participants' registered indications
of lowered levels of adrenalin, noradrenalin, and cortisol in their blood serum.
Participants also showed evidence of beta-endorphin synthesis, probably responsible
for feelings of "intense joy after a trance." The EEG showed a "steady stream.. .of
theta waves"; in addition, participants' blood pressure dropped, but their pulse
became faster.
There is some evidence that rhythmic auditory stimulation appears to have an
effect upon generating or "driving" brain rhythms which can lead to visual sensations,
auditory hallucinations, unusual perceptions, and in some cases, body convulsions
(Neher 1961,1962;Maxfield 1990). However, Rouget( 1985:174) took an exception
to the neurological driving hypothesis in response to drumming since a variety of
musical instruments and varying drum beats are used in trance inductions in real life.
Rouget noted that the constant beat used in Neher's laboratory has "very little in
common with the constantly varying stimuli provided by drums in possession
seances." Given Rouget's criticisms, Cardefta (1988a) offered the possibility that
shamans use constant drumming or monotonous stimulation to provide a continuity
to ongoing experiences rather than to bring about neurophysiological changes.
Rouget (1985) reviewed other possibilities, for example, response to monotonous
drumming might be due to a hypnotic or somnambulistic type effect, or it might be
a conditioned or a learned response which occurs only under certain contexts. If the
drum beat is heard out of context, no effects are observed (see Maurer 1995).
Winkelman (1986), reviewing research on rhythmic stimulation, suggested that
many types of trance induction procedures may foster brain rhythms conducive to
altered states of awareness, including shamanic states.
Wright (1991) employed the Phenomenology of Consciousness Inventory
(PCI) (Pekala 1982, 1991c) to measure subjective experiences in response to 10
minutes of drumming, and compared these responses with an eyes closed, sitting
quietly period of 5 minutes. Her drumming participants were given specific
shamanistic journeying instructions. Her results showed that there were significant
positive increases for the following major (and minor) PCI dimensions: Altered
 Jun-Scp 1997 Posture and Drumming 73

Experience (Body Image, Time Sense, Perception, and Meaning), Positive Affect
(Joy, Love, Sexual Excitement), Negative Affect (Fear), Imagery (Amount, Vividness).
Significant decreases were found for Self-Awareness, Arousal, Voluntary Control,
and Internal Dialogue. Wright's results may hardly be considered surprising,
inasmuch as she used participants with prior experience with shamanic journeying,
meditation and visualization techniques. Furthermore, Wright gave specific
instructions to her participants about the nature of experiences to expect.

Attempted Replication of Qoodman's Work

Kremer and Krippner (1994:176) have raised doubts about Goodman's accounts
of the historic or prehistoric use of trance postures. They were also skeptical of her
results because her "conclusions were reached with her as the sole investigator, note
taker, observer, and data analyst." Nevertheless, they published a study examining
the effects of Goodman's shamanic postures in an attempt to replicate her results.
Their participants were enrolled in workshops related to "discussion of altered states
of consciousness and related research issues." However, they indicated that their
participants were unaware of the nature of effects associated with the various postures
used in the study.
They studied eight postures, although their article primarily elaborated on two
postures, the Chiltan Spirits Healing Posture and the Singing Shaman. Their
descriptions and findings were based on a content analysis of participants' responses
to this posture and quantitative data using the Phenomenology of Consciousness
Questionnaire (PCQ) (Pekala 1985), a precursor to the current Phenomenology of
Consciousness Inventory (PCI) (Pekala 1982,1991c). The PCQ's altered experience
subscale results were used to identify an altered group and a non-altered group of
participants.
Kremer and Krippner (1994:18, 177) noted that for either group the degree of
overlap of narratives with Goodman's description was minimal. They also observed
that "physical discomfort was a common theme among [their] participants." However,
they cautioned that their results could not be considered definitive since "[m]any
variables have not be controlled for" in their study. They indicated that their
participants experienced several postures in a row and that sequencing of these
postures may have had an affect on the nature of reported subjective experiences.
The extent of inter-participant influence during transitional periods between
postures appears to have been uncontrolled in their study. There is also a possibility
of strong expectancy effects operative in their study. The participants had enrolled
in a workshop to experience the effects of postures, although they probably were
naive to the putative effects of the postures as described by Goodman.
Given the above review, and the fact that Kremer and Krippner (1994:182)
cited "epistemological and methodological complications for pursuing validation,"
we will first review the general methodology for the present study and then
specifically discussing its design.

The Methodology for the Present Study

The methodology involved the use of a retrospective self-report instrument to
assess the subjective experiences of the participants. The Phenomenology of
Consciousness Inventory (PCI) (Pekala 1982, 1991c) is a 53-item self-report
74 Anthropobgy of Consciousness 18(Z-3)J

inventory that is retrospectively completed in reference to a preceding stimulus

condition. The 12 major dimensions and 14 minor (sub)dimensions of the PCI
include: Internal Dialogue, Self-awareness, Altered State of Awareness, Imagery
(Amount, Vividness), Positive Affect (Joy, Sexual Excitement, Love), Negative
Affect (Anger, Fear, Sadness), Altered Experience (Time Sense, Body Image,
Perceptions, Unusual Meanings), Attention (Absorption, Direction), Memory,
Rationality, Volitional Control, and Arousal. It has been shown to be of adequate
reliability (Pekala 1991b; Pekala, Steinberg, and Kumar 1986), and construct,
discriminant (Kumar and Pekala 1988,1989; Pekala 1991b; Pekala and Kumar 1986,
1989; Pekala and Forbes 1988; Pekala, Forbes, and Contrisciani 1989), and pre-
dictive (Pekala 1991b; Pekala and Kumar 1984, 1987) validity. The PCI has been
used to map such stimulus conditions as hypnosis (Kumar and Pekala 1988, 1989),
progressive relaxation (Pekala and Forbes 1988), deep abdominal breathing (Pekala,
Forbes, and Contrisciani 1989), firewalking (Pekala and Ersek 1992/93), and out-of-
the-body experiences (OBEs) (Maitz and Pekala 1990/91).
The PCI allows for the state of consciousness associated with a stimulus
condition to be assessed both in terms of intensity effects and pattern effects. Because
participants rate their subjective experiences on 26 (sub)dimensions of consciousness
via a Likert scale, intensity ratings are obtained for these various (sub)dimensions of
subjective experience. By computing an intercorrelation matrix of the various PCI
major dimensions, a pattern analysis can be completed to determine if the pattern
of relationships among the major PCI dimensions associated with different stimulus
conditions are significantly different from one another. The relationships can be not
only diagramed via charting devices called psygrams (Pekala 1991b), but the
significance of the correlation matrices can be statistically assessed via the Jennrich
(1970) test (Pekala and Kumar 1989).
Thus, the PCI can be used to assess not only for intensity variations across
various dimensions of subjective experience, but also to assess for pattern relationships
among the PCI dimensions. Prior theorizing by Tart (1975) and Singer (1977),
respectively, suggest that both pattern and intensity effects are necessary for a
complete understanding and quantification of the state of consciousness associated
with particular stimulus conditions.
Additionally, by using the altered state of awareness dimension of the PCI, it is
possible to quantify and statistically assess for the occurrence of discrete or altered
states of consciousness, as originally defined by Tart (1975) and modified by Pekala
(1991b). According to Pekala, an altered state of consciousness involves not only a
perception of being in an altered state of awareness, but a different patterning or
association among the various subsystems of consciousness, while a discrete state of
consciousness has a pattern change, but not the perception of being in an altered
state of awareness. The PCI permits a statistical (via analysis of variance and
Jennrich's [1970], test) and visual assessment of altered and discrete states of
consciousness associated with various stimulus conditions, such as percussion
drumming or trance posturing.
The PCI also permits the assessment of the "hypnoidal" state associated with
particular stimulus conditions by way of computing predicted Harvard Group Scale
(pHGS) scores from the PCI (sub)dimensions. The pHGS scores are computed by
JmvSep 1997 Posture and Drumming 75

using a regression equation composed of unstandardized regression coefficients of 10

of the 26 (sub)dimensions of the PCI (Pekala and Kumar, 1987) found to predict the
scores of the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility (Shor and Orne 1962).
The equation generates pHGS scores that range between -.71 and 11.77 (usually
between 1 and 9). High hypnoidal scores, according to Pekala and Nagler (1989),
may be construed as a measure of hypnotic or trance depth (Pekala 1995a, 1995b).
However, pHGS scores may not be construed as an indication of the hypnotic "state"
but rather what high susceptible participants, on the average, would report on the
PCI during a standardized hypnotic induction procedure.
Thus, a low (or high) hypnoidal score represents the phenomenological
experience of a low (or high) susceptible individual during hypnosis. Pekala and
Nagler used a cut-oft (hypnoidal) score of 7 as reflective of the achievement of a
hypnoidal state. They based their cut-off scores on their finding that participants
scoring 10 or above on the Harvard Scale averaged hypnoidal scores of 7 or above (see
also Pekala and Forbes 1988). Pekala and Nagler noted that hypnoidal scores may
be useful in comparing the equivalence of hypnosis and other strategies such as
biofeedback and progressive relaxation, in terms of phenomenological experience.
Thus, hypnoidal scores allow us to determine whether participant's subjective
experiences (on the PCI dimensions) are similar to those obtained through an
hypnotic induction.
The Present Study's Design
This study was designed to examine whether phenomenological experiences
associated with four experimental conditions were significantly different from one
another in terms of PCI intensity, pattern, and hypnoidal effects. The four
conditions were: (a) the first group sat quietly on chairs with eyes closed (sitting
quietly: baseline [SQ-B]); (b) the second group received the additional stimulus of
repetitive, live drumming (sitting quietly: drumming [SQ-D]); (c) the third group
received the combination stimulus of a standing posture and repetitive, live drumming
(standing posture: drumming [SP-D]); and (d) the fourth group received a very
general verbal description suggesting possible subjective effects associated with the
posture and repetitive live drumming (standing posture: drumming and suggestions
[SP-DandS]). All groups filled out the PCI retrospectively after 15 minutes of
experiencing the stimulus conditions. Then they wrote narratives regarding their
experiences. The narratives were collected to see if the expected features of the
posture-related imagery would be observed as found by Goodman. In this regard, the
standing posture without suggestions condition (SP-D) is of particular interest since,
in Goodman's work, the imagery effects were found with naive participants (who
presumably were not told what to expect from the experience).

Method

Participants
Participants were 284 students (approximately 54% females and 46% males, age
range between 17 and 38, mean age = 20) from several sections of "Introduction to
Psychology" at West Chester University. Students participated to fulfill a departmental
research requirement. Nevertheless, participation was voluntary inasmuch as the
 Anthropology of Consciousness (8(2-3))

students were given a choice among several ongoing departmental projects and they
could terminate their participation at any time with impunity. Data for nine
participants were eliminated because of incomplete responses.
Drumming
The drumming was done for 15 minutes on a 16 inch, mylar drum with a tympani
mallet. Using earphones, the drummer could check the cadence with a commercial
drumming tape (Foundation of Shamanic Studies 1989). Live drumming was
maintained at three beats-per-second.
Drumming was preceded by a three minute breathing exercise for each group.
The 15 minute and three minute configurations were used to be comparable with
Goodman's (1990:225) work. Also, there is some evidence with naive participants
which shows that theta production starts to increase at nine minutes of drumming
exposure and plateaus at 15 minutes (Maxfield 1990).
Selection of a Posture
Two criteria were used to select the experimental posture: (a) how easy it was
to assume the posture given an auditorium with no carpeting and physical ability of
most students—thus, lying or sitting on floors and those requiring athletic abilities
were not chosen; and (b) the reported nature of postural effects—those presumably
leading to possibly frightening experiences, producing loud calls, songs, or answers
to questions or problems were not chosen.
The "feathered serpent"2 posture (Goodman 1990:170) seemed to meet the two
criteria listed above best. It is a standing posture in which the feet are placed about
6 inches apart with toes pointed straight ahead. The knees are slightly bent, but not
in a locked position. The hands rest on the hips with cupped palms facing upwards.
The head is held straight ahead with eyes closed.
Goodman noted that this posture is reliably traced to hunter gatherers pictured
on rock faces all across Siberia dating back to 5000 BCE. An effigy from the fourth
millennium is frequently found standing in this posture. Goodman named this
posture after the ancient Meso-American being the "feathered'serpent." She
reported that trancers often experience the presence of the feathered serpent with
this posture. However, since Westerners are unaware of the feathered serpent, they
usually describe their images in terms of animals or creatures which they know, for
example "a seal with feather stuck in" or "an eagle, but may be more like a caterpillar"
(Goodman 1990:170).
"The core of the experience is the eternal renewal of life" (Goodman 1990:169).
This is classed as a death/life posture by Goodman. The outstanding features that the
posture mediates are: (a) being carried aloft; (b) falling into what might be a hollow
mountain or cavity; (c) resting; and (d) rising once more. In having one or more of
these experiences trancers frequently feel movement up or down, feel tired, experience
a dance following a repose of death, observe a fire of regeneration, and then rise up
in a different form, rarely human. A bird is often seen or represented. The movement
and regeneration can be felt as a surge of energy; other experiences include heat,
color, and geometric patterns, such as spirals.
Procedure
Students participated in the study in groups of about 20 to 25. Each group
 Jun-Scp 1997 Posture and Drumming 77

experienced one of four conditions, assigned randomly, until each of the four
conditions had 65 or more participants. The four conditions were: sitting quietly,
eyes closed (baseline) (SQ-B); sitting quietly, eyes closed, with live repetitive
drumming, (SQ-D); standing posture with live drumming (SP-D); and, standing
posture with live drumming and suggestions (SP-DandS). In the latter two
conditions participants kept their eyes closed and received live, repetitive drumming.
Students signed up for the experiment on a bulletin board which announced
that the research concerned examining subjective experiences while listening to a
drum beat in a certain posture. The first author conducted all the groups. After
thanking the students for coming to the experiment, they were told that we were
interested in their subjective experiences in response to certain stimulus conditions.
They were then asked to complete the informed consent form (which also stated that
the study involved examination of subjective experiences in response to assuming a
posture and listening to a drum beat).
After the informed consent form was completed, the relevant definitions of the
various dimensions of PCI were reviewed. Participants were instructed that they
would be filling out the PCI in response to a 15 minute stimulus period. They were
also told that they were to write narrative comments in their own words about their
subjective experiences after completing the PCI. Students were assured that all data
would be kept strictly confidential, there were no right and wrong answers, and our
primary interest was in their subjective experiences as they related to the stimulus
conditions. They were also told that different people have somewhat different
experiences and therefore they need simply to concentrate on their own experience.
Lights were dimmed during the duration of the stimulus conditions. The specific
instructions given to each group were as follows:
Sitting Quietly-BaseUne (SQ-B). Students were told:
This will take less than 20 minutes. First you will sit comfortably, close
your eyes, and concentrate on your breathing for 3 minutes. I shall tell you
when the time is up. Then you will continue to keep your eyes closed and
continue to sit quietly for 15 minutes. That will be the end of the stimulus
period. (No other information was given about drumming or other stimulus
conditions.) All right, here we go. Sit quietly in your chair, close your eyes,
and concentrate on your breathing. Notice especially, how the air feels just
as it leaves and enters your nostrils. Concentrate on your breathing. Continue
to concentrate on your breath until I say to stop in about 3 minutes. Then
keeping your eyes closed, continue to sit for the entire time period of 15
minutes. I shall tell you when to stop.
After 15 minutes students were asked to complete the PCI and then to pick up
a debriefing form as they left. The debriefing form simply indicated the purpose of
the study in most general terms as was stated on the sign-up sheet. The debriefing
also included telephone numbers of contact persons if they needed any further
information about the study.
Sitting Quietly With Drumming (SQ-D). Participants were instructed the same
as group SQ-B, but they were informed that while they sat quietly for 15 minutes,
they would experience the stimulation of a beating drum.
Standing Posture with Drumming (SP-D). Participants were first taught the
78 Anthropology of Consciousness [8( 2-3) J

posture by using the following instructions:

Stand with both feet parallel about 6 inches apart and toes pointing
straight ahead. Be sure to keep the knees slightly bent, not locked. Cup both
hands and place them at the waist at each side of the body. Each arm should
be curved around the waist. Face straight ahead with eyes closed. (The first
author demonstrated the posture.) Make sure you know the position, and
then just relax. I shall ask you to resume the posture in just a few minutes after
the next exercise. Any questions about the posture? If you feel as if you must
move slightly during the time period, do so. But try to hold the posture or
resume it correctly. Now close your eyes and concentrate on your breathing.
Notice especially how the air feels just as it leaves and enters your nostrils.
Continue to concentrate on your breath until I say to stop. (After 3 minutes.)
Now, resume the posture you were shown, close your eyes, and I shall beat the
drum for a period of time following the beat which I hear on the tape. I shall
tell you when it is time to stop. (After 15 minutes.) The drumming has
stopped. Open your eyes and relax. Now, please complete the PCI and pick
up a debriefing form as you leave.
Standing Posture with Drumming and Suggestions (SP-DandS). Participants
received the same instructions as SP-D; in addition, they were told:
During the drumming, let yourself experience any thoughts, perceptions, or
images that come to you. You may find this experience to be energizing or feel a sense
of great energy. People frequently report images of birds or animals or mythical
beings. Sometimes they see geometric patterns. People report entering a safe place,
such as a cave or a warm environment and finish the experience with a sense of rising
up renewed (paraphrased from Berkowitz and Goodman, n.d.). I shall tell you when
it is time to stop.

Results
Eliminating participants who responded unreliably resulted in 263 participants
on whom the rest of the analyses are based.
PCI Intensity Differences
To avoid multicollinearity problems, separate multivariate analyses were
performed on the PCI minor and major dimension scores. The multivariate analyses
revealed significant overall effects for both major [Hotelling's approximate mult
F(36,740) = 3.77, p < 001] and minor [Hotelling's approximate mult F(42,734) =
2.67, p < .001] dimensions. These analyses were followed by univariate analyses of
variance on each of the dimensions. An a = .01 was used to evaluate each of the
univariate analysis of variance. Kramer's modification (for unequal n's) of Tukey's
test were used to test pairwise comparisons (p - .05) using among means where
univariate F tests were significant (Hildebrand 1986). Table 1 presents the means,
results of univariate analyses of variance, and post-hoc tests for all PCI major and
minor dimensions.
PCI Major Dimensions. Six of the 12 major dimensions showed significance:
Positive Affect, Visual Imagery, Attention, Self-Awareness, Internal Dialogue, and
Arousal. The post-hoc results were:
Jun-Sep 1997 Posture and Drumming 79

Table 1
Differences on PCI (Sub)Dimensions2 Among the Four Groups

Variables Experimental Groups

1 2 3 4
SQ b SQ-D SP-D SP-D&S F p Post-hocc

Positive Affect 2.39 2.00 1.50 1.57 5.44 .001 1,3; M

Joy 2.16 1.98 1.18 1.44 6.05 .000 1,3; 1,4; 2,3
Sexual Excitement 1.92 1.59 1.45 1.56 0.73 .533
Love 3.09 2.40 1.88 1.71 7.91 .000 1,2; 1,3; 1,4
Negative Affect 1.16 1.02 1.46 1.24 1.42 .211
Anger 1.29 1.35 2.26 1.68 4.41 .007 1,3; 2,3
Sadness 1.36 1.13 1.27 1.31 0.33 .803
Fear 0.82 0.60 0.84 0.74 0.48 .700
Altered Experience 2.20 2.06 1.89 2.10 1.10 .351
Body Image 2.67 2.14 2.01 2.03 3.08 .028
Time Sense 3.56 3.35 3.85 3.46 1.17 .322
Perception 1.38 1.48 0.88 1.51 2.78 .042
Meaning 1.45 1.47 1.06 1.58 1.72 .163
Visual Imagery 3.79 3.16 2.61 2.73 6.93 .000 1,3; 1,4
Amount 4.00 3.40 2.66 2.73 6.90 .000 1,3; 1,4
Vividness 3.57 2.93 2.55 2.74 4.83 .003 1,2; 1,3; 1,4
Attention 3.88 4.02 3.24 3.27 7.68 .000 1,3; 1,4; 2,3; 2,4

Direction(inward) 4.00 4.01 3.48 3.62 2.60 .053

Absorption 3.74 4.02 2.88 2.74 11.8 .000 1,3; 1,4; 2,3; 2,4

Self-Awareness 3.80 4.07 4.56 4.60 4.75 .003 1,3; 1,4

Altered State 2.40 2.38 2.04 2.28 0.56 .643
Internal Dialogue 3.26 3.59 4.33 4.16 3.84 .010 1,3; 1,4
Rationality 4.44 4.34 4.09 4.00 1.39 .247
Volitional control 3.78 3.77 4.36 4.00 1.83 .143
Memory 4.60 4.61 4.51 4.64 0.10 .957
Arousal 1.70 1.86 3.89 3.87 31.6 .000 1,3; 1,4; 2,3; 2,4

a
Scores ranged between 0 (none or little) and 6 (much or complete).
^SQ-B - Sitting Quietly: Baseline (Group 1, n - 72); SQ-D - Sitting Quietly With Drumming (Group
2, n - 73); SP-D - Standing Posture with Drumming (Group 3, n - 58); SP-D&.S - Standing Posture with
Drumming and Suggestions (Group 4, n - 60).
c
Post-hoc column indicates which groups are significantly different (.05 level).
80 Anthropology of Consciousness [8(2-3)1

1. Positive Affect: The sitting quietly-baseline (SQ-B) group reported

significantly more positive affect than the posture groups. The posture groups
did not differ from each other and the sitting quietly drumming (SQ-D) group
did not differ from the sitting quietly baseline (SQ-B) group.
2. Visual Imagery: The SQ-B group reported significantly more vivid,
visual imagery than the posture groups. The posture groups did not differ from
each other and the SQ-B group did not differ from the SQ-D group.
3. Attention: The two SQ groups reported significantly more inward
focused, absorbed attention than the two posture groups.
4. Self-Awareness: The SQ groups reported significantly less self-awareness
than the two posture groups. (The SQ-B group did not differ from the SQ-
D group.)
5. Internal Dialogue: The SQ groups reported significantly less internal
dialogue than the two posture groups. (The SQ-B group did not differ from
the SQ-D group.)
6. Arousal: The two SQ groups reported significantly less arousal
(increased relaxation) than the two posture groups.
PCI Minor Dimensions. As can be seen in Table 1, the PCI minor dimensions
showing significance were: Joy, Love, Anger, Imagery Amount, Imagery Vividness,
and Absorption. The results of the post-hoc analyses on the significant variables
were as follows:
1. Joy: There were two findings: (a) the SQ-B group reported significantly
more joy than the two posture groups, and (b) the SQ-D reported significantly
more joy than the SP-D group.
2. Love: The SQ-B group reported significantly more love than the other
three groups.
3. Anger: The SP-D group reported significantly more anger than the two
sitting quietly groups.
4. Imagery (Amount): The SQ-B group reported significantly more
imagery than the two posture groups.
5. Imagery (Vividness): The SQ-B group reported significantly more
imagery vividness than the other three groups.
6. Absorption: The two sitting quietly (SQ) groups reported significantly
greater absorption than the two posture (SP) groups.

Pattern Effects and Correlational Results

Pattern effects were examined by comparing correlations among the 12 major
PCI dimensions for the four groups. Jennrichs test was first computed to see if the
four matrices (corresponding to the four groups) differed from each other. The alpha
level was set at .01 to keep the overall Type I error rate at about .06 (Kirk 1968). Table
2 lists the results of the X2 W/=66) tests for pairwise comparisons of the matrices. The
only significant comparisons concerned the pattern structure of the baseline sitting
quietly group in comparison to the other three groups.
Two types of averages of correlations were also computed for each matrix: (a) an
average of all 66 absolute values of the correlations; and (b) an average of only those
absolute values of the correlations which were significant at the .01 level. All
Jun-Sep 1997 Posture and Drumming 81

Table 2
Correlations and Results of y} tests for Pattern Effects

Correlations Conditions
SQ-D SP-D SP-D&S

Conditions X^ Values

SQ-B .23 .48 239.58 304.93 534.31

(19) c (P <.01) (JX.01) (p<.01)

SQ-D .24 .49 88.73 68.25

(19) (p<.05) (p>.10)

SP-D .24 .47 82.13

(16) (P<.09)

SP-D&S .30 .44

(28)

Average absolute correlation

"average of significant correlations
dumber oi significant correlations

correlations were converted to Fisher Z transformations before computing their

averages for each matrix. The averages of the transformed values were then
converted back to correlation coefficients. The absolute r values based on all 66
correlations and only those which were significant for the four conditions (the
number of correlations significant at .01 are listed in parenthesis) are listed in Table
2. The only major difference across the four conditions concerns the finding that the
SP-DandS condition was composed of more significant correlations (n = 28) than
the other three conditions.

Content Analysis of Narratives

The narratives of each participant were analyzed for the elements (see selection
of posture section) that the posture putatively mediates. The frequencies of
participants in each condition stating one or more elements were tabulated. The
proportions of these participants in the four conditions were: SQ-B = .097 (n = 7);
SQ-D = .110 (n = 8); SP-D = .224 (n = 13); SP-DandS = .400 (n = 24). Z tests for
tests of between-group differences (p = .01) revealed that the following groups
differed from each other: SQ-B and SP-DandS, and SQ-D and SP-DandS; other
comparisons were not significant.
82 Anthropology of Consciousness [8(2-3)]

Hypnoidal Effects
The regression equation reported by Pekala and Kumar (1987) was used to
compute hypnoidal scores for participants in the four experimental conditions. (It
may be recalled that hypnoidal scores are predicted Harvard Group Scale scores.)
Since the regression equation generated by Pekala and Kumar (1987) used a 7-
point scale (rating scale of 0 to 6), the PCI scores obtained on a 5-point scale in the
present study were first linearly transformed to a 7-point scale. A one-way analysis
of variance was conducted to see if the four groups differed significantly on hypnoidal
scores. The results yielded a significant effect for groups [F(3,259) = 5.56, p - .001;
MS Error = 2.08]. The means and standard deviations for the four groups were: SQ-
B (M = 4.94, SD = 1.34); SQ-D (M = 4.82, SD = 1.58); SP-D (M = 4.09; SD * 1.38);
and SP-DandS (M = 4.23; SD = 1.45).
Kramer's modification of Tukey's test was used to test pairwise differences among
the four means (a = .05). The analysis revealed that while the two sitting quietly
conditions did not differ from each other, these two groups differed significantly from
the two posture groups. The two posture groups did not significantly differ from each
other. (It may be noted the results were same when the analysis was done using the
original 5-point ratings.) An examination of means suggest that the two sitting
quietly groups experienced significantly greater hypnoidal effects than the two
posture groups.

Discussion

Sitting Quietly-Baseline vs. Sitting Quietly'Drurnming

The PCI intensity, patterns, and hypnoidal effects analyses revealed no significant
differences across the two groups (SQ-B versus SQ-D). Hence, 15 minutes of
repetitive drumming had no significant effects on reported phenomenology when
compared to the baseline condition. This is surprising and contrary to expectations.
The use of drumming to achieve altered states of consciousness is one of the "in
vogue" social phenomena of the late 1980s and early 1990s (Harner 1980) and a
study by Wright (1991) had suggested alterations in reported phenomenology as a
function of drumming. Furthermore, Maxfield (1990) had observed alterations in
brain rhythms due to drumming.
Four possibilities are suggested for the lack of significant differences between
SQ-B and SQ-D conditions.on the PCI dimensions: (a) the drumming period was too
short to make a difference (we thought the time period in question was long enough
given Maxfield's (1990) results that theta waves are produced after 9 minutes of
drumming—it is possible that the use of naive participants may have precluded this);
(b) drumming may have driven brain rhythms, but such changes may be unrelated
to phenomenological effects as obtained with PCI; (c) if the reported effects of
repetitive drumming are due to suggested effects of what participants are told to
expect then one would not obtain any differences between the two conditions; or (d)
the absence of demand characteristics (Orne 1962) ordinarily associated with
drumming in more ceremonial contexts than used in this study.
The Posture Conditions vs. the Sitting Quietly Conditions
Significant differences were found between the posture conditions and the
Jun-Sep 1997 Posture and Drumming 83

sitting quietly conditions. Specifically, the posture conditions were associated with
less imagery (amount and vividness), less joy and love, and less absorption than the
sitting quietly conditions, but more internal dialogue, self-awareness, and muscular
tension than the baseline sitting quietly condition. This is interesting because,
although drumming and posture are regarded as means to facilitate "soul travel" and
generate "internal imagery," there was actually less imagery reported in the posture
and drumming conditions relative to the sitting quietly condition. Because posture
can affect the phenomenology of one's stream of consciousness (Pope 1978, cited by
Cardefia 1988b), one wonders to what extent a standing posture with naive
participants had a negative, instead of a facilitating, effect upon production of
imagery, alteration in awareness, etc. It may be recalled that Kremer and Krippner
(1994) also observed a physical discomfort on the part of their participants.
The baseline sitting quietly condition can be conceptualized as a daydreaming
condition (Pekala 199 la), since participants, upon closing their eyes, have an inward
focused attention that is characterized by a great deal of visual imagery and internal
dialogue with themselves. Such an inward focus is also usually associated with
increased positive affect (Pekala and Levine 1981, 1982). Hence, it may not be
surprising that the sitting quietly baseline condition was associated with more
significant phenomenological effects than the posture condition which might
militate against daydreaming, imagery production, alterations in awareness, etc.
because of the requirement to hold the standing posture for 15 minutes.
The PCI phenomenological assessment did not support Goodman's contention
that the "feather-serpent" posture is a "death/life" posture with corresponding visual
content. Even when the participants were given suggestions as what to expect by
assuming the posture, there was not a significant alteration in reported
phenomenological intensity effects (i.e., the lack of increased imagery, etc.). The
content analysis, however, showed a shift in content in the suggested direction.
Additionally, the standing posture condition without the suggestions (but not the
standing posture with the suggestions), was associated with more anger than the
sitting quietly conditions. This suggests that the participants were probably upset at
having to stand in the "feathered serpent" posture; anger that was assuaged when
they were given certain expectations for this posture.
The results of the present study suggest that Goodman's conclusions reported in
her book may be more a function of demand characteristics that are imparted to the
participants, than any effects attributable to posture and drumming. Additionally,
her results may be attributable to subjective analysis of participants' narratives by
Goodman herself.
Furthermore, it is possible that seminars that purport to teach "soul travel" may
matriculate into their classes highly hypnotizable individuals, who are likely to have
the elaborate fantasies reported by "soul travelers" at any hint of suggested effects
operative due to uncontrolled demand characteristics.
Pattern and Altered State Intensity Effects
Jennrich's tests showed that the organization of subjective experiences on the
major dimensions only differed significantly between the SQ-B group and the other
three groups (p < .01). The former result implies that addition of drumming, a
standing posture, or a posture and suggestions to the sitting quietly condition makes
84 Anthropology of Consciousness [8(2'3)J

a significant pattern difference relative to the sitting quietly condition. The fact that
the altered state dimension of the PCI was not significantly different among these
conditions suggests that an altered state of consciousness (Pekala 1991b) was not in
evidence. Hence the drumming condition can be conceptualized as associated with
a discrete state of consciousness (Pekala 1991a) in comparison to the baseline
condition, but not an altered state. This is contrary to expectations since an altered
state effect for the drumming and the postures was anticipated.
Although the SQ-P and D group had the maximum number of significant
correlations relative to the other three groups (see Table 2), the magnitude of the
average correlation and the average significant correlation was not different from the
other conditions. These results, in conjunction with the Jennrich results, again
suggest that neither with the drumming, nor the standing posture (with or without
suggestions), was there a major reorganization in pattern structure that is hypothesized
by Tart (1975) to be associated with an altered state of consciousness.
Hypnoidal Effects
Although the results did not support an altered state of consciousness, it can still
be wondered if the drumming or posture condition may have been associated with
a "trance" state, such as might be engendered by hypnosis. The pHGS scores, a
measure of the hypnoidal effects associated with a given stimulus condition, allows
one to quantify the hypnoidal state. The results showed that the two sitting quietly
groups differed significantly from the posture groups; the latter (posture) groups had
significantly lower mean pHGS scores than the former groups. These data suggest
that the sitting quietly groups had greater "trance" effects than the posture conditions.
Again, contrary to expectations, the posture groups were associated with less altered
effects than the sitting quietly groups. This may partly be explained by the use of the
standing posture which probably precluded occurance of hypnoidal effects, due to
the increased "effort" expended to stand, as opposed to a seated or more relaxed posture.
Narratives
Forty percent of the participants in the Standing Posture With Drumming and
Suggestions (SP-DandS) condition reported elements of imagery as per Goodman's
claims. Furthermore, proportions of participants reporting these elements were
significantly greater in the SP-DandS group relative to the two sitting quietly
conditions. These results can be seen as unexpected given the previous results with
the PCI that showed decreased imagery in the posture conditions relative to the two
SQ conditions. However, the PCI measures the amount of imagery and its vividness.
In contrast, the content analyses measured the quality or nature of that imagery. The
fact that the suggestion condition (SP-DandS) was associated with significantly
more appropriate imagery content than the two baseline conditions, but not the
standing posture condition without the suggestions (SP-D), implicates not only
effects of suggestions but perhaps demands characteristics as well. Combining
posture with drumming may result in providing a more ceremonial context than just
sitting quietly with or without drumming; adding suggested effects to posture and
drumming more clearly brings out the anticipated effects per Goodman's descriptions.
However, there are some important notes of caution in the interpretation of the
narratives in all conditions: (a) although interpretation was minimized in looking for
the elements, subjectivity still remains in this type of analysis; (b) the narratives
Jun-Sep 1997 Posture and Drumming 85

seemed to have been influenced by the wording of the questions on the PCI, which
participants completed before writing the narratives; and (c) many participants
indicated that they had memories, images, thoughts, but they did not elaborate on
their content. Further research is necessary with two important methodological
differences: (a) participants be given instructions to write in detail the content of
their subjective experiences; and (b) participants be asked to write their narratives
immediately after the experience and then complete any rating forms. Differences
between shamanic practitioners and a less interested population, such as freshmen
in an introductory psychology class, might also be examined. It may also be of interest
to examine the personal (growth enhancing or otherwise) benefits participants
report in reference to the use of drumming and postures.
The results suggest several caveats for future research, however. Future research
needs to use experienced participants who wouldn't mind standing in the appropriate
posture, if standing postures are used, while also trying to assess for individual
differences measures such as hypnotizability level. Additionally, a pseudoposture for
which particular suggested effects are created or simulated, and not justified by
readings or interpretations of the anthropological literature (Goodman 1990) needs
to be assessed. If participants generate subjective experiences congruent with
expectancies of "faked" postures, then a strong case can be made for the impact of
such expectancies on the reported results.
On the other hand, it may be that part of the effect of the drumming and posture
is embedded in the ecology of the experience, and trying to "rip the wings off the
butterfly," so to speak, by divorcing the posture or drumming from its putative
anthropological matrix, may destroy the phenomenon in the process. In other
words, relevant effects may only be possible if the suggested phenomena are
compatible with the participants' belief systems. Nevertheless, an experimental
approach that controls for demand characteristics, expectancy, experimenter bias,
and set/setting is needed to justify Goodman's assertion that particular postures
"drive" particular types of religious trances.

Notes
Acknowledgements: This is a revised version of the paper presented at the annual meeting of the
American Psychological Association, Toronto, Canada, 1993. The authors are thankful to Etzel Cardefta
and De De Hughes for their helpful comments in revising an earlier version of this paper.
1
A workshop announcement (Course #1524, 1993, p. 83) noted that 45 postures have been
evaluated for their trance effects.
1
It must be noted that the characterization of the "feather serpent" as described by Goodman is not
to be confused with the Quetzalcoatl, the "plumed serpent," myth (Se'journe' 1956).

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