Climate change adaptation:

Climate change adaptation is a response to global warming that seeks to reduce the vulnerability
of social and biological systems to relatively sudden changes and thus offset the effects of global
warming. Adaptation means anticipating the adverse effects of climate change and taking
appropriate action to prevent or minimize the damage they can cause. An adaptation strategy
aims to increase society’s resilience to climate change and offers the potential of reducing future
economic, social and environmental costs. Only by devising and implementing appropriate
adaptation measures will it be possible to minimize the impact of climate changed induced
natural disasters on human life, health and property. Adaptation is especially important in
developing countries since those countries are predicted to bear the brunt of the effects of global
warming because they have very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse
impacts.
Climate change adaptation strategies:
1) Water resources:
To address the impact of climate change on water resources and to enhance water security, the
following adaptation strategies are suggested:
a) Develop necessary infrastructure for water storage and distribution such as dams and
canals.
b) Rehabilitate and upgrade the existing irrigation infrastructure to make it resilient to
climate change related extreme events.
c) Ensure water conservation, reduce irrigation system losses and provide incentives for
adoption of more efficient irrigation techniques such as the use of sprinkles.
d) Introduce local rainwater harvesting measures.
e) Ensure reuse and recycling of wastewater through proper water treatment to protect water
resources from further degradation.

2) Agriculture:
To address the impact of climate change on agriculture and to enhance food security, the
following adaptation strategies are suggested:
a) Develop appropriate simulation models for assessment of climate change impacts on
physical, chemical, biological and financial aspects of agricultural production systems.
b) Develop new varieties of crops which are high yielding, stress-resistant, drought tolerant
and less prone to attacks by pests.
c) Improve farming practices by adopting modern techniques such as laser land levelling,
crop diversification, proper cropping patterns and optimized planting dates.
d) Develop a proper risk management system including crop insurance to safeguard against
crop failures due to extreme weather events such as floods and droughts.
 3) Human health:
To address the impact of climate change on human health and to protect human health, the
following adaptation strategies are suggested:
a) Asses the health vulnerabilities of communities in areas most likely to be affected by the
adverse impact of climate change and build their capacities to reduce vulnerabilities.
b) Inform, educate and train health personnel as well as public about climate change related
health issues.
c) Ensure that preventive measures and resources such as vaccines, good quality medication
and clean drinking water are easily available to the general public during climate related
extreme events.
d) Upgrade and extend disease monitoring and forecasting systems to counteract possible
climate change health impacts.

4) Forestry:
To address the impact of climate change on forestry and to minimize the risks and vulnerability
of forests, the following adaptation strategies are suggested:
a) Resolve issues in the land tenure system of forest areas on a priority basis in close
consultation with local communities to streamline adaptation measures.
b) Aggressively pursue afforestation and reforestation programs with plantation suited to the
effects of climate change to sequester carbon dioxide and control various types of soil
erosion.
c) Ensure biological control of forest pests by maintaining viable populations of predatory
birds and insects.
d) Enhance capacity building of forest departments to combat forest fires and involve forest
communities in detection and suppression of wildfires.

5) Biodiversity:
To address the impact of climate change on biodiversity and to restore, conserve and protect
biodiversity, the following adaptation strategies are suggested:
a) Establish gene banks, seed banks, zoos and botanical gardens to conserve the biodiversity
of valuable species.
b) Encourage involvement of local communities in conservation and sustainable use of
biodiversity.
c) Take necessary measures to establish nature reserves in areas that are rich in biodiversity
to preserve their existence.
d) Assist genetically impoverished species or those that have important ecosystem functions
by providing natural migration corridors as well as assisted migration.
 6) Coastal and marine ecosystems:
To safeguard coastal areas and the marine ecosystem from likely climate change impacts, the
following adaptation strategies are suggested:
a) Ensure building of natural barriers such as plantation of mangroves and other trees near
low lying coastal areas to safeguard against rising sea levels and to control coastal
erosion as well as minimize the disastrous impacts of cyclones and tsunamis.
b) Maintain optimal river water flow for continuation of sediment and nutrient transfer to
marine ecosystem and to reduce intrusion of saline sea water into coastal regions.
c) Control solid and liquid pollution and waste disposal in bay areas.

7) Disaster preparedness:
To address disaster management in the context of climate change in a holistic manner, the
following adaptation strategies are suggested:
a) Ensure that infrastructure, including telecommunication, power utilities and transport are
resilient to the impact of climate change related disasters.
b) Strengthen early warning systems and develop evacuation plans for vulnerable
communities so that they are relocated to safe areas prior to a calamity.
c) Undertake Geographical Information System (GIS) mapping of all vulnerable areas for
efficient monitoring and management and take precautionary measures accordingly.
d) Design and construct appropriate flood embankments and protective bunds to protect
flood plains in the light of likely flood levels.

Climate change mitigation:

Waterlogging:
Waterlogging is a condition of land in which the soil profile is saturated with water either
temporarily or permanently. In waterlogged lands, the water table rises to an extent that the soil
pores in the crop root zone are saturated resulting in restriction of the normal circulation of air.
This causes a decline in the level of oxygen and increase in the level of carbon dioxide.
Waterlogging is a drainage problem.
Causes of waterlogging:
1) Physiography of a watershed:
Physiography, i.e., the topography, slope and length as well shape of slope has an important
bearing on the drainage of a watershed. Areas that lie in valley bottoms, depressions and other
flat lowlands tend to become waterlogged naturally as surface flows concentrate in these
lowlands, causing natural swamps.
2) Soil type:
The two types of soil most susceptible to waterlogging are duplex and heavy clay soils. Heavy
clay soil such as black cotton soils are prone to waterlogging because they hold moisture for long
periods. Duplex soil store less water by inhibiting water infiltration and lose less water through
evaporation, thereby increasing chances of waterlogging.
3) Seepage inflows:
Water travelling in unlined canals seep through the soil and raise the water table. It is estimated
that more than 50% of the water is lost to seepage in canals. In addition, seepage from nearby
waterbodies such as lakes and rivers can cause waterlogging of adjacent lands.
4) Over-irrigation:
When water supplied to the field is in excess of the requirement of crops, the surplus water
which the crops don’t need then infiltrate the soil and cause water-logging.
5) Obstruction of natural drainage:
Water cannot travel smoothly from one location to another due to obstructions like road and
railway lines in its path. This obstructs the flow of water as a result of which water starts
accumulating and takes the form of a pond or stream, with nowhere to go, the water infiltrates
the ground and raises the water table, thus causing water-logging.
6) Heavy rainfall and floods:
After a heavy rainfall, rain water infiltrates the soil until it is completely saturated. This causes
the water table to rise towards the surface which eventually results in water-logging. During a
flood, water overflows its natural and artificial banks and spread across the surrounding plain
surfaces. The soil is able to absorb the water to some extent but when water arrives faster than
the soil can absorb, it raises the water table and causes water-logging.
Effects of waterlogging:
1) Accumulation of salts:
As a result of high water table in waterlogged areas, there is an upward capillary flow of water to
the land surface which brings with it soluble salts from salty soil layers well below the surface.
These soluble salts carried by the upward movement of water are left behind in the root zone
once this water evaporates. The accumulation of these salts in the root zone cause salinity and
reduce crop yield considerably.
2) Lowering of soil temperature:
The presence of excessive moisture content lowers the temperature of the soil. It may hamper
plant crop growth because bacteriological activities and beneficial insects such as earthworms
which are essential for the proper growth of plants require a certain temperature for proper
functioning.
3) Absence of soil aeration:
In waterlogged lands, the soil pores within the root zone of crops are saturated and air circulation
is cut-off. Waterlogging, therefore, prevents free circulation of air in the root zone. This
adversely effects the functioning of soil bacteria which are essential for the proper growth of
plants and require adequate amount of oxygen for proper functioning.
4) Difficulty in cultivation of crops:
For optimum results in crop production, the land has to be prepared. The preparation of land
involves activities such as tillage and removing weeds but these activities cannot be carried out
when the soil is wet or inundated with water. As a result, cultivation is delayed as farmers wait
for the land to dry, causing a reduction in growth period of the crops and affecting crop yields.

Salinity:
Salinity refers to the concentration of dissolved salts in a body of water. It is measured in parts
per thousand (ppt). Water with a salinity of 0.5 – 17 ppt is called brackish water, the average
ocean salinity is 35 ppt and freshwater salinity is 0.5 ppt or less. Water with salinity above 50 ppt
is brine water and many organisms cannot survive in such a high salt concentration. Salt is
mostly made up of the elements sodium, chlorine, magnesium, calcium and potassium.

Water pollution:
Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies such as lakes, rivers, seas and oceans when
pollutants are directly or indirectly discharged into them without adequate treatment to remove
the harmful compounds. This form of pollution involves changing physical, chemical and
biological properties of water which have an adverse effect on all living things who consume it.
Water is uniquely vulnerable to pollution because it is able to dissolve more substances than any
other liquid on earth. Toxic substances from air and land readily dissolve in waterbodies and
cause water pollution.

Classification of water pollutants:

1) Oxygen depleting organic wastes:
When too much biodegradable matter is added to water, such as sewage, it is decomposed by
microorganisms such as bacteria who break it down into simple organic matter. This
decomposition process consumes enormous amount of oxygen, which severely depletes the
concentration of dissolved oxygen and creates a hypoxic environment in the waterbody. Bacteria
and other microorganisms thrive in such conditions and increase in population. Once all oxygen
has been depleted, aerobic organisms such as fish die and only bacteria are left in water.
2) Oil:
Oil enters into water through oil spills, leak from oil pipes and oil tank ruptures. Oil doesn’t
dissolve in water and being lighter than water it spreads over the surface of water and acts as a
blanket obscuring sunlight required by plants for photosynthesis. It renders the water unfit for
drinking and instantly kills inhabitants of the sea if they ingested the oil.
3) Pathogens:
Pathogenic microorganisms like viruses, bacteria and protozoa enter into waterbodies through
sewerage discharge and through wastewater from industries. They cause water-borne diseases
such as cholera, typhoid and diarrhea.
4) Nutrients:
Agriculture run-off, wastewater from industries and sewage contains substantial amounts of
nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorous. The over enrichment of waterbodies with nutrients lead
to abnormal growth of algae and deterioration of water quality in a process called eutrophication.
5) Inorganic pollutants:
Apart from organic matter discharged into waterbodies through sewage and industrial waste,
high concentration of heavy metals and other inorganic pollutants contaminate the water. These
compounds are non-biodegradable and persist in the waterbodies for a very long period of time.
These pollutants include mineral acids, inorganic salts and metals like mercury, cadmium,
arsenic and lead.
6) Thermal pollution:
Thermal pollution of waterbodies occur due to discharge of hot water from thermal power plants,
nuclear power plants and industries where water is used as a coolant such as cement plants. As a
result of hot water discharge, the temperature of waterbodies increases. Rise in temperature
reduces the amount of dissolved oxygen in water by stimulating bacterial action to decompose
organic matter in water.
7) Radioactive pollutants:
Radioactive materials pollute waterbodies during underwater mining operations, radioactive
discharge from nuclear power plants and testing nuclear weapons underwater. Radioactive
pollutants include Cobalt-60, Strontium-90, Cesium-137, Plutonium-248 and Uranium-235. All
radioactive pollutants are extremely toxic and cause genetic mutation as well as premature death.
8) Suspended matter:
Some pollutants don’t dissolve in water as their molecules are too big to mix between the water
molecules, these kind of pollutants are particulate matter. The tiny particles of suspended matter
stay in the water and eventually fall to the bottom, forming a thick layer of silt on the floor of the
lake or river. They block penetration of sunlight into water, which is required by plants for
photosynthesis.

Categories of water pollution:

1) Point source pollution:
A point source is a single, identifiable source of pollution from which pollutants are discharged.
This could be an oil spill or a discharge pipe from a factory or sewage system.
2) Nonpoint source pollution:
Nonpoint source pollution is a term used to describe pollution resulting from many diffuse
sources, in direct contrast to point source pollution which results from a single source. A good
example of this type of pollution is agricultural run-off or debris blown into waterbodies from
land.
3) Transboundary pollution:
Transboundary pollution is the pollution that originates in one country but is able to cause
damage in another country’s environment, by crossing borders through pathways like water and
air. The incredible distances that pollution can travel means that it is not contained within the
boundaries of any single nation. Transboundary pollution can be caused by catastrophic events
such as the Chernobyl nuclear explosion.

Water quality parameters:

1) Dissolved oxygen:
 Dissolved oxygen refers to the level of free, non-compound oxygen present in water. Dissolved
oxygen is necessary to many aquatic forms of life including fish, invertebrates, bacteria and
plants. Dissolved oxygen enters water from the surrounding air and as a by-product of
photosynthesis from aquatic plants. Streams with a dissolved oxygen concentration of 8
milligram per liter are considered healthy streams, streams with a dissolved oxygen
concentration less than 3 milligram per liter are considered stressed streams. The concentration
of dissolved oxygen in water is affected by many factors including water temperature, time of
day, season, depth, altitude and rate of flow of water.
2) Temperature:
Temperature is an important factor to consider when assessing water quality. In addition to its
own effects, temperature influences several other parameters such as pH, conductivity, toxicity,
metabolic rates of aquatic organisms and concentration of dissolved oxygen which can alter the
physical and chemical properties of water. The temperature of water is affected by many factors
including amount of incident solar radiation, atmospheric conditions, turbidity and flow of a
river or stream having different temperature.
3) pH value:
pH is a measure of how acidic or alkaline the water is. pH is measured on a logarithmic scale
between 1 and 14 with 1 being extremely acidic, 7 neutral and 14 extremely alkaline. Because it
is a logarithmic scale, a change of one pH unit is a tenfold change. For example, water with a pH
value of 5 is a hundred times more acidic than water with a pH value of 7. Majority of freshwater
aquatic organisms prefer a pH range between 6.5 and 8.
4) Electrical conductivity:
Conductivity is the ability of water to conduct electric current. This ability is directly related to
the concentration of ions in the water. These conductive ions come from dissolved salts such as
chlorides, sulfides and carbonate compounds. Pure water is a bad conductor of electric current
while impure water with dissolved salts conduct electric current very well. As the concentration
of ions increases, the conductivity of water increases too. Therefore conductivity is an important
indicator of water quality.
5) Turbidity:
Turbidity is a measure of the cloudiness or haziness of water caused by suspended particles in
water. Turbidity is expressed in Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU) and is calculated by
determining the concentration of suspended particles in a sample of water by measuring the
incident light scattered at right angles from the sample. Suspended particles allow less light to
pass through water, which reduces the ability of aquatic plants to photosynthesize. Suspended
particles also absorb heat from solar radiation more efficiently than water. The heat is then
transferred from the particles to water molecules, thereby increasing the temperature of the
surrounding water.
Sources of water pollution:
1) Domestic effluents and sewage:
Domestic waste water and sewage is one of the main sources of water pollution. It is an
inevitable and unfortunate fallout of urbanization. Domestic waste water contain detergents,
soaps, paper, plastic and other inorganic compounds which are discharged into waterways. Most
of the municipal sewage receives no treatment before it is discharged into rivers and other
waterbodies, making the water unsuitable for drinking and irrigation. Besides, sewage also
contains numerous microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses found in faeces and urine.
Untreated sewage is the carrier of viruses and bacteria which cause severe water pollution.
2) Agriculture:
Agriculture is the most significant source of water pollution. Every time it rains, fertilizers,
pesticides, herbicides, animal waste and sediments are washed into waterbodies by run-off. The
over enrichment of waterbodies with nutrients like phosphorous and nitrogen lead to abnormal
growth of algae and deterioration of water quality in a process called eutrophication. They
interfere with fishing, navigation, irrigation and even production of hydroelectricity.
3) Industrial effluents:
Industrial activities generate a wide variety of waste products, which are discharged into
waterbodies without adequate treatment to remove the harmful pollutants. Major contributors are
pulp and paper industries, chemical industries, petroleum industries, metal working industries,
food processing industries and textile industries. Industrial effluents contain chlorine, sulfur
dioxide, organic wastes, phosphorus, fluorine and heavy metals, such as mercury, cadmium, lead
and arsenic. Majority of industrial effluents are non-biodegradable in nature and persist in
waterbodies for a very long period of time.
4) Oil spillage:
Oil enters into water through oil spills, leak from oil pipes and oil tank ruptures. Oil doesn’t
dissolve in water and being lighter than water it spreads over the surface of water and acts as a
blanket obscuring sunlight required by plants for photosynthesis. It renders the water unfit for
drinking and instantly kills inhabitants of the sea if they ingested the oil.
5) Thermal pollution:
Thermal pollution of waterbodies occur due to discharge of hot water from thermal power plants,
nuclear power plants and industries where water is used as a coolant such as cement plants. As a
result of hot water discharge, the temperature of waterbodies increases. In addition to its own
effects, temperature influences several other parameters such as pH, conductivity, toxicity,
metabolic rates of aquatic organisms and concentration of dissolved oxygen which can alter the
physical and chemical properties of water.
Soil pollution:
Any unwanted change in physical, chemical and biological properties of soil, which impacts
human health and the ecosystem as well as the soil’s natural quality such as fertility and utility, is
called soil pollution. Soil pollution occurs when the level of man-made chemicals in soil exceed
the levels that should naturally be present. Major soil pollutants are petroleum hydrocarbons,
polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons such as naphthalene and benzene, pesticides, fertilizers and
heavy metals such as cadmium, lead and chromium. Soil pollution reduces the quality of the soil
and renders the soil uninhabitable for microorganisms and macro organisms living in the soil.
The United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization states that annually, 75 billion tons of
soil is lost to erosion, waterlogging and salinity and 20 million hectares of arable land is
abandoned because its soil quality has been degraded.
Causes of soil pollution:
1) Use of pesticides and herbicides:
The redundant use of chemicals such as pesticides and herbicides is an integral part of the
agricultural practices around the world. These chemicals are not naturally produced and cannot
be broken down by bacteria in soil. Moreover, they are generally insoluble in water and non-
biodegradable, as a result, these chemicals keep accumulating in the soil. These chemical
pollutants are highly toxic and as their concentration in the soil increases, they strip the soil of its
fertility.
2) Flawed agricultural practices:
Excessive irrigation, improper maintenance of canals and irrigation channels, lack of crop
rotation, animal overgrazing and intensive farming like over-cultivation of crops and excessive
tillage robs the soil of its fertility and cause land degradation, leading to soil pollution.
3) Improper disposal of solid waste:
Improper disposal of industrial and domestic solid waste such as open dumping, burning and
landfills cause soil pollution. The biodegradation of solid waste over a period of time produce
leachates which contain a variety of toxic chemicals like detergents, organic and inorganic
chemicals and heavy metals. As rain falls, it causes the leachate to leave the dumping site and
move towards nearby soil, thereby contaminating the soil and causing soil pollution.
4) Mining:
The extraction of minerals and other geological materials of economic value from deposits on
Earth play a huge role in soil pollution. The environmental impact of mining includes soil
erosion, loss of biodiversity, formation of sinkholes and contamination of soil, groundwater and
surface water by chemicals from mining processes. Mining strips the soil of its nutrients and
destroys productive croplands.
 5) Construction activities:
Dust and chemicals from construction sites can travel easily through the air as fine particulate
matter and get deposited on the soil. Dust and chemicals that travel as particulate matter are more
resistant to degradation, thus they accumulate and increase in concentration, leading to soil
infertility. Furthermore, demolition of old buildings release asbestos, a toxic mineral that acts as
a poison in the soil and cause soil pollution.
6) Acid rain:
Acid rain occurs when greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxide dissolve in
rain water. Acid rain dissolves nutrients and minerals present in soil and then washes them away
before trees and plants can use them to grow. As acid rain is absorbed into the soil, it increases
the soil’s pH value and make it acidic. This makes it impossible for plants and microorganisms
to survive which grow best in alkaline conditions. This depletes the amount of nutrients available
to plants because microorganisms play an important role in releasing nutrients from decaying
organic material.
7) Deforestation:
Deforestation removes trees which hold the soil together by their roots. Once trees and other
vegetation in an area are gone, there is nothing left to hold the soil in place. This exposes the soil
to wind, rain and the sun. Consequently, the nutrient-rich top soil is blown, washed away or
dried, leaving the soil infertile and useless.
8) Natural causes:
At times, natural accumulation of chemicals result in soil pollution due to imbalance between
atmospheric deposition and leakage with rain water. Natural production of perchlorate takes
place in soil under certain environmental conditions causing soil pollution. Moreover, leakages
from sanitary sewerage system and oil pipelines also cause soil pollution by changing the
chemical composition of soil.

Effects of soil pollution:

1) Low crop yield:
When soil is repeatedly contaminated, it reaches a point where it cannot support plant life
anymore. Soil pollution alters the physiochemical structure of soil and kills beneficial
microorganisms present in the soil which diminishes soil fertility. On this account, the soil
becomes unsuitable for cultivation of crops or any form of vegetation. Low crop yield
consequently leads to enormous economic losses as well as food insecurity.
2) Harmful effect on human health:
Soil pollution may cause a variety of health problems, such as nausea, fatigue, skin rash, eye
irritation and central nervous system disorders. People suffer from illnesses when they consume
food grown on polluted soil or when they eat animals that have accumulated large amounts of
soil pollutants, even if the soil itself isn’t contaminated enough to harm human health. In
addition, more than 70 percent of the soil pollutants are carcinogenic in nature, intensifying the
chances of developing cancer in people exposed to polluted soil.
3) Contamination of waterbodies:
Soil pollution can lead to water pollution if the toxic chemicals present in soil leach into
groundwater or are washed by rainfall into lakes, rivers and seas. This form of pollution involves
changing physical, chemical and biological properties of water which have an adverse effect on
all living things who consume it. As fresh water turns into poisoned water, the health and well-
being of animals and human beings is threatened. Consequences of water pollution include
eutrophication, water-borne diseases, unclean water for irrigation and death of aquatic plants and
animals.
4) Negative impact on ecosystem:
Soil pollution negatively impacts the lives of animals who depend on plants for living. If soil
cannot support plant life and the population of plants fall, then animals dependent on plants will
die. Other animal species who prey on such animals will suffer and either migrate to other areas
in search of food or perish, leading to a reduction in the population of wild animals. Furthermore,
animals grazing on polluted soil consume plants with large amounts of accumulated chemicals
which is passed up the food chain to larger animals, leading to increased mortality rates and even
animal extinction.
5) Desertification:
Soil is the basic unit of environment, without which all forms of life would cease to exist on
Earth. Regions with no fertile soil are unable to support life and are characterized by desert like
dry lands with no agriculture, forests and wildlife. Soil pollution causes irreversible damage to
land by transforming a once productive agricultural land into a barren and useless land along
with loss of wildlife. As the life supporting capabilities of the soil erodes away, the entire
landscape is ruined and desertification occurs.

Preventive measures of soil pollution:

1) Use of sustainable farming practices:
Bare soil is susceptible to wind as well as water erosion and to drying. To prevent this from
happening, ground can be covered by leaving crop residue on the surface or by planting cover
crops. Reduced tillage is another key component of sustainable agriculture. It involves ploughing
tools that prepare the soil without removing all the vegetation and without churning up too much
of the soil. It involves inserting seeds directly into undisturbed soil, thus preventing soil erosion.
Agroforestry is the practice of planting trees and crops together across a field. Trees protects the
topsoil by anchoring it in place and also block winds that could blow it away.
 2) Solid waste management:
To reduce the production of soil pollutants, it is necessary to recycle and reuse waste materials
like paper, plastics, metals and glasses. There is a need to strengthen the enforcement of laws and
regulations on solid waste management to stimulate common citizens and industrialists to obey
the law. Moreover, all waste disposal sites should be cleaned regularly and emptied off waste
materials to prevent them from reaching the soil especially after heavy rainfall occurs.
3) Use of bio-fertilizers and bio-pesticides:
Using environmental friendly alternatives such as bio-pesticides and bio-fertilizers instead of
chemical pesticides and fertilizers can help curb soil pollution. Bio-fertilizers add nutrients to the
soil through the natural processes of nitrogen fixation and solubilizing phosphorous with the help
of living microbes such as bacteria or fungi. Nitrogen fixation is achieved by a variety of
microbes including Azotobacter and Rhizobium while phosphorous solubilization is performed
by Bacillus subtillis. Unlike traditional pesticides which use synthetic chemicals to kill or
inactivate pests, bio-pesticides achieve the same objective by using natural repellants derived
from animals, plants or microbes to drive insects away from the plant by their irritating smell or
taste.
4) Awareness raising:
Public education and outreach are vitally important to create broad awareness of soil pollution
issues and its impact. The importance of communicating with the general public and engaging
stakeholders in soil pollution related issues is vital. Intensive information, education and
communication campaigns need to be developed and implemented to promote soil conservation
and avoid activities that pollute the soil.
5) Reduce deforestation and increase reforestation:
Efforts should be made to reduce deforestation and increase reforestation. The energy
requirements of forest communities should be fulfilled in a sustainable manner and they should
be provided employment opportunities as well as educated properly to manage and conserve
forest areas around their homes. Through reforestation efforts and planting new vegetation in
areas that are prone to erosion, soil pollution can be prevented. Planting trees and vegetation
prevent the top nutrient rich layer of soil from being removed and transported by forces of
nature, such as water and air.
6) Soil washing:
Soil washing is an ex-situ remediation technique that removes hazardous contaminants from soil
by washing it with water, scrubbing the soil and then separating the clean soil from contaminated
soil and wash water. The concept of soil washing is based on the theory that contaminants are
prone to bind to fine grained soils, which, in turn, are prone to bind to coarse grained soils. The
washed soil may be reused as backfill at the site if all contaminants are removed from the soil.
Soil washing allows the clean-up of polluted soil without having to excavate and reduces the
amount of soil that needs to be removed.
Urbanization:
Urbanization is a process whereby populations move from rural to urban areas, enabling cities
and towns to grow. It can also be termed as the progressive increase of the number of people
living in towns and cities. It is highly influenced by the notion that cities and towns have
achieved better economic, political and social mileages compared to rural areas. It is estimated
that 50 percent of the world’s population live in cities. The United Nations predicted that by
2050, two-thirds of the world population will live in cities.
Causes of urbanization:
1) Political causes:
During times of political unrest, families are forced to leave their rural villages and migrate to
urban areas in search of shelter, food and employment. When large number of people are driven
from their rural villages, especially in war-ravaged countries, cities become saturated and slums
start to grow on the outskirts of cities.
2) Economic causes:
Poverty coupled with unemployment in rural areas force people to migrate to urban areas in
search of employment opportunities and a higher standard of living. The rise of industry in
developing as well as developed countries have provided more job opportunities in urban areas
by switching from agricultural economics to industrial economics. In cities and towns, there are
ample job opportunities that continually draw people from rural areas to seek better livelihood.
3) Social benefits and services:
There are numerous social benefits attributed to life in urban areas. Examples include better
educational facilities, better living standards, better sanitation, better healthcare and better
recreation facilities. On this account, more and more people are prompted to migrate to urban
areas to obtain a wide variety social benefits and services which are unavailable in rural areas.
4) Natural population increase:
Natural population increase refers to the difference between the number of births and deaths in a
population. There has been a natural increase in population of urban areas due to improved
medical care, immunization programs, better sanitation and more widespread education. High
fertility rates along with increased life expectancy and low death rates have resulted in
population growth.
5) Rural urban transformation:
As localities become more fruitful and prosperous due to the discovery of minerals, renewable
resources or agricultural activities, cities start emerging as rural areas transform into urban areas.
The increase in productivity leads to economic growth and employment opportunities. This
brings about the need to develop better infrastructure, better education institutions, better health
facilities and better housing. As this takes place, rural communities turn into urban centers.

Effects of urbanization:
1) Urban heat island effect:
An urban heat island is an urban area or metropolitan area that is significantly warmer than its
surrounding rural areas. This temperature discrepancy is the result of a phenomenon known as
urban heat island effect. The use of dark materials with high thermal conductivity and emissivity
such as concrete and asphalt in construction of roads, buildings and pavement in urban areas,
cause significantly higher absorption of solar radiation, leading to higher temperatures than
surrounding rural areas. By virtue of their high heat capacities, urban surfaces act as a giant
reservoir of heat energy. For example, concrete can hold roughly 2000 times as much heat as an
equivalent volume of air.
2) Change of land cover:
As cities grow in number, spatial extent and density, their environmental and ecological footprint
increase. Majority of the lands that were once part of a country’s vibrant agricultural landscape
are now being turned into houses, factories, hospitals, shopping centers, educational institutions,
roads and railway tracks. Urban expansion that takes place in forests, wetlands and agricultural
areas leads to removal of trees and vegetation as well as habitat clearing. Urbanization is one the
chief causes of deforestation and loss of biodiversity, literally changing the land cover of an area.
3) Air pollution:
In order to meet the increasing demand for the civic amenities, new industries, institutions and
factories are setup for the production of goods and services which mean higher level of
greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere and increased air pollution. Increasing amounts of
greenhouse gas emissions cause global warming and climate change while air pollution
negatively impacts human health by deteriorating air quality.
4) Pressure on food supplies and distribution:
Urbanization puts pressure on food supplies and distribution. As people migrate to cities, they
tend to use purchased food instead of their own crops and this makes them vulnerable to changes
in food prices. As urbanization grows and the demand for water and land increases, it becomes
difficult to increase food production in a sustainable manner. The increase in demand for food in
urban areas, combined with a loss of agricultural land, means more pressure on rural people to
produce food for the growing number of urban people.
5) Overcrowding:
Overcrowding is a situation whereby a huge number of people live in a small space. The problem
of overcrowding is increasing day by day as large number of people and immigrants move into
cities and towns in search of better life, leading to congestion of people within a small area. One
of the biggest challenge posed by overcrowding is in the transport system. More people means
increased number of vehicles which leads to traffic congestion and vehicular pollution.
6) Development of slums:
In rapidly growing urban areas, access to land is rendered increasingly difficult by the conflicting
demands of industry, agriculture, commerce, land tenure structure and the rising costs of land.
When this is combined with high influx of population to urban centers, unemployment and
growth of population, the result is the spread of unlawful resident settlements represented by
slums and squatters.
7) Trash disposal:
As cities grow in number and size, the problem of trash disposal assumes alarming levels. Huge
quantities of garbage produced by big cities are posing serious health problems to a common
man. Many cities don’t have proper arrangements to dispose of the garbage and the existing
landfills are already operating at their full capacity. Solid waste dumped in open areas invite
disease carrying flies and rats and a poisonous liquid called leachate which leaks out from below
and contaminates ground water. People who live near such garbage sites fall easy victims to
several diseases like malaria, jaundice and typhoid.

Carrying capacity:
Carrying capacity is the largest population size of a species that can be supported indefinitely by
an ecosystem. It refers to the maximum number of a species that can live in a particular area
within the limits of natural resources and without degrading the natural, social, cultural,
economic and environmental capacities of present and future generations. The idea of carrying
capacity is closely related to sustainable development. If we cut down forests faster than they can
grow back, intensify agriculture until it robs the soil of its fertility and make profligate use of
fossil fuels, we will increase our standard of living as well as the number of people living on the
planet, but it will reduce the planet’s capacity to support people in the future. One measure that
has been developed to estimate the human carrying capacity of the planet is ecological footprint.
It tracks how much biocapacity potential the planet has and then compares it with the rate at
which human beings consume natural resources and generate waste. The carrying capacity for
any given area is not fixed, the carrying capacity can increase and decrease and there are various
factors that affect it. For instance, an increase in the population growth can lead to over-
exploitation of necessary natural resources and therefore decrease the overall carrying capacity
of Earth. Similarly, increased food production due to improved agricultural practices, control of
dangerous diseases by modern medicine and the use of renewable sources of energy to make
uninhabitable areas of Earth inhabitable are examples of the methods which can extend carrying
capacity of the planet.
Determinants of carrying capacity:
Determining the human carrying capacity of an area involves analyzing multiple variables
including technological advancement, consumption pattern, amount of resources in an area and
population growth rate which makes the task very difficult. Carrying capacity can be easily
computed when a limiting factor is realized. For example in the case of a population on a small,
isolated island, the limiting factor might be space. For a species dwelling in a desert, it might be
water. For most species including humans, there are four factors that govern carrying capacity:
food availability, water supply, living space and environmental conditions.

Sustainable cities:
Why are sustainable cities needed?
It is estimated that 50 percent of the world’s population live in cities. Cities attract people
because they are centers for economic activity and offer a higher quality of life. There are more
jobs, more services available, transport options to move within the city, centers of knowledge
exchange and have better infrastructure. The United Nations predicted that by 2050, two-thirds
of the world population will live in cities. Many cities are already struggling with environmental
degradation, traffic congestion, inadequate infrastructure and a lack of basic services, such as
water supply, sanitation and solid waste management. Environmental footprints of cities are
quite alarming and can threaten the natural resources required to sustain economic development
and alleviate poverty level. Maintaining economic growth, while creating sustainable livable
cities is one the biggest challenges facing the world today.
What is a sustainable city?
A sustainable city or eco-city is a city designed with consideration for social, economic and
environmental impact. Such a city enable its inhabitants to live a good quality of life while using
minimum natural resources and without compromising the ability of future generations to
experience the same. A sustainable city is self-sufficient; it is able to feed itself with minimal
reliance on the surrounding countryside and power itself with renewable sources of energy. The
crux of this is to create the smallest conceivable ecological footprint, produce the lowest quantity
of pollution, efficiently use land, compost used materials and recycle waste products or convert it
into energy, thereby keeping the city’s overall contribution to climate change minimum.
Key features of a sustainable city:
1) Zero-energy buildings:
A zero-energy building is a building with zero net energy consumption, meaning that the total
amount of energy used by the building is roughly equal to the amount of renewable energy
created on the site. Consequently, these buildings are able to meet their energy demands in a
sustainable manner and don’t increase the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
Buildings that produce a surplus of energy over the years are called “energy-plus buildings” and
buildings that consume slightly more energy than they produce are called “near-zero energy
buildings”.
2) Sustainable transport system:
Currently, transportation systems account for nearly a quarter of the world’s energy consumption
and carbon dioxide emissions. In order to reduce the environmental impact caused by
transportation in metropolitan areas, sustainable transportation has three agreed upon pillars that
it utilizes to create more healthy urban centers. The first pillar is concept of urban proximity.
This requires that cities be built with appropriate population and landmark density so that
destinations are reached with reduced time in transit. Urban proximity results in reduced fuel
expenditure and opens the door to alternative means of transportation such as walking and bike
riding. The second pillar is sustainable transport modes. Bus rapid transit (BRT), mass rapid
transit (MRT) and light rapid transit (LRT) are sustainable transportation modes which reduce
greenhouse gas emissions and prevent traffic congestion. This strategy also makes residents less
susceptible to fluctuations in energy prices and makes the concept of “car free city” more
achievable. The third pillar is access to transportation. In order to make public transportation
more accessible, the cost of rides must be affordable and stations must be located within walking
distance in each part of the city. By allowing lower income residents access to cheap
transportation, individuals can seek employment opportunities all over the urban center rather
than simply the area in which they live.
3) Residential cluster development:
Residential cluster development is the grouping of residential properties on one side of the urban
area in order to use rest of the land as open space or for recreation or agriculture purposes. When
this is done properly, residents live with more open and recreational space, aesthetically pleasing
surroundings and lower heating and cooling costs as some walls are shared. Economic benefits
of cluster development include saving costs on infrastructure and maintenance through practices
such as decreasing the area that needs to be paved and building fewer roads, sewers and utility
lines.
4) Urban agriculture:
Urban agriculture is the practice of cultivating, processing and distributing food in or around a
city. Urban agriculture can include animal husbandry, aquaculture, horticulture, agroforestry and
urban beekeeping. The most striking feature or urban agriculture, which distinguishes it from
rural agriculture, is that it is integrated into the urban economic and ecological system. Such
linkages include the use of urban residents as labourers, use of urban resources like organic
waste as compost and urban wastewater for irrigation. This method of food cultivation saves
energy and cost of supplying and distributing food from rural areas to urban areas. In addition,
producing fresh fruit and vegetables within a city reduces reliance on highly processed fast food
and stored foods that are high in calories but low in nutrients.
5) Sustainable drainage system:
A sustainable drainage system is designed to reduce the potential impact of new and existing
developments with respect to surface water drainage discharges. The idea behind sustainable
drainage system is to try to replicate the drainage patterns of natural systems by using cost-
effective solutions with low environmental impact to drain away dirty and surface water run-off
through collection, storage and cleaning before allowing it to be released slowly back into the
environment. This is to counter the effects of conventional drainage systems that often allow for
flooding, pollution of the environment and contamination of groundwater sources. Sustainable
drainage systems use the following techniques:
a) Source control methods decrease the volume of water entering the drainage network for
subsequent re-use or for storage.
b) Pre-treatment steps, such as vegetated ditches or filter trenches, remove pollutants from
surface water prior to discharge to watercourses.
c) Retention systems delay the discharge of surface water to watercourses by providing
storage within ponds and wetlands in order to prevent flooding.
d) Infiltration systems, such as infiltration trenches and soakaways mimic natural recharge,
allowing water to soak into the ground.

6) Urban forestry:
Urban forestry is the careful management of single trees and tree populations in urban settings
for the purpose of improving the urban environment. Besides growing trees on the plain
landscape, urban forestry includes vertical forests and green roofs. In vertical forestry, tall
buildings are enveloped in trees, shrubs and flowering plants while a green roof is a roof that is
partially or completely covered with vegetation. Urban forests provide environmental, health and
economic benefits. Urban forests mitigate the effects of urban heat island through
evapotranspiration and the shading of streets and buildings. This improves human comfort,
reduces the risk of heat stroke and saves energy in the form of reduced air conditioning. Urban
forests improve air quality by absorbing pollutants such as ozone, nitrogen oxide and carbon
dioxide. Urban forests are also important to storm water management. Trees absorb and store
rainwater through the canopy and filter run-off with their roots.
7) Rainwater harvesting:
Rainwater harvesting is the accumulation and storage of rainwater for reuse on-site, rather than
allowing it to run-off. One method of rainwater harvesting is rooftop harvesting. Rooftop
harvesting is the collection of rainwater from the roofs of buildings by directing the flow of
rainwater from roof gutters to a rainwater storage tank. Its uses include water for gardens,
livestock, irrigation as well as drinking purposes. It provides an independent water supply during
water stressed conditions like drought, mitigate flooding of low-lying areas and ensures the
availability of potable water as rainwater is free of salinity and pollutants.
8) Xeriscaping:
 Xeriscaping is a landscaping method that reduces or eliminates the need for supplemental water
from irrigation. It is a water conservation strategy designed for areas that are susceptible to
drought and regions that don’t have accessible, plentiful or reliable supplies of fresh water. A
common element in xeriscaping is the reduction of lawn grass areas since lawn grass is one of
the worst offenders against water conservation. Another widespread tactic is the deployment of
native plants since they are adapted to local climate and consequently require less human-
supplied water. Xeriscaping also involves grouping plants with similar water requirements
together, this saves water and improves plant growth as all plants receive optimum amount of
water.

Sustainable agriculture:
Sustainable agriculture rests on the principle of meeting the needs of present generation without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. This type of agriculture
tries to find a balance between the need for food production and the preservation of ecological
system within the environment so as to have minimum effects on the environment. Sustainable
agriculture is an ecosystem approach to agriculture and at its core is a rejection of the industrial
approach to food production which produce large quantities of food at the cost of environment.
The industrial approach to agriculture relies on intensive methods such as excessive tillage and
profligate use of fertilizers and pesticides that robs the soil of its fertility. Even though it
increases people’s standard of living as well as the number of people living on the planet, it
greatly reduces the planet’s capacity to support people in the future.

Primary benefits of sustainable agriculture:

1) Environmental preservation:
Sustainable agriculture grow crops and raise animals without relying on toxic chemical fertilizers
and pesticides, genetically modified seeds and other practices that degrade soil and water quality.
Sustainable agriculture uses 30 percent less energy per unit crop yield in comparison to
industrialized agriculture. This reduced reliance on fossil fuels results in the release of less
chemicals and pollutants into the environment.
2) Protection of human health:
Due to lack of fertilizers and pesticides, farmers are able to grow fruits and vegetables that are
safer for consumers. Similarly, through careful and proper management of livestock waste,
sustainable farmers are able to protect humans from exposure to pathogens, toxins and other
hazardous pollutants.
3) Sustaining vibrant communities:
A critical component of sustainable agriculture is its ability to remain economically viable,
providing farmers and food processors with fair wages and safe working conditions. Sustainable
agriculture makes profitability the financial goal, rather than maximum production for gross
revenue. This greatly reduces their reliance on government subsidies and strengthens rural
communities.
4) Animal well-being:
The focus on livestock and animal well-being allow farmers to let their animals live naturally
within their environment. Most of the animals in factories live in cramped cages with limited to
no access to outdoor environment. Sustainable agriculture give animals the right to move freely
and eat natural food which has a positive effect on their health.

Key sustainable agriculture practices/methods:

1) Crop rotation to make efficient use of soil nutrients:
Crop rotation is one of the most powerful techniques of sustainable agriculture. Its purpose is to
avoid the consequences of planting only one crop at a time in a given field for many years in a
row. It helps tackle pest problems, as many pests prefer specific crops. If pests have a steady
food supply they can greatly increase their population size. Rotation of crops breaks the
reproduction cycle of pests. In addition, soil cannot sustain continuous cropping of a single
variety because certain nutrients required by the crop get exhausted totally while others remain
unutilized, leading to nutrients imbalance in the soil. Crop rotation thus results in more efficient
use of soil nutrients.
2) Ground cover:
Bare soil is susceptible to wind as well as water erosion and to drying. To prevent this from
happening, ground can be covered by leaving crop residue on the surface or by planting cover
crops. Ground cover protects soil, keeps weeds in check, replenishes soil nutrients and provides
habitat to soil organisms such as insects and earthworms.
3) Soil enrichment:
Soil enrichment is a key component of sustainable agriculture. A healthy soil increases yields
and creates more robust crops therefore soil must be protected and nurtured to ensure long term
productivity and stability. Methods of soil enrichment include leaving crop residue in the field
after a harvest, applying animal manure and compost. Regular addition of organic matter
provides nutrients to plants, improves soil structure and support a healthy community of soil
organisms.
4) Integrated pest management:
Integrated pest management involves simultaneous application of mechanical and biological
methods to keep pest populations under control while minimizing the use of chemical pesticides.
The mechanical method includes hand picking, capturing and killing pests by hand nets or
shaking plants to dislodge the organisms. The biological method includes the introduction of
natural pest predators such as birds and other animals to reduce the population of pests. Chemical
pesticides are only used as a last resort because it results in the death of pests as well as
beneficial pest predators.
5) Mixed cropping:
Mixed cropping includes growing two or more crops in a single field at the same time. If by
chance one crop fails, the other crops will cover the risk of total crop failure. Usually a long
duration crop is grown with a short duration one so that both get sufficient nutrition at the time of
maturity and they don’t compete with each other for natural resources. Generally a leguminous
crop is grown along with the main crop to replenish the soil with ammonium and nitrate.
6) Reduced tillage:
Traditional ploughing or tillage prepares a field for planting of new seeds and preventing weed
problems, but it causes a lot of soil erosion. Reduced tillage involves ploughing tools that
prepare the soil without removing all the vegetation and without churning up too much of the
soil. It involves inserting seeds directly into undisturbed soil, thus preventing soil erosion.
7) Agroforestry:
Agroforestry is the practice of planting trees and crops together across a field. Trees protects the
topsoil by anchoring it in place and also block winds that could blow it away. Farmers can use
agroforestry to harvest resources such as firewood and fruit from the trees.

Ecological footprint:
Ecological footprint is defined as the biologically productive land and sea area required to
provide everything people use, ranging from fruits, vegetables, wood and fossil fuel use to space
for buildings, houses and roads. In other words, it is the amount of environment required to
produce goods and services necessary to support a particular lifestyle. Ecological footprint is a
measure of human impact on Earth’s ecosystem and reveals the dependence of the human
economy on natural capital. It is measured in global hectares (gha). Per capita ecological
footprint is a means of comparing consumption pattern and lifestyles against the ecosystem’s
biocapacity. It can be used to examine to what extent a nation uses more or less biological
resources than is available within its territory. Ecological footprint may be used to argue that
many current lifestyles, especially in developed countries, are not sustainable. It can also be used
as a useful tool to educate people about carrying capacity and overconsumption, with the aim of
altering personal behavior. Humanity’s ecological footprint was 7 billion gha in 1961 and
increased to 20.6 billion gha in 2014 whereas the Earth’s biocapacity grew from 9.6 billion gha
in 1961 to 12.2 billion gha in 2014. Since, humanity’s ecological footprint is larger than the
Earth’s biocapacity, the Earth has been in an ecological overshoot. This means that humanity has
been using resources and generating waste at a pace greater than the ecosystem could replenish
those resources and absorb or filter waste material from the atmosphere.

Ecological restoration:
Introduction to ecological restoration:
Much of the world’s ecosystems have undergone significant degradation with negative impacts
on biodiversity and people’s livelihoods. There is a growing realization that conserving the
Earth’s biodiversity cannot be achieved through the protection of critical areas alone and that
ecological restoration should be fully incorporated in all sustainable development programs to
tackle the crisis situation more effectively. Ecological restoration is the process of assisting the
recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged or destroyed. According to the
Society for Ecological Restoration, ecosystem restoration is the return of a damaged ecosystem
to a stable, healthy and sustainable state. Ecological restoration includes a wide scope of projects
including erosion control, reforestation, revegetation of disturbed areas, removal of non-native
species and weeds and reintroduction of native species.

Concepts underpinning restoration:

1) Disturbance:
Disturbance is a change in environmental conditions that disrupts the functioning of an
ecosystem. Disturbance can occur at a variety of spatial and temporal scales and is a natural as
component of many communities. Disturbance events can alter species composition, nutrient
cycling and soil properties. Natural disturbances include severe weather damage, wildfires,
flooding, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. The severity and scope of anthropogenic impact
has grown in the last few centuries. For example, clearing forests for agriculture and damming
rivers for flood control have permanently destroyed the ecosystem in these areas. Differentiating
between human-caused and naturally occurring disturbances is crucial to ecological restoration.
2) Succession:
Ecological succession is the process by which a biological community changes over time,
especially following a disturbance. In many instances, an ecosystem will change from a simple
level of organization with a few dominant species to an increasingly complex community with
many interdependent species. In communities suffering from mild to moderate disturbances,
restoration involves hastening natural successional trajectories through careful management.
However, in a system that has experienced a more severe disturbance such as an urban
ecosystem, restoration may require intensive efforts to recreate environmental conditions that
favour natural successional processes.
 3) Habitat Fragmentation:
Habitat fragmentation is the emergence of spatial discontinuities in a biological system,
ecosystems are broken up into smaller parts through land use changes or natural disturbances.
This reduces the size of the population and increases the degree of isolation. These smaller and
isolated pockets of population are more vulnerable to extinction. The edge of a fragment has
different environmental conditions and therefore supports different species than the interior.
Restorative projects seek to improve connectivity and decrease isolation by creating corridors
and stepping stones to link isolated fragments. Corridors are narrow, linear strips of habitat
between otherwise isolated habitats. Stepping stones are small unconnected patches of habitat
that are close enough to allow movement across the landscape.
4) Ecosystem function:
Ecosystem function describes the most basic and essential processes of natural systems,
including nutrient cycles and energy fluxes. An understanding of the complexity and intricacies
of ecosystem functions is necessary to address any ecological process that may be degraded.
Ecosystem functions are emergent properties of the system as a whole, thus monitoring and
management are crucial for the long-term stability of ecosystems. A fully functional ecosystem
that is completely self-perpetuating is the ultimate goal of restorative efforts.
5) Local genetics:
Restoration projects typically include genetic considerations. Plants and animals from local
sources are more likely to be well adapted to the target ecosystem. Therefore, using animals and
plants from local sources may increase the chances of establishing a stable and successful
ecosystem. Including a large number of individual plants and animals can help ensure genetic
diversity in the restored community. Genetic diversity is thought to be critical in maintaining the
ability of populations to evolve and recover from disturbances.

Solid waste management situation in Pakistan:

Solid waste management situation in Pakistan is a matter of grave concern as more than 5 million
people die each year due to waste-related diseases. Pakistan generates about 48 million tons of
solid waste each year, with an annual growth rate of 2 percent. Unfortunately, none of the cities
in Pakistan has a proper solid waste management system right from collection of solid waste
upto its proper disposal. Much of the uncollected waste poses serious risk to public health
through clogging of drains and formation of stagnant ponds, providing breeding ground for
mosquitos and flies with consequent risk of malaria and cholera. Due to lack of adequate
disposal sites, much of the collected waste finds it way in dumping grounds, vacant plots, open
pits, ponds, rivers and agricultural land. Most municipal waste is burned which creates pollution
and release toxic fumes into the environment. Garbage dumped in the countryside produces
unpleasant odour, ruins entire landscapes and destroys habitats for flora and fauna. The waste
collection fleet typically consists of handcarts and donkey pull-carts for primary collection and
open trucks and trolleys for secondary collection of solid waste. Some municipalities hire street
sweepers and sanitary workers to augment collection methods. They use wheelbarrows and
brooms to collect solid waste from small heaps and dustbins and then store it in different depots.

National Solid Waste Management Plan 2005:

Solid waste management is the process associated with the collection, storage, transport,
processing and disposal of solid waste materials produced by human activities, in an effort to
reduce their effect on human health, local aesthetic and the environment. The overall aim of the
National Solid Waste Management Plan/Strategy is to provide an effective, efficient, safe and
sustainable solid waste management system for all urban and rural settlements of Pakistan. In the
context of this plan/strategy, solid waste is defined as any substance that the holder discards or
dispose irrespective of its value to anyone and any substance deemed by a regulation to be waste.
The waste hierarchy is the cornerstone of most waste management strategies which classifies
strategies according to their desirability in terms of waste minimization. The aim of waste
hierarchy is to extract maximum practical benefits from products and to generate minimum
amount of waste. Waste hierarchy is a hierarchical structure where the highest priority is given to
the minimization of waste. If the minimization option is neither practical nor technically feasible,
then other options have to be considered, for example the recycling of waste. If it is also not
feasible then treatment and disposal of waste must be considered. Through the application of this
hierarchical structure, the best practical and feasible solution with the least negative impact on
the environment will be selected.

Objective#1: Upgrade waste collection and transfer:

Lines of action:
1) Setup a system for regular weighing and analysis of wastes generated and collected in all
urban areas of Pakistan. Data like quantity, density, organic content, recyclable content
and moisture content is essential to determine the most suitable methods of collection,
transportation, disposal and treatment.
2) Establish primary collection systems in cities. A primary collection system means that
waste is collected by small vehicles and moved to a transfer point, from where it is
collected by large vehicles and sent to disposal site.
3) Encourage collection of waste in plastic bags as this reduces loading times for the waste
collection crews. Waste should be disposed by households and collected by the
authorities at fixed times so that scavengers have minimal access to them.
4) Increase the number of containers and street bins and make their design compatible with
collection and transportation systems. The design of containers should reduce handling
time of waste and make loading of vehicles easier.
 5) Increase the frequency of waste collection to reduce unpleasant odours and the growth of
disease vectors.
6) Establish proper monitoring and supervision mechanisms for waste collection and
transportation to ensure satisfactory operation of the service. Raise salaries and incentives
of waste collection workers to increase their motivation.

Objective#2: Improve waste disposal and treatment:

Lines of action:
1) Select new disposal sites to replace disposal sites that are close to full or that are
improperly located. Before granting an approval for the establishment of sanitary landfill
site, an environmental impact assessment should be undertaken to identify potential
damage of the disposal site to soil, water and air.
2) Improve the working conditions of scavengers on disposal sites because this will improve
their health and increase the life of the disposal site as well as waste recovery levels.
3) Incineration is not an option for the treatment of municipal waste due to its high
operating waste and low calorific value but it is recommended for the treatment of
clinical and industrial hazardous waste.
4) Use well-designed locally manufactured equipment for composting plants, as it is
inexpensive and spare parts are readily available
5) Avoid mixing of municipal waste with infectious clinical and industrial waste, especially
when waste is collected for composting as this endangers the life of workers and the
quality of the compost.

Objective#3: Reduce waste and maximize waste recovery:

Lines of action:
1) Encourage reuse and recycling of waste at homes and in industries. Improve practices
that are hazardous to health, by collecting hazardous waste separately and by providing
opportunities to formalize the informal sector such as employing scavengers and
providing them facilities. This will increase their efficiency, reduce the amount of waste
to be disposed at landfills and enable these people to make a living while public health is
being protected.
2) Setup pilot projects for waste segregation at source, for example separate collection of
packaging material like plastic and paper cardboard from schools, universities and
government buildings. Another possibility is to introduce a system of segregation of
waste into wet (organic) and dry (non-organic) components for the purpose of recycling
dry waste and using wet waste as compost.
3) Encourage non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and private companies to establish
community based segregation at source, separate collection and waste recovery projects.
Objective#4: Improve hazardous waste management:
Lines of action:
1) Identify sources, quantities and characteristics of all clinical and industrial hazardous
waste generated in Pakistan.
2) Explore the most suitable collection, disposal and treatment methods for each of the
identified types of hazardous waste. Investigate the feasibility of installing regional
facilities. Encourage involvement of private sector in the establishment of Hazardous
Waste Treatment Centers on Public Private Partnership basis.
3) Establish separate hazardous waste cells at major disposal sites, with double lining in
accordance with international standards, to receive industrial toxic and hazardous waste.
4) Segregate all hazardous waste at source and establish separate collection services, switch
to cleaner industrial production processes that generate less hazardous waste and examine
other methods of safe treatment like autoclaving and microwave treatment.

Objective#5: Achieve sustainability and cost recovery:

Lines of action:
1) Purchase low cost equipment, preferably locally manufactured, for which spare parts are
easily available and has low maintenance and running cost.
2) Encourage privatization of waste collection, disposal and treatment as it will allow
greater mobilization of capital and generally leads to improvements in operating
efficiency.
3) Charge fees for waste collection from households, shops, clinics and industries in major
cities like Karachi, Lahore and Rawalpindi.
4) Raise funds and lobby for additional allocation of funds for solid waste management
from the Federal and Provincial Governments as well as foreign donors.
5) Give the rights to waste recovery to a waste dealer who pays the municipality a monthly
fee and has exclusive access to the recovered materials picked by the scavengers. Funds
raised in this way can be used to maintain the site.
6) Conduct feasibility and marketing studies for composting plants and other waste recovery
facilities as these reduce the possibilities of an economic failure and prevent unexpected
costs for the municipalities in the long run.

Objective#6: Strengthen institutional and organization capacity:

Lines of action:
 1) Federal and Provincial governments in Pakistan including FATA, Northern Areas and
Capital Territory should develop a solid waste management action plan for their
respective areas.
2) Establish separate solid waste management departments at district level which will plan
and coordinate all solid waste management activities and supervise employees. They
should have the authority to take decisions regarding operation, maintenance and
management.
3) Improve working conditions of solid waste management employees by raising their
salaries, providing incentives, uniform and protective gear. This will increase their
motivation and thus the efficiency of solid waste management.
4) Train decision makers and senior officials to increase their understanding as well as
awareness of solid waste issues and improve waste management service efficiency.
5) Strengthen the enforcement of laws and regulations on solid waste management to
stimulate common citizens and industrialists to obey the law.

Objective#7: Increase involvement of key stakeholders and raise awareness:

Lines of action:
1) Identify primary and secondary stakeholders and encourage their participation in solid
waste management because this increases a feeling of local ownership, raises
environmental awareness and encourages willingness to pay for improved services.
2) Seek people’s views through social surveys, interviews and group discussions about
improved waste collection, their willingness to pay and their preferred destination for a
disposal site.
3) Promote and support community based clean-up campaigns, beautification and tree
planting to raise environmental awareness and to create a positive image of the
environment among citizens. Organize visits to environmental projects and services, such
as composting plants, for example for school children.
4) Establish better communication channels between municipalities and citizens by setting
up complaint desks, citizen panels and neighbourhood committees and by informing
residents of environmental initiatives through newspaper, radio or television.