Introduction

Likewise, water serves many uses such as,

a raw material for production, a medium for the transport of energy, an agent for cleaning,

etc. The use of natural gas and fuel oil as sources of energy is associated with greenhouse gas

emissions (Fernandez et al., 2012) and although water is relatively cheap, batch processes

generate effluents with toxic contaminants that can be expensive to treat (Gouws et al.,

2010). For these reasons and others, process integration techniques were developed to reduce

environmental pollution associated with the consumption of energy and water during plant

operation (Liu et al., 2013).

Equipment cleaning with water for the changeover operation is of particular interest. The

order in which tasks take place in a unit affects the amount of water required for washing as

exemplified by the following scenario associated with the paint industry.

In recent years, Pinch Analysis has been extended to cooling water systems design

following its success in heat exchanger networks (HENs) and mass exchanger networks

(MENs). The most significant work on cooling water network design was developed by

Kim and Smith (2001) where a graphical methodology for designing cooling water

systems was developed. Research on cooling water networks was necessitated by the

need to optimize the amount of cooling water used in process industries. It is always

important to conserve water as well as reduce the amount of contaminated water that is
discharged to the main sources of water.

large percentage of those without access to clean water live in the

historically disadvantaged rural areas, specifically in the previously demarcated

homelands. These statistics indicate that there is a need to ensure that more people have

access to clean water. Pollution of rivers, which are the main source of water in South

Africa, should thus be minimized. Most of the pollution comes from industry.

Increasing environmental concerns have resulted in a focus on waste water minimization.

Reduction of freshwater consumption has become increasingly important in water systems as

the supply of the usable water continues to become an increasing problem and the demand of

water have increased with industrial development

For water and wastewater minimization, during the past decade, various systematic methods

based on pinch analysis have played an important role in saving water resources and developing

environmentally friendly designs for water systems. The basic idea is that wastewater can be

reused directly in other operations when water-using operations can accept the contamination

level of previous operations.

Water is consumed in many operations for different purposes: (1) extraction, absorption and

scrubbing operations, (2) condensation and quenching operations, (3) stripping operations, (4) steam

generation, (5) washing operations, and (6) cooling water systems

Excluding steam generation and cooling water systems, water contacts process materials in various

processes and then contaminated water is sent to wastewatertreatment. In practice, not all water is
fully reused or recycled in processes, even though its quality is good enough for reuse. For

example,steam condensate loss occurs. Not all the condensate is usually recovered. The steam

condensate not recovered is a good water source to reuse. While valuable water is not reused, the

quality requirements for cooling water makeup are not generally as high as for other industrial

processes. Therefore, cooling tower makeup can be changed from freshwater to reused water or even

wastewater, if the quality of the water is relatively good. As shown in Figure 1, water consumption

and wastewater generation can be reduced simultaneously when wastewater before discharge or

treatment is used for cooling tower makeup.

This paper will present a systematic method for the design of cooling water systems that accounts for

the interactions between water-using systems and cooling systems to reduce makeup

Water pinch technology is a systematic technique for analyzing water networks and reducing

expenditures related to different water using processes (e.g., Manan et al. 2006; El Halwagi

2006; Gomes et al. 2001; Panjeshahi et al. 2010).

For current processes, the hierarchy of pollution prevention measures is: replace, reduce,

recover, reuse, recycle and finally, treat. This approach must be used whenever any waste

minimisation options are being contemplated.

Prior to developing or modifying configurations, it is necessary to consider the interactions

between the three main factors of a reuse/recycle system, ie effluent source, treatment process

and reuse process. Water pinch (Wang and Smith, 1994, 1995a, b; Olleson and Polley, 1997),
is a convenient tool for the rational analysis of a water network in order to identify bottlenecks,

and where recycle/reuse loops should be located. In simple terms, the current water and

effluent network should be analysed to determine if the optimal flow configuration is being

used. For sufficiently simple systems, a graphical approach can be used, in which the pinch

diagram is a plot of stream concentration as a function of mass flow. The pinch diagram is

constructed by considering the process requirements or constraints, and not the current effluent

flows and qualities. If the optimal network is not being used, then simple measures such as

effluent rerouting, cascading and recycling (without any treatment) should be considered. The

pinch analysis will also lead to the identification of the pinch point, is the bottleneck in the

effluent/water network, and which sets the minimum water requirements for the network of

processed. The pinch point might correspond to the quality of the inlet water, the outlet water

(final effluent) or some intermediate quality. Once an optimal arrangement has been achieved

with existing processes, it will be necessary to modify the processes for any further reduction

in the water requirements, so that they are able to use or produce streams of different qualities.

Large quantity of water is required in many industries, which is used in many processes for

washing or as part of the product. The resulting wastewater is usually treated in a central

common facility in order to remove contaminants and to meet regulatory discharge

requirements. In some cases, the treated wastewater may still contain certain level of pollutants.

Consequently, the environmental pollution increases due to this disposal trend. As opposed to

this conventional approach, reusing and re-routing the water streams in an integral water

network helps in reducing the consumption of freshwater, and minimizes the amount of

wastewater to be treated and disposed of to the environment. This is very important, especially

in developing countries where the relatively high cost and limited manpower pose additional

challenges to effective wastewater treatment. One of the methods that can be used to minimise
wastewater production is by Graphical method known as Water Pinch Technology (WPT) or

Water Pinch Analysis (WPA).

Statement of the Problem

Water and waste water minimization through process integration using water pinch

analysis gives answers to key questions in retrofitting existing facilities and designing water-

using networks in manufacturing processes. For water and effluent-treatment systems:

1. What is the minimum wastewater-generation target of the process?

2. How would a new water-using network be designed to meet the target?

3. How should a piping system be designed to make water reuse possible and minimize

wastewater generation?

Objectives of the Study

The main objective of this study will be to determine the maximum water recovery and

minimize wastewater generation of the _____ through Water Pinch Analysis. Specifically it

aims to:

1. Identify the minimum feed water consumption and wastewater generation in water usng

operations (water-pinch analysis).

2. Design a water-using network that achieves the identified flow rate targets for the feed

water and wastewater through water reuse (water-pinch synthesis)

3. Design a piping system for water reuse and minimize wastewater generation through

effective process changes (water-pinch retrofit)

Water Network Synthesis in Process Integration

Process integration, combined with other tools such as process simulation, is a powerful

approach that allows engineers to systematically analyse an industrial process and the

interactions between its various parts. In general, PI’s added value, compared to that of

traditional approaches, is particularly significant for large and complex industrial facilities.

This is because the more complex the process becomes, the harder it is to identify the best

saving opportunities without using systematic approaches such as PI (CanmetEnergy Research

Center, 2003).

Process synthesis as defined by Westerberg (1987) is the discrete decision-making of

conjecturing which of the many available component parts one should use, and how they should

be interconnected to structure the optimal solution to a given design problem. The aim of

process synthesis is to determine how each process element is integrated and the flow sheet of

design will be obtained to meet pre-specified objectives. Hence, within the process synthesis

activity, process inputs (feed streams) and outputs (product streams) are given and it is required

either to revise the configuration or parameters of existing flow sheet (retrofit design), or, create

a new flow sheet (grass-root design) to cater for certain objectives (El-Halwagi, et al., 2003).

Process synthesis, simulation, and optimization are three main elements of comprehensive

Process Integration. While the aim of process synthesis is to connect all individual elements

together, simulation consists of studying the performance of every element by decomposing

them into individuals. Therefore, through simulation, the characteristics (e.g. flow rate,

composition, pressure, etc.) of process can be determined after the process has been

synthesised. When the process configuration and characteristics has been defined, one should

evaluate if this is the best solution. It can be achieved by introducing the process objectives and

conducting optimization. Process synthesis and simulation are iteratively carried on until the
process objectives are met. Process integration is regarded by El-Halwagi (2006) as a holistic

and systematic way that consider the unity of the process for new or retrofit design.

Development of Water Pinch Analysis

One of the most practical tools to emerge in the field of process integration in the past 20

years has been pinch analysis, which may be used to improve the efficient use of energy,

hydrogen and water in industrial processes. Over the past 20 years, pinch analysis has evolved

and its techniques perfected. It provides tools that allow us to investigate the energy flows

within a process, and to identify the most economical ways of maximizing heat recovery and

of minimizing the demand for external utilities (e.g., steam and cooling water). The approach

may be used to identify energy-saving projects within a process or utility systems

The ideal time to apply pinch analysis is during the planning of process modifications that

will require major investments, and before the finalization of process design. Maximum

improvements in energy efficiency, along with reduced investments can be obtained in a new

plant design, since many plant-layout and -process constraints can be overcome by redesign.

However, in retrofit projects, energy efficiency improvements usually require some capital

expenditure. In this case, pinch analysis can be specifically aimed at maximizing the return on

investment. Pinch analysis techniques allow us to evaluate combinations of project ideas

simultaneously, in order to avoid “double-counting” savings, as well as conflicting projects.

Indeed, the final investment strategy for the available opportunities will ensure that site

development is consistent and synergistic.

Over the past 20 years, hundreds of pinch analyses have been successfully used to

reduce energy consumption site-wide, and in individual processes. More recently, pinch

analysis has also achieved spectacular results in the optimization of water and hydrogen

consumption.
The application of pinch analysis (in industrial sectors such as oil refining, chemicals, iron and

steel, pulp and paper, petrochemicals, and food & drink) can typically identify:

 Savings in energy consumption: 10% to 35 %2

 Savings in water consumption: 25% to 40 %

 Savings in hydrogen consumption: up to 20 %3

Pinch analysis (or pinch technology) is a rigorous, structured approach that may be used to

tackle a wide range of improvements related to process and site utility. This includes

opportunities such as reducing operating costs, debottlenecking processes, improving

efficiency, and reducing and planning capital investment. Major reasons for the success of

pinch analysis are the simplicity of the concepts behind the approach, and the impressive results

it has been obtained worldwide. It analyses a commodity, principally energy (energy pinch),

hydrogen (hydrogen pinch), or water (water pinch), in terms of its quality and quantity,

recognizing the fact that the cost of using that commodity will be a function of both. In the case

of water, we feed pure water to our process and reject contaminated wastewater to treatment

plants.

In the study by Meyer et al, (1993) entitled “Data Reconciliation on Multicomponent

Network Process” analogies between heat conservation and wastewater minimization have

been used to extend the pinch concept to wastewater minimization from which they developed

a superstructure of all possible re-use and regeneration opportunities in a petroleum refinery

station. The superstructure was optimized and the uneconomical features of the design were

removed. The regeneration of wastewater was also considered in their work.

Their work addressed single contaminant cases as well as the identification of regeneration

opportunities. Procedures were presented for the design of networks, which allow the minimum

target to be achieved. In their methodology, different minimum concentration differences can

be allowed throughout the network together with constraints. A composite curve similar to

temperature enthalpy curves introduced in thermal pinch analysis. This composite curve was

then matched to a composite curve through the origin. The minimum water supply touches

curve at a minimum of two points i.e. the origin and one other. The point other than the origin

is known as pinch point. Two methods were presented to achieve this minimum flow rate

design. The first is referred as to the maximum driving force method, which uses concentration

differences between various streams to target the minimum flow rate. The second method is

referred to as the minimum number of waste sources method and uses load intervals. In each

interval only enough water is used to maintain network feasibility, the remainder is bypassed

and is used later.

In a study by Wang and Smith (1994), it presented an approach to wastewater minimisation

in which different minimum concentration differences can be allowed throughout the network

together with constraints due to corrosion limit, fouling and etc.,in a petroleum refinery

situation. Consequently, they discussed a single and multiple operations with fixed flowrate

and processes with multiple sources of water of varying quality. Water loss in processes is also

taken into account. New design rules allow novel water flow schemes to be developed based

on local recycling and splitting of operations.

Dhole et al. (1996) introduced an approach slightly different to that of Wang and Smith.

This method, known as the Two Composite Method, was designed to overcome the problem

encountered in real life application of the Wang and Smith methodology. Beuhner and Rossiter

further expanded this methodology. They used purity on vertical axis and water flow on

horizontal axis. The input streams of all the water demand for the entire plant. The output

streams are plotted in the same way in order to construct the source composite for the entire

plant. The composite curves form a pinch point that represents a bottleneck in the re-use of

water. The design of the minimum water network is then achieved by the mixing of wastewater
of varying qualities in order to relieve the bottleneck in reuse opportunities that is created by

the pinch point.

Olesen and Polley (1997) reviewed the procedures introduced by Wang and Smith

concerning single contaminants. They introduced a new network designing procedure in which

they classify operations into distinct types, each of which has distinct design implications. This

method is based on the use of a load table, which tabulates the distribution of duties in the

region of the pinch and the minimum water needs for each operation. They considered the case

of simple reuse, water draws and the regenerated water re-use.

Modelling Water Using Network

Graphical analysis tools have been used to gain insight into the nature of the water using

networks. In most of these methods the elements of the overall system are addressed separately.

Wang and Smith (1994) used a graphical approach to design the water-using subsystem and

the treatment network for the wastewater streams is determined as a second step. Kuo and

Smith (1998) and Hallale and Fraser (2000) used graphical insights to address the design of the

overall system. Graphical methods are however generally limited for the use in systems with

multiple contaminants and flow rate constraints which make them difficult to solve. The

graphical approach targets the fresh water flow rate and therefore does not allow for

incorporation of additional variables such as piping discharge costs.

Alva-Argaez characterized the four basic elements of an individual water using system as

follows: i) freshwater sources, each with a maximum available flowrate, concentration of key

pollutants and cost per unit used, ii) water and wastewater treatment plants, each with a

maximum flow capacity, and efficiency for the removal of the key pollutants and possible water

losses, iii) water-using operations each with a flow demand and quality requirements and iv) a
wastewater discharge point where some environmental regulations must be met, in terms of

maximum concentration of key contaminants, or maximum contaminant loads.