WEED REMOVING

ABSTRACT
Weed control is the one of the most important problem that will reduce the farmer interest to
continue cultivation. The farmer acute labor shortage, decreasing income per acre of
cultivation, and economic frustration are some of the key factors hurting a farmer's
confidence in continuing farming.

Hence mechanical weeder is necessary to reduce the labor force. Environmental degradation
and pollution caused by chemical is reduced by the use of Mechanical weeder. Low effective
operation, low work effort and high time requirement for different types of hoe or cutlass, can
be overcome with the use of mechanical weeder.

The aim of the work is to construct and develop the weeder, to provide the best opportunity
for the crop (Groundnut and Tomato at initial level) to establish itself after planting and to
grow vigorously up to the time of harvesting. Invariably, weeds always grow where they are
not wanted. For this a special type of powered weed remover is designed and constructed.

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION
Every year in INDIA, an average of 1980 Cr of rupees is wasted due to weeds. Our country
faces the total loss of 33% of its economy from Weeds. The Losses are due to some of the
following reasons; total loss of 26% from Crop Diseases, total loss of 20% from Insects and
Worms, total loss of 6% from Rats has been surveyed by Sridhar.H.S Asst. Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sri Basaveshwara institute of technology, Tumkur
(D), India.

Manual weeding requires huge labour force and accounts for about 25 per cent of the total
labour requirement which is usually 900 to 1200 man M hours/hectares [9]. This operation is
mostly performed manually with cutlass or hoe that requires high labour input, very tedious
and it is a time-consuming process. Moreover, the labour requirement for weeding depends
on weed flora, weed intensity, time of weeding, and soil moisture at the time of weeding and
efficiency of worker. Often several weeding operation are necessary to keep the crop weed
free. Reduction in yield due to weed alone was estimated to be 16 to 42 % depending on crop
and location which involves one third of the cost of cultivation [8].Weeding and hoeing is
generally done 15 to 20 days after sowing. The weed should be controlled and eliminated at
their early stage. Depending upon the weed density, 20 to 30 percent loss in grain yield is
quite usual which might increase up to 80 per cent if adequate crop management practice is
not observed. Manual and mechanical techniques such as pulling, cutting, and otherwise
damaging plants, may be used to control some invasive plants, particularly if the population
is relatively small. These techniques can be extremely specific, minimizing damage to
desirable plants and animals, but they are generally labor and time intensive. Treatments must
typically be administered several times to prevent the weed from re-establishing, and in the
process, laborers and machines may severely trample vegetation and disturb soil, providing
prime conditions for reinvasion by the same or other invasive species. It is necessary to
design the weeder which minimize the human effort and provide efficient work output. The
tool we going to design is able to fulfill the present requirement for the weed control.
Accordingly, the present invention is directed to an improved manual tilling, mulching and
weeding tool.[1] Since weeds can be killed easily when they are at early stages of growth.
This practice can also reduce labor and cost substantially Small holder farmers need low cost
implements which can be purchased or made locally. Therefore the objective of this project
was to develop a small hand weeder to be used for getting rid of young weeds growing
between crop rows; and this implement must be relatively cheap and could be made locally.
Before the existence of chemical weed control, mechanical weed control was the best option
to solve issues related to manual weeding. In mechanized agriculture, there were times where
weeding tools were pulled by draft animals such as buffaloes and horses, which now in the
developed world have generally been replaced by tractors. There are various types of
mechanical weeding implements in the market that use three main techniques: burying
weeds, cutting weeds and uprooting weeds. The burial of weeds through the action of tillage
tools, and is usually done during land preparation.[2].The earliest and the simplest weed
control method is manual weed control. This method was and is accomplished by a person
bending down and using their hands to pull weeds out of the soil. This method then advanced
to hand tools, from using a stick to using a hand-hoe. The labor required for weeding is
expensive, time consuming [4] To achieve a high yielding vegetable production, good
agricultural practices are required. One of the most important practices is to properly manage
weeds. Weeds affect crop yield due to competition to acquire plant nutrients and resources
[4]. Weeds have very fast growth rates compared to crops, and if not treated and managed,
they may dominate the field. There are various methods for controlling weed infestation in
crop production. Some farmers adopt agronomic practices that improve crop competitiveness
such as Planting vigorous crop seeds at relatively shallow depths and plantingright after a
weed control operation. This method is used to prevent the weed seeds from germinating
before the crop is planted and to ensure that crop plants emerge before the weed plants. This
practice will not only ensure a maximized crop yield and reduce weed infestation, but also
minimize any economic losses [3]. The above practice should be applied for controlling
weeds if the canopy closes and does not allow much light onto the ground surface where
weeds will germinate and grow. However, weed control is still required during the crop
production cycle. Rice and groundnut are very sensitive to weed as Competition in the early
stage of growth and failure to control weeds in the first three weeks after seeding, reduce the
yield by 50 per cent [5].In traditional method of rice cultivation, weeds are mostly removed
from the field with manual process as they are seen more as a negative factor for crop growth.
But in SRI (System of Rice Intensification), weeds are seen as growth promoters when they
are appropriately managed. As the weeds are more in SRI due to intermittent wetting, it is
important to manage the weeds regularly. Based on a model developed by International Rice
Research Institute, the Acharya N G Ranga Agricultural University of Andhra Pradesh,
developed 'cono weeder'. Few innovative farmers did several experiments for different soil
situations and easy operation. Even multi-row weeders were developed by some farmers. At
this point of time WWF Dialogue Project and WASSAN have organized an innovators
workshop on SRI implements in July, 2005. After analyzing various issues the Workshop
made the following recommendations regarding weeders human drudgery, risk and misery.
The most common methods of weed control are mechanical, chemical, biological and
traditional methods. Out of these four methods, mechanical weeding either by hand tools or
mechanical weeders are most effective in both dry land and wet land [7]. Weeding and tilling
that reduce the time spent on weeding (man hours), cost of weeding and drudgery involved in
manual weeding. Weeds can cause several damages to the farming enterprise. These include:
decrease in crop yield, impairment of crop quality, harboring of plant pests and diseases,
increase in irrigation costs, injury to livestock and decrease in land Values [6] That 50 to 70
% of yield reduction is caused by poor weed control.

Weed Control Methods

The removal and eradication of weeds from the fields, gardens or land with minimum
damage to the desired plants is weed control. Various methods described below are used for
removal of weeds from desired plants.

1) Chemical Weeding: Chemical control involves the use of herbicides. Herbicides control
weed plants either by speeding up, stopping or changing the plant's normal growth patterns;
by drying out the leaves or stems; or by making it drop its leaves. Chemical Control with
herbicide application can provide the most effective and time-efficient method of managing
weeds. Numerous herbicides are available that provide effective weed control and are
selective in that grasses are not injured. Weed removal is one of the major activities in
agriculture. Chemical method of weed control is more prominent than manual and
mechanical methods. However, its adverse effects on the environment are making farmers to
consider and accept mechanical methods of weed control. Chemical weeding is the most
extensively used method of weed removal. But these chemicals used for weeding are harmful
to living organisms and toxic in nature.

2) Mechanical Weeding: Mechanical control is the use of powered tools and machinery to
manage weeds. It is suitable for larger infestations because it reduces the weed bulk with less
manual effort. Mechanical control consists of methods that kill or suppress weeds through
physical disruption. Such methods include pulling, digging, disking, ploughing and mowing.

3) Biological Weeding: Biological control involves the use of insects or pathogens that affect
the health of the weed. It includes the use of living organisms for suppressing or controlling
the weeds. Plant, animal or micro organisms may be used for destruction of weeds. The goal
of biological control is not eradication, but the use of living agents to suppress vigour and
spread of weeds. Such agents can be insects, bacteria, fungi, or grazing animals such as
sheep, goats, cattle or horses. Grazing produces results similar to mowing, and bacteria and
fungi are seldom available for noxious weed management. Biological control is most
commonly thought of as 'insect bio control.

4) Manual Weeding: Manual control is the use of the hands or handheld tools to deal with
weeds. Extensive amount of cheap manual labour is necessary for manual weeding. Manual
weeding is commonly employed by smaller Indian framers for weed removal.
 Chapter 2

LITERATURE REVIEW
WEED

Research related to the topic carried out by the researchers worldwide was reviewed. The
important and related information has been categorized under the following headings:

1. Weeds.

2. Losses due to weeds.

3. Manual method of weeding.

4. Manual weeders.

5. Ergonomic aspects.

2.1 Weeds

Holm et al. (1977) reported that among 250,000 plant species, less than 250 have become
useful weed of world. It was estimated that some 1800 weed species caused serious economic
losses in crop production including forestry and horticuture. About 300 of them were
responsible for economical losses in cultivated crop throughout the world.
Biswas (1984) reviewed the common weeds in Bhopal region and categorized these weeds
according to habitat, life cycle and family etc. Accordingly habitat, weeds were classified as
upland weed and aquatic weeds.

Bhan et al. (1999) stated that, of the total estimated losses caused in production by pests
(insects, affects diseases and weeds) in world, weeds alone are responsible for one third of it.
Presence of weeds in general reduces crop yields by 31.5% (22.7% in winter season and
36.5% in summer and kharif season). But as the farmers adopt some kind of weeding
practices on their fields, a conservative estimate of of 10% loss in crops yields may be taken
as more realistic.

Bogdan et al. (2006) conducted an experiment under soil-climatic conditions of Cluj-Napoca,

Romania, during 2003-2005 establishing an optimal network for weed control in maize crops.
High weed encroachment of maize crops in Cluj area has increased, due to weed seed stock
in the arable layer and weather conditions, which allowed weeds to grow alternatively, and to
the development of problem

species during the maize vegetation period, when no tillage was performed. A good
efficiency in controlling the entire weed spectrum from maize crops and with high
persistence was the combination of an acetochlore-based herbicide. The variant RELAY
90EC 2.2 l/ha, applied at the stage of preemergence, florosulam based-herbicide and acid
2.4D: MUSTANG 0.6 l/ha, applied at the stage of post-emergence, had a control degree of
72%, for the entire vegetative period. The average control degree was achieved by variants
controlled before emergence with DUAL GOLD 960 EC 1.5l/ha. In vegetation, the complex
herbicides OLTISAN M. 1l/ha o0r RING 80 WG 25 g/ha were used, the average control
degree being of 73%, respectively, 75%.

Naidu (2012) stated that weed identification may form the first step in balancing the needs for
weed control with the requirement for biodiversity and more suitable production methods.
Being able to identify weeds is important as it helps in determining the expected level of the
problems as weeds vary in the extent to which they can reduce the yield and quality or to the
extent to which they are beneficial. The Directorate of Weed Research (DWR), Jabalpur, has
developed a Weed Atlas for major weeds in major crops in 435 districts spread across 19
states of the country and published a handbook on weed identification.

Rao and Chauhan (2015) reviewed that the highly diverse agriculture and fanning systems are
beset with different types of weed problems in India. Weeds cause 10-80% crop yield losses
besides impairing product quality and causing health and environmental hazards. Invasive
alien weeds are a major constraint to agriculture, forestry and aquatic environment.
Traditionally, weed control in India has been largely dependent on manual weeding.
However, increased labour scarcity and costs are encouraging farmers to adopt labour and
cost saving options. These include herbicides whose market grew at an annual rate of 15%.
Integrated weed management (IWM) is being practiced by Indian farmers, with the level of
adoption varying from one farm to the other. IWM, which includes preventative, mechanical,
cultural, chemical and biological methods, is advocated in crop production systems as well as
aquatic and forest ecosystems. Understanding weed-ecology and biology and using
information technology, should be part of developing and disseminating effective,
economical and ecologically advantageous IWM strategies in India.
2.2 Losses due to weed

Parker and Fryer (1975) estimated total 287 million tons of food losses due to weed
accounting 11.5% of total food production at world level. He reported that general weed
caused 5% losses in agricultural production in most of developing countries, 10% loss in less
developed countries and 25% in under developed countries.

Singh et al. (1994) reported that weed caused a loss of 31.5% in total crop production of
which maximum was in kharif season. A very broad based, average critical period for the
crops was first 20 to 30 days after sowing. Removal of weeds resulted in higher economic
return during this weed-crop competition period. It has been estimated that about 1 ton of dry
matter produced by weed per hectare causes loss of 20 to 30 kg of nitrogen and 8 to 10 mm of
water.

Malavia et al. (1998) stated that in Gujarat the yield loss was more due to weed. Apart from
this, weed reduces the huge amount of plant nutrients and soil quality.

Milberg and Hallgren (2004) undergo field trials testing herbicides to explore large Scale
patterns in yield loss in cereals due to weeds in Sweden. They evaluated the relative
importance of difference between regions, crops, soils, and years. In a negative hyperbolic
function, weed biomass explained 31% of the variation in yield loss due to weeds. Crops
which ranked from the most to the least affected by weeds, were spring- barley, spring-
wheat, oats, winter- winter and rye. When adjusted to different weed abundance, clay soil
suffered the smallest and organogenic soil suffered the largest yield losses due to spatial
heterogeneity of weeds, pest and soil within trials.

Anonymous (2017) states that the various losses caused by weeds are further categories into:
A. Reduction in crop yield

Weeds compete with crop plants for nutrients, soil moisture, space and sunlight. In general an
increase in one kilogram weed growth corresponds to reduction in one kilogram of crop
growth.

Table 2.1: Yield losses due to weeds in some important crops

Crop Yield loss range (%) Crop Yield loss range (%)

Rice 9.1 – 51.4 Sugarcane 14.1 – 71.7

Wheat 6.3 – 34.8 Linseed 30.9 – 39.1

Maize 29.5 – 74.0 Cotton 20.7 – 61.0

Millets 6.2 – 81.9 Carrot 70.2 – 78.0

Groundnut 29.7 – 32.9 Peas 25.3 – 35.5

B. Loss in crop quality

If a crop contains weed seeds it is to be rejected, especially when the crop is grown for seed.
C. Weeds as reservoirs of pests and diseases

Weeds form a part of community of organisms in a given area. Consequently, they are food
sources for some animals, and are themselves susceptible to many pests and diseases.

D. Interference in crop handling

Some weeds can make the operation of agricultural machinery more difficult, more costly
and even impossible.

E. Reduction in land value

Heavy infestation by perennial weeds could make the land unsuitable are less suitable for
cultivation resulting in loss in its monetary value. Thousands of hectare of cultivable area in
rice growing regions of India have been abandoned or not being regularly cultivated due to
severe infestation of nutgrass (Cyperus rotundus) and other perennial grasses.

F. Limitation of crop choice

When certain weeds are heavily infested, it will limit the growth of a particular crop.

G. Loss of human efficiency

Weeds reduce human efficiency through physical discomfort caused by allergies and
poisoning.
2.3 Manual method of weeding

Singh and Kaul (1972) reported that, in India about 70 percent of land holdings are of 0.2 ha.
This category of farmers uses indigenous hand tools and animal drawn implements.

Marshall (1992) observed that whatever the level of sophistication of the farming system,
there would be times when hand-roguing of the odd plant or patch of a particular weed was
the most effective way of preventing that weed from proliferating or spreading and becoming
a serious problem.

Barber (2005) reported that in the UK, the uprooting of perennial weeds in grassland was still
carried out with hand tools. A traditional tool called the spudder was useful for removing
weeds with strong root systems. The prongs of the instrument were pushed down under the
plant which was levered up by pressing down on the handle. New and improved tools based
on the same principle are now available. The thistle hoe is a traditional tool for cutting
thistles at ground level. It consists of a blade with a V-shaped cutting notch mounted on a
long handle. Hand hoes come in a range of traditional and improved designs.

Weide et al. (2008) reported that one of the first commercially available intelligent weeders,
the Sarl Radis from France, has a simple crop detection system based on light interception,
which guides a hoe in and out of the crop row, around the crop plants. The inclusion of
innovative technologies, including advanced sensing and robotics, in combination with new
cropping systems, might lead to a breakthrough in physical weed control in row crops leading
to significant reductions, or even elimination, of the need for hand weeding.
Jadhav et al. (2010) conducted a fields experiment to study the integrated weed management
in upland rice. Among the various weed management practices, two hand weeding at 20 and
40 DAS and one application of chemical spray + one hand weeding at 40 DAS was done.
This treatment significantly increase the growth of rice, weed efficiency and lower weed
index agter the weed free treatment. Similar trend was also noticed in economical case of the
different integrated weed management practices.

Shekhar et al. (2010) conducted an experiment to evaluate the field performance of power
weeder for interculturing operation in maize crop (Zea mays L.) to compare the cost of
operation of power weeder in maize vis-a-vis grubber, wheel hoe and 'Khurpi' as control
treatment. Power weeder having the higher field capacity (0.067 ha/hr) was found most
efficient tool for weeding, particularly in view of time taken in operation followed by the
wheel hoe (0.009 ha/h), grubber (0.008 ha/h) and 'Khurpi' (0.002 ha/h). The highest field
efficiency was attained in case of

'Khurpi' (94.73%) followed by wheel hoe (90.54%), grubber (84.40%) and power weeder
(76.39%). The highest weeding efficiency (99.44%) was recorded in treatment 'Khurpi'
followed by grubber (96.8%), wheel hoe (94.64%) and power weeder (89.8%). The plant
injury was highest under power weeder (1.94%) followed by wheel hoe (1.01%), grubber
(0.76%) and 'Khurpi' (0.46%). The cost of operation of 'Khurpi' was maximum (Rs. 4051/ha)
followed by power weeder (Rs. 1350/ha), grubber (b. 1158/ha) and wheel hoe (Rs. 1152/ha).
In spite of the marginal higher cost of operation of power weeder over other tools, power
weeder ensures timeliness weeding in operation than other weeding tools.

Gavali. M and Kulkarni. S (2014) discussed about the comparative study for portable
weeders and power tillers in the Indian market. Various methods used for weeds removal and
various equipments used in mechanical weed removal were discussed. The study revealed
that most of the Indian farmers, majority of which are small scale farmers can afford only
portable weeders. These small scale farmers as such don’t use mechanical weed control
methods. Chemical and manual weeding is predominantly used by these small scale farmers.
The literature survey indicated that portable weeders are relatively less expensive in operation
and maintenance but are also less versatile. Power tillers are considerably more expensive but
are also very much more versatile and can operate in variable soil conditions. Due to these
constraints most smaller farmers resort to chemical and manual weeding. These methods are
labor intensive and as such a major constraint in crop production. Research has been carried
out in many countries to involve technologies such as image analysis, GPS navigation, etc. in
mechanical weeding machines. But most these efforts are yet to leave a lasting effect in
market place. Hence it is necessary to develop more efficient and cost effective methods of
mechanical weeding so as to lessen the use of chemical and manual weed removal methods.

Kumar et al. (2014) conducted an experiment to evaluate the field performance of different
weeder namely khurpi, push type cycle weeder and power weeder were carried out in
department of agricultural engineering, UAS, Bangalore. Various parameters such as
weeding index, weeding efficiency and field capacity of the weeder were considered during
the test. The highest field efficiency was obtained for khurpi (91.5 per cent) followed by
cycle weeder (85.4) and power weeder (71.25 per cent). The field capacity of 0.065, 0.025
and 0.035 ha/hr respectively observed for

power weeder, khurpi and push type cycle weeder. The maximum value of cost of operation
was found for khurpi (1750/ha) while minimum was recorded for push type cycle weeder.

Mandal et al. (2014) conducted field experiment at Agronomy research field, Sher-e-Bangla
Agricultural University, Bangladesh during November, 2012 to March, 2013 to find out the
impact of different weed control methods on growth and yield of wheat. The experiment was
carried out with four weed control methods viz W0= control (no weeding), w1= two hand
hoe weeding at 20 DAS and 40 DAS, W2= topstar 80 WP (Oxadiargyl 800g/Kg) @75g/ha as
post- emergence and W3= Sunrise 150WG (Ethoxysulfuron 150g /kg) @100 g/ha as early
post- emergence herbicide using Completely Randomized Block design with three
replications.

Muhammad et al. (2014) conducted a study in two consecutive years (2011 to 2013) to
evaluate the effect of different weed control methods on weed intensity, seed cotton yield and
its components. Treatments comprised preemergence sequence with Dual Gold 960EC (s-
metolachlor @ 2.0 lit ha-1), Panida Grande (Pendimethaline 43.5EC @ 2.0 lit/ ha) and post
emergence Glyphosate 490G/L @ 4.7 lit/ha, Dual Gold 960EC + Glyphosate 490G/L, Panida
Grande + Glyphosate 490G/L, Mechanical interculturing, Manual weeding (thrice),
Mechanical inter-culturing + Manual weeding and Untreated check. Treatments were
arranged in randomized complete block design with four replications.

Cotton cultivar CIM-499 was dibbled manually at experimental area of CCRI, Multan on silt
loam soils. Results indicated that all chemical and mechanical weeding methods increased
seed cotton yield and its components over untreated whether applied alone or in combination.

2.4 Manual weeder

Biswas (1980 and 1884) surveyed the available weeders in India and classified them as
manual weeder, small tools with aid, chopping hoe, push-pull type weeder and hand hoes.

Odigboh and Ahmed (1980) developed a ridge profile weeder. The weeder consists of two
bicycle wheels welded together to a common hub, with the bicycles spokes replaced with
6mm diameter mild steel rods, rear and front sprockets, roller chains, shaft, two gangs of
rotary hoe weeder and handle.
Raut et al. (2012) reviewed that in Indian agriculture, it’s a very difficult task to weed out
unwanted plants manually as well as using bullock operated equipments which may further
lead to damage of main crops. More than 33 percent of the cost incurred in cultivation is
diverted to weeding operations there by reducing the profit share of farmers. It analyzes
weeding-cum-earthing equipment aspects for economical cultivation which will help to
minimize the working fatigue and to reduce labour cost.

Bhavin et al. (2016) conducted an experiment to evaluate the field performance of developed
manual operated weeder was carried out at Department of Farm Machinery and Power of
College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, Junagadh. Various parameters such as
field capacity, weeding efficiency, draft requirement and performance index of the weeder
were considered during the test. The developed weeder can work up to 4.0 cm depth of
operation with field capacity of 0.0285 ha/h. highest weeding efficiency was obtained (i.e. up
to 80.42%). draft requirement was 34.4 kg for 20 cm width of the weeder and the
performance index of the developed weeder was obtained 1210.53 .

Mane et al. (2016) states that doing fieldwork requires maximum human power but workers
availability for field work reduces in present years in India. So they developed agricultural
equipment which is useful for farmers, known as cycle weeder which consists of rotor
adjustment. This weeder cycle is design by using inverter software. These weeder cycles will
remove grass between two rows. It will remove multiple grasses in less time, so work will
more complicated in less time. Therefore fewer workers are required for remove grass.

2.5 Ergonomic aspects

Rangaswamy et al. (1993) and Kamal and Babatunde (1999) reported that when a manually
operated weeder, having a field capacity greater than the traditional hoe, was tested on a
small plot of land with crops planted in rows, the machine had a low output of about 0.02ha/h
because of a lot of rigour involved in its use. Farmers also experience a lot of rigour when
using short handle hoes such as backaches or strains and spine problems at old age.
Improving effectiveness in agricultural mechanization and less drudgeries associated with the
use of short handle hoe, has initiated the design of wheeled long-handle hoe.

Gite and Yadav (1990) performed an experiment of simulating weeder operation with eight
healthy adult men in the laboratory. They suggested that for minimum physiological cost and
muscular fatigue, the handle height of weeder should be within 0.7 to 0.8 times of shoulder
height. Considering this range and available anthropometric data, handle height of 100 cm
was recommended for Indian worker.

Singh (2004) found that 30° is the comfortable angle at which subject has to apply least force.
The effect of subject height on the handle height in relation to the minimum force is
presented in table.

Table 2.2 Subject height vs. handle height from ground at point of minimum force
 Sr. Subject Subject height Handle angle with Minimum force Handle height

No. (m) horizontal applied (N) at minimum

force (m)

1 S1 1.76 30˚ 122.23 1.04

2 S2 1.74 35˚ 126.54 1.02

3 S3 1.66 40˚ 143.23 0.94

Yadav and Pund (2007) developed a wheeled hoe based on ergonomic factors. The
performance of the developed weeder was evaluated in the field of groundnut crop. The field
capacity of the weeder was found to be 0.048 ha/hr. It was observed that the cutting width
was proportional to the field capacity. Further evaluation revealed that, the weeding
efficiency was 92.5%. The performance index was found to be 2611.7. It was observed that
the developed weeder was not only suitable for groundnut crop but could also be used for
other crops by adjusting the row spacing.

Goel et al. (2008) developed a manually operated weeder for dry land crops and evaluated to
find its performance. It was compared with other available weeders namely wheel finger
weeder, wheel hoe and conventional weeding by using trench hoe for groundnut crop at four
levels of soil moisture content of 13.52, 11.63, 9.52 and 8.04 per cent (db). It was found that
the heart rate, oxygen consumption rate and energy consumption rate increases with decrease
in soil moisture content for all the treatments. The highest performance index of 3689.74 was
obtained with developed weeder at 11.63 per cent moisture content. Lowest plant damage
(2.46 to 7.96%) and lower energy consumption rate (8.34 to 40.05 kJ/ min) with highest
performance index (678.66 to 3689.74) of developed weeder at different soil moisture content
proved its superiority over other weeders. Soil moisture of 11.63 per cent was found to be
optimum for weeding in groundnut crop and the cost of operation of developed weeder at this
soil moisture content was found to be Rupees 244.00 as against Rupees 2450.00 per hectare
in conventional method of weeding by using trench hoe.

Agrawal et al. (2010) carried out a study to collect data regarding isometric push/ pull
strength on male as well as female agricultural workers in the state of Madhya Pradesh. A
strength measurement set-up developed at CIAE, Bhopal was used for the purpose. Data were
collected on 1701 subjects from 20 selected districts representing various agro-climatic zones
of Madhya Pradesh state of which 944 were male and 757 were female workers. The mean
age, stature and mass of the male subjects were 29.8± 9.5 years, 1649 ± 59 mm and 51.2± 6.4
kg whereas for female subjects the values were 33.7 ± 8.2 years, 1519± 54 mm and 45.0 ±
7.3 kg, respectively. The isometric push/pull strength of male subjects was higher than those
of female subjects. The mean values for isometric push and pull strength in standing posture
with both hands (in horizontal plane) were 242.4 ± 56.4 N and 231.0 ± 42.5 N, respectively
for male workers and 175.5 ± 33.9 N and 159.4 ± 42.9 N, respectively for female workers.
Mass of the subjects indicated a positive correlation with isometric push/pull strength. The
5th percentile push and pull strength values were 149.7 N and 161.2 N, respectively for male
workers and 119.7 N and 88.8 N, respectively for female workers. These values can be used
to set limits in the design of manually operated farm tools and equipment as well as for
manual materials handling activities involving push/pull forces depending on the frequency
of movement. Considering the ergonomically requirement of 30% of the 5th percentile
strength for frequent exertions, the design limits of push and pull strengths for male workers
will be 45 and 48 N and for female workers these values will be 36 and 27 N, respectively.
For the occasional exertions the limit of push and pull strength can be 60% of the strength i.e.
for male workers 90 and 96 N and for female workers 72 and 54 N, respectively.

Verma et al. (2013) studied the ergonomics of women operators involved in weeding by
evaluating the performance of improved weeder that is single wheel hoe in reducing drudgery
among women engaged in weeding activity. The results showed that the total cardiac cost of
work was 285.0 beats, the physiological cost of work was 6.33 beats/min, the average
working heart rate during weeding was 112.5 beats/min and the average energy expenditure
was 9.16 KJ/min during the weeding activity performed by improved tool to the single wheel
hoe. Weeding activity was performed for maximum number of days in a year from morning
till evening in squatting position majority of women perceived it as moderately heavy
activity.

Nkakini and Husseni (2014) developed a push-type manually operated wheel weeder with an
adjustable long handle. The hoe performance from the tests on a field of Okra having an
inter-row spacing of 800mm, showed that it could remove weed satisfactorily, and eliminate
the drudgeries associated with the use of the short handle such as backache, pains at the spine
and lower waist region.

Sharma et al. (2015), under Krishi Vigyan Kendra Ratlam, conducted front line
demonstration on “Improved twin wheel hoe” in soybean weeding. The basic objective of
these demonstrations was to reduce drudgery with muscular stress and fatigue. The work
efficiency other farm women was distinctly increased by skilled use of “improved wheel hoe”
developed by CIAE, Bhopal as is evident from the results of the demonstration. Thirty farm
women were selected randomly for the study. The demonstration component included use of
improved weeding implement (Twin Wheel

Hoe), skill training and exposing advantages. The focus was to change the attitude, skill and
knowledge towards recommended practices in the work. The women traditionally carried out
weeding operation by using tools e.g. hand hoes or “khurpi” in squatting and bending
position which decreases the work efficiency. In the recommended weeding practices, it was
shown that the same amount of work could be done in almost half of the time and work
efficiency was increased by 86.3%, Farm women adopted the improved technique as it had
increased the efficiency to work, reduced the drudgery and helped in avoiding bending or
squatting posture. It lessened the exertion and fatigue to make the farm women comfortable.

Mohanty. G and Mohanty S.K (2015) ergonomically evaluated physical strain of four
different types of manual weeders like Khurpi, Trench hoe, Wheel hoe and Wheel finger
weeder with respect to their physiological parameter. The physical strain of different male
and female agricultural workers was noticed during weeding operation. The performance in
respect of the physiological as well as mechanical parameters were like Working heart rate
(WHR), Oxygen consumption rate (OCR), Energy expenditure rate (EER), Relative cost of
work load (RCWL) were measured with twelve (12) subjects in the age group of 18–45 years.
The mechanical parameters like actual field capacity (FC), highest performance index (PI)
were also measured. The physiological and anthropometric parameters of selected subjects
were also measured in the laboratory. Four weeders like Khurpi, Trench, Wheel hoe and
Wheel finger weeders were evaluated with male and female workers. The mean value of
working heart rate was observed to be minimum 85.6 beats/min in case of Khurpi and
maximum 130.8 beats / min in case of Wheel hoe. Wheel hoe and Wheel finger weeder
recorded maximum physiological parameters during weeding operations as these tools are
operated in standing posture in push-pull mode. The actual field capacity was recorded
maximum 0.0311 ha/h in case of Wheel finger weeder followed by 0.0149 ha/ h in Wheel hoe
and lowest 0.0038 ha/ h(38 square meter) in case of Khurpi. The body parts feeling maximum
discomfort during Wheel hoe and Wheel finger weeder was observed to be maximum in
shoulder, arm elbow, mid-back and lower-back.

Mohanty (2016) conducted ergonomic study for different operations in rice farming system
using various farm implements and machines with female workers. Ergonomical parameters
like working heart rate, oxygen consumption rate, energy
expenditure rate and relative cost of work load (% of VO2max) of female agricultural
workers performing different operations in rice cultivation system were studied. He
concluded that maximum oxygen consumption during farm operations was noticed in pre
germinated paddy seeders (six – row) followed by 4 row paddy transplanter, grain threshing
by beating on stone surface, water lifting by Tenda, Bund trimming with spade etc. Relative
cost of work load was observed to be higher in weeding, transplanting, sowing seeds with
seeders and threshing operations for workers. Sufficient rest pauses should be provided to the
female agricultural workers to minimize drudgery and fatigue.

Chapter 3

PARTS USED
1. M.S frame
2. Wheels
3. Battery 12v 2ah
4. Motor

FRAME

A frame is often a structural system that supports other components of a physical

construction and/or steel frame that limits the construction's extent.
Film and television:

 E-frame, in the animated science fiction series Exosquad

 Frame (film), one of the many single photographic images in a motion picture
 "Frame" (Law & Order: Criminal Intent), a 2008 episode of the TV
series Law & Order: Criminal Intent
 Reframing (filmmaking), in film and programming
 The Frame (TV channel), a Canadian photographic art cable channel owned
by Shaw Communications
 The Frame (film), a 2014 American science fiction film
Other uses in arts:

 Frame as a synonym for the human body, especially in poetic contexts

 Frame story, a narrative technique, for telling stories within a story
 The Frame, a podcast that broadcasts on WNYC

Physical objects

In building construction

 Framing (construction), a building term known as light frame construction

 Framer, a carpenter who assembles major structural elements in constructing
a building
 A-frame, a basic structure designed to bear a load in a lightweight economical
manner
 A-frame house, a house following the same principle
 Door frame or window frame, fixed structures fto which the hinges of doors
or windows are attached
 Frame and panel, a method of woodworking
 Space frame, a method of construction using lightweight materials
 Timber framing, a method of building for creating framed structures of heavy
timber
In vehicles

 Frame (aircraft), structural rings in an aircraft fuselage

 Frame (nautical), the skeleton of a ship
 Bicycle frame, the main component of a bicycle, onto which other
components are fitted
 Motorcycle frame, main component of a motorcycle, onto which other
components are fitted
 Locomotive frame, a structure that forms the backbone of a railway
locomotive
 Vehicle frame, to which everything on an automobile is mounted
Other physical objects

 Frame (loudspeaker) or basket, a structural component which supports the

functional components of a loudspeaker
 Bed frame, the part of a bed used to position the mattress and base
 Climbing frame or jungle gym, a piece of equipment for children's play
 Eyeglass frame
 Lever frame, a railway signalling device containing interlocks for signals,
points (railroad switches) etc.
 Picture frame, a solid border around a picture or painting
 Receiver (firearms) or frame, one of the basic parts of a modern firearm
 Spinning frame, an invention of the Industrial Revolution for spinning thread
or yarn from fibre such as wool or cotton
 Water frame, a water-powered spinning frame which was an easy way to
create cotton

WHEELS
n its primitive form, a wheel is a circular block of a hard and durable material
at whose center has been bored a circular hole through which is placed
an axle bearing about which the wheel rotates when a moment is applied by
gravity or torque to the wheel about its axis, thereby making together one of
the six simple machines. When placed vertically under a load-bearing
platform or case, the wheel turning on the horizontal axle makes it possible
to transport heavy loads; when placed horizontally, the wheel turning on its
vertical axle makes it possible to control the spinning motion used to shape
materials (e.g. a potter's wheel); when mounted on a column connected to a
rudder or a chassis mounted on other wheels, one can control the direction of
a vessel or vehicle (e.g. a ship's wheel or steering wheel); when connected to
a crank, the wheel produces or transmits energy (e.g. the flywheel).

The invention of the wheel falls into the late Neolithic, and may be seen in
conjunction with other technological advances that gave rise to the
early Bronze Age. This implies the passage of several wheel-less millennia
even after the invention of agriculture and of pottery, during the Aceramic
Neolithic.

 4500–3300 BCE: Copper Age, invention of the potter's wheel; earliest

wooden wheels (disks with a hole for the axle); earliest wheeled
vehicles, domestication of the horse
 3300–2200 BCE: Early Bronze Age
 2200–1550 BCE: Middle Bronze Age, invention of the spoked wheel and
the chariot
 A depiction of an onager-drawn cart on the Sumerian "battle standard of Ur"
(c. 2500 BCE)

The Halaf culture of 6500–5100 BCE is sometimes credited with the earliest
depiction of a wheeled vehicle, but this is doubtful as there is no evidence of
Halafians using either wheeled vehicles or even pottery wheels.[3]

Precursors of wheels, known as "tournettes" or "slow wheels", were known

in the Middle East by the 5th millennium BCE (one of the earliest examples
was discovered at Tepe Pardis, Iran, and dated to 5200–4700 BCE). These
were made of stone or clay and secured to the ground with a peg in the center,
but required significant effort to turn. True (freely-spinning) potter's wheels
were apparently in use in Mesopotamia by 3500 BCE and possibly as early
as 4000 BCE,[4] and the oldest surviving example, which was found
in Ur (modern day Iraq), dates to approximately 3100 BCE.[5]

BATTERY

Battery (electricity), an array of electrochemical cells for electricity storage, either

individually linked or individually linked and housed in a single unit. An electrical battery is
a combination of one or more electrochemical cells, used to convert stored chemical energy
into electrical energy. Batteries may be used once and discarded, or recharged for years as in
standby power applications. Miniature cells are used to power devices such as hearing aids
and wristwatches; larger batteries provide standby power for telephone exchanges or
computer data centers.

Categories and types of batteries

Batteries are classified into two broad categories, each type with advantages and
disadvantages.
Primary batteries irreversibly (within limits of practicality) transform chemical energy to
electrical energy. When the initial supply of reactants is exhausted, energy cannot be readily
restored to the battery by electrical means.

Secondary batteries can be recharged; that is, they can have their chemical reactions reversed
by supplying electrical energy to the cell, restoring their original composition.

Historically, some types of primary batteries used, for example, for telegraph circuits, were
restored to operation by replacing the components of the battery consumed by the chemical
reaction. Secondary batteries are not indefinitely rechargeable due to dissipation of the active
materials, loss of electrolyte and internal corrosion.

Primary batteries:

Primary batteries can produce current immediately on assembly. Disposable batteries are
intended to be used once and discarded. These are most commonly used in portable devices
that have low current drain, are only used intermittently, or are used well away from an
alternative power source, such as in alarm and communication circuits where other electric
power is only intermittently available. Disposable primary cells cannot be reliably recharged,
since the chemical reactions are not easily reversible and active materials may not return to
their original forms. Battery manufacturers recommend against attempting to recharge
primary cells.
Common types of disposable batteries include zinc-carbon batteries and alkaline batteries.
Generally, these have higher energy densities than rechargeable batteries, but disposable
batteries do not fare well under high-drain applications with loads under 75 ohms (75 Ω).

Secondary batteries:

Secondary batteries must be charged before use; they are usually assembled with active
materials in the discharged state. Rechargeable batteries or secondary cells can be recharged
by applying electrical current, which reverses the chemical reactions that occur during its use.
Devices to supply the appropriate current are called chargers or rechargers.

The oldest form of rechargeable battery is the lead-acid battery. This battery is notable in
that it contains a liquid in an unsealed container, requiring that the battery be kept upright and
the area be well ventilated to ensure safe dispersal of the hydrogen gas produced by these
batteries during overcharging. The lead-acid battery is also very heavy for the amount of
electrical energy it can supply. Despite this, its low manufacturing cost and its high surge
current levels make its use common where a large capacity (over approximately 10Ah) is
required or where the weight and ease of handling are not concerns.

A common form of the lead-acid battery is the modern car battery, which can generally
deliver a peak current of 450 amperes. An improved type of liquid electrolyte battery is the
sealed valve regulated lead acid (VRLA) battery, popular in the automotive industry as a
replacement for the lead-acid wet cell. The VRLA battery uses an immobilized sulfuric acid
electrolyte, reducing the chance of leakage and extending shelf life. VRLA batteries have the
electrolyte immobilized, usually by one of two means.

Gel batteries (or "gel cell") contain a semi-solid electrolyte to prevent spillage.

Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) batteries absorb the electrolyte in special fiberglass matting.

Other portable rechargeable batteries include several "dry cell" types, which are sealed units
and are therefore useful in appliances such as mobile phones and laptop computers. Cells of

this type (in order of increasing power density and cost) include nickel-cadmium (NiCd),
nickel-zinc (NiZn), nickel metal hydride (NiMH) and lithium-ion (Li-ion) cells. By far, Li-
ion has the highest share of the dry cell rechargeable market. Meanwhile, NiMH has replaced
NiCd in most applications due to its higher capacity, but NiCd remains in use in power tools,
two-way radios, and medical equipment. NiZn is a new technology that is not yet well
established commercially.

Recent developments include batteries with embedded functionality such as USBCELL, with
a built-in charger and USB connector within the AA format, enabling the battery to be
charged by plugging into a USB port without a charger, and low self-discharge (LSD) mix
chemistries such as Hybrio, ReCyko, and Eneloop, where cells are recharged prior to
shipping.

How Batteries Work?

A battery is a device that converts chemical energy directly to electrical energy. It consists of
a number of voltaic cells; each voltaic cell consists of two half cells connected in series by a
conductive electrolyte containing anions and cations. One half-cell includes electrolyte and
the electrode to which anions (negatively-charged ions) migrate, i.e. the anode or negative
electrode; the other half-cell includes electrolyte and the electrode to which cations
(positively-charged ions) migrate, i.e. the cathode or positive electrode. In the Redox reaction
that powers the battery, reduction (addition of electrons) occurs to cations at the cathode,
while oxidation (removal of electrons) occurs to anions at the anode. The electrodes do not
touch each other but are electrically connected by the electrolyte. Many cells use two half-
cells with different electrolytes. In that case each half-cell is enclosed in a container, and a
separator that is porous to ions but not the bulk of the electrolytes prevents mixing.

Each half cell has an electromotive force (or emf), determined by its ability to drive electric
current from the interior to the exterior of the cell. The net emf of the cell is the difference
between the emfs of its half-cells, as first recognized by Volta. Therefore, if the electrodes
have emfs E1 and E2, then the net emf is E2 - E1 ; in other words, the net emf is the
difference between the reduction potentials of the half-reactions.

The electrical driving force or across the terminals of a cell is known as the terminal
voltage (difference) and is measured in volts. The terminal voltage of a cell that isneither
charging nor discharging is called the open-circuit voltage and equals the emf of the cell.
Because of internal resistance, the terminal voltage of a cell that is discharging is smaller in
magnitude than the open-circuit voltage and the terminal voltage of a cell that is charging
exceeds the open-circuit voltage. An ideal cell has negligible internal resistance, so it would
maintain a constant terminal voltage of until exhausted, then dropping to zero. If such a
cell maintained 1.5 volts and stored a charge of one Coulomb then on complete discharge it
would perform 1.5 Joule of work. In actual cells, the internal resistance increases under
discharge, and the open circuit voltage also decreases under discharge. If the voltage and
resistance are plotted against time, the resulting graphs typically are a curve; the shape of the
curve varies according to the chemistry and internal arrangement employed.

12v Lead Acid Battery

As stated above, the voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy release
of the chemical reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and carbon-zinc cells have
different chemistries but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts; likewise NiCd and NiMH
cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.2 volts. On the otherAs
stated above, the voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy release of
the chemical reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and carbon-zinc cells have
different chemistries but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts; likewise NiCd and NiMH
cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.2 volts. On the other
hand the high electrochemical potential changes in the reactions of lithium compounds give
lithium cells emfs of 3 volts or more.

Battery Lifetime

Even if never taken out of the original package, disposable (or "primary") batteries can lose 8
to 20 percent of their original charge every year at a temperature of about 20°–30°C. This is
known as the "self discharge" rate and is due to non-current-producing "side" chemical
reactions, which occur within the cell even if no load is applied to it. The rate of the side
reactions is reduced if the batteries are stored at low temperature, although some batteries can
be damaged by freezing. High or low temperatures may reduce battery performance. This
will affect the initial voltage of the battery. For an AA alkaline battery this initial voltage is
approximately normally distributed around 1.6 volts. Discharging performance of all batteries
drops at low temperature.

MOTOR

The motor or an electrical motor is a device that has brought about one of the biggest
advancements in the fields of engineering and technology ever since the invention of
electricity. A motor is nothing but an electro-mechanical device that converts electrical
energy into mechanical energy. It’s because of motors, life is what it is today in the 21st
century. Without the motor, we had still been living in Sir Thomas Edison’s Era where the
only purpose of electricity would have been to glow bulbs. There are different types of
motor have been developed for different specific purposes.
In simple words, we can say a device that produces rotational force is a motor. The very basic
principle of functioning of an electrical motor lies on the fact that force is experienced in the
direction perpendicular to magnetic field and the current, when field and current are made to
interact with each other.

Ever since the invention of motors, a lot of advancements has taken place in this field of
engineering and it has become a subject of extreme importance for modern engineers. This
particular webpage takes into consideration, the fact as mentioned above and provides a
detailed description of all major electrical motors and motoring parts being used in the
present era.
Classification or Types of Motor

The primary classification of motor or types of motor can be tabulated as shown below,

History of Motor

In the year 1821 British scientist Michael Faraday explained the conversion of electrical
energy into mechanical energy by placing a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field
which resulted in the rotation of the conductor due to the torque produced by the mutual
action of electrical current and field. Based on his principal the most primitive of machines a
DC (Direct Current) machine was designed by another British scientist William Sturgeonin
the year 1832. But his model was overly expensive and wasn’t used for any practical purpose.
Later in the year 1886, the first electrical motor was invented by scientist Frank Julian
Sprague. That was capable of rotating at a constant speed under a varied range of load and
thus derived motoring action.

INDEX
  DC Motor

 Synchronous Motor

 3 Phase Induction Motor

 1 Phase Induction Motor

 Special Types of Motor

Among the four basic classification of motors mentioned above the DC motor as the name
suggests, is the only one that is driven by direct current. It’s the most primitive version of the
electric motor where rotating torque is produced due to flow of current through the conductor
inside a magnetic field.
Rest all are AC electric motors and are driven by alternating current, for, e.g., the
synchronous motor, which always runs at synchronous speed. Here the rotor is an
electromagnet which is magnetically locked with stator rotating magnetic field and rotates
with it. The speed of these machines are varied by varying the frequency (f) and the number
of poles (P), as Ns = 120 f/P.
In another type of AC motor where rotating magnetic field cuts the rotor conductors, hence
circulating current induced in these short-circuited rotor conductors. Due to the interaction of
the magnetic field and these circulating currents, the rotor starts rotates and continues its
rotation. This is induction motor which is also known as asynchronous motorruns at a speed
lesser than synchronous speed, and the rotating torque, and speed is governed by varying the
slip which gives the difference between synchronous speed Ns, and rotor speed speed Nr,

It runs governing the principal of EMF induction due to varying flux density. Hence the name
induction machine comes. Single phase induction motor like a 3 phase, runs by the principal
of emf induction due to flux, but the only difference is, it runs on single phase supply and its
starting methods are governed by two well-established theories, namely the Double
Revolving field theory and the Crossfield theory.
Apart from the four basic types of motor mentioned above, there are several types Of special
electrical motors like Linear Induction motor(LIM), Stepper motor, Servo motor etc with
special features that has been developed according to the needs of the industry or for a
particular particular gadget like the use of hysteresis motor in hand watches because of its
compactness.

Principle of DC Motor

When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a torque and
has a tendency to move. In other words, when a magnetic field and an electric field interact, a
mechanical force is produced. The DC motor or direct current motor works on that
principal. This is known as motoring action.

The direction of rotation of a this motor is given by Fleming’s left hand rule, which states that
if the index finger, middle finger, and thumb of your left hand are extended mutually
perpendicular to each other and if the index finger represents the direction of magnetic field,
middle finger indicates the direction of current, then the thumb represents the direction in
which force is experienced by the shaft of the DC motor.
Structurally and construction wise a direct current motor is exactly similar to a DC generator,
but electrically it is just the opposite. Here we unlike a generator we supply electrical energy
to the input port and derive mechanical energy from the output port. We can represent it by
the block diagram shown below.

Here in a DC motor, the supply voltage E and current I is given to the electrical port or the
input port and we derive the mechanical output i.e. torque T and speed ω from the mechanical
port or output port.

the parameter K relates the input and output port variables of the direct current motor.

So from the picture above, we can well understand that motor is just the opposite phenomena
of a DC generator, and we can derive both motoring and generating operation from the same
machine by simply reversing the ports.

Detailed Description of a DC Motor

To understand the DC motor in details lets consider the diagram below,

The circle in the center represents the direct current motor. On the circle, we draw the
brushes. On the brushes, we connect the external terminals, through which we give the supply
voltage. On the mechanical terminal, we have a shaft coming out from the center of the
armature, and the shaft couples to the mechanical load. On the supply terminals, we represent
the armature resistance Ra in series.

Now, let the input voltage E, is applied across the brushes. Electric current which flows
through the rotor armature via brushes, in presence of the magnetic field, produces a torque
Tg. Due to this torque Tg the dc motor armature rotates. As the armature conductors are
carrying currents and the armature rotates inside the stator magnetic field, it also produces an
emf Eb in the manner very similar to that of a generator. The generated Emf Eb is directed
opposite to the supplied voltage and is known as the back Emf, as it counters the forward
voltage.
The back emf like in case of a generator is represented by

Where, P = no of poles
φ = flux per pole
Z= No. of conductors
A = No. of parallel paths
and N is the speed of the DC Motor.
So, from the above equation, we can see Eb is proportional to speed ‘N.’ That is whenever a
direct current motor rotates; it results in the generation of back Emf. Now let’s represent the
rotor speed by ω in rad/sec. So Eb is proportional to ω.
So, when the application of load reduces the speed of the motor, Eb decreases. Thus the
voltage difference between supply voltage and back emf increases that means E −
Ebincreases. Due to this increased voltage difference, the armature current will increase and
therefore torque and hence speed increases. Thus a DC Motor is capable of maintaining the
same speed under variable load.

Now armature current Ia is represented by

Now at starting,speed ω = 0 so at starting Eb = 0.

Now since the armature winding electrical resistance Ra is small, this motor has a very high
starting current in the absence of back Emf. As a result we need to use a starter for starting a
DC Motor.
Now as the motor continues to rotate, the back emf starts being generated and gradually the
current decreases as the motor picks up speed.

DC Motor Characteristics

As you already know, there are two electrical elements of a DC motor, the field
windingsand the armature.The armature windings are made up of current carrying
conductors that terminate at a commutator.
4 Types of DC Motors and Their Characteristics (on photo: Collector of 575kw DC motor;
credit: Pedro Raposo)

DC voltage is applied to the armature windings through carbon brushes which ride on the
commutator. In small DC motors, permanent magnets can be used for the stator. However, in
large motors used in industrial applications the stator is an electromagnet.

When voltage is applied to stator windings an electromagnet with north and south poles is
established. The resultant magnetic field is static (non-rotational).

For simplicity of explanation, the stator is represented by permanent magnets in the following
illustration.

DC Motor Construction
The field of DC motors can be:

1. Permanent magnet (Permanent magnet stator),

2. Electromagnets connected in series (Wound stator),
3. Shunt (Wound stator), or
4. Compound (Wound stator).

Let’s see the basics of each type as well as their advantages and disadvantages.

1. Permanent Magnet Motors

Permanent Magnet Motor

The permanent magnet motor uses a magnet to supply field flux. Permanent magnet DC
motors have excellent starting torque capability with good speed regulation. A disadvantage
of permanent magnet DC motors is they are limited to the amount of load they can
drive.These motors can be found on low horsepower applications.

Another disadvantage is that torque is usually limited to 150% of rated torque to prevent
demagnetization of the permanent magnets.

2. Series Motors
 Series DC motor

In a series DC motor the field is connected in series with the armature.The field is wound
with a few turns of large wire because it must carry the full armature current.

A characteristic of series motors is the motor develops a large amount of starting torque.
However, speed varies widely between no load and full load. Series motors cannot be used
where a constant speed is required under varying loads.

Series-connected motors generally are not suitable for use on most variable speed drive
applications.

3. Shunt Motors

DC Shunt Motor
In a shunt motor the field is connected in parallel (shunt) with the armature windings. The
shunt-connected motor offers good speed regulation. The field winding can be separately
excited or connected to the same source as the armature.

4. Compound Motors

Compound DC motor

Compound motors have a field connected in series with the armature and a separately excited shunt
field. The series field provides better starting torque and the shunt field provides better speed
regulation

FABRICATION
Different processes used for fabricating the engine:

Grinding:

Grinding is a finishing process used to improve surface finish, abrade hard materials,
and tighten the tolerance on flat and cylindrical surfaces by removing a small amount of
material. Information in this section is organized according to the subcategory links in the menu
bar to the left.

In grinding, an abrasive material rubs against the metal part and removes tiny pieces of
material. The abrasive material is typically on the surface of a wheel or belt and abrades
material in a way similar to sanding. On a microscopic scale, the chip formation in grinding is
the same as that found in other machining processes. The abrasive action of grinding generates
excessive heat so that flooding of the cutting area with fluid is necessary.

Reasons for Grinding:

1. The material is too hard to be machined economically.

2. Tolerances required preclude machining. Grinding can produce flatness tolerances of

less than ±0.0025 mm (±0.0001 in) on a 127 x 127 mm (5 x 5 in) steel surface if the surface is
adequately supported.

3. Machining removes excessive material.

A grinding machine, often shortened to grinder, is any of various power tools or

machine tools used for grinding, which is a type ofmachining using an abrasive wheel as the
cutting tool. Each grain of abrasive on the wheel's surface cuts a small chip from the workpiece
via shear deformation.

Grinding is used to finish workpieces that must show high surface quality (e.g., low
surface roughness) and high accuracy of shape and dimension. As the accuracy in dimensions
in grinding is on the order of 0.000025 mm, in most applications it tends to be a finishing
operation and removes comparatively little metal, about 0.25 to 0.50 mm depth. However, there
are some roughing applications in which grinding removes high volumes of metal quite rapidly.
Thus, grinding is a diverse field.

Types:

These machines include the:

• Belt grinder, which is usually used as a machining method to process metals and other
materials, with the aid of coated abrasives. Sanding is the machining of wood; grinding is the
common name for machining metals. Belt grinding is a versatile process suitable for all kind
of applications like finishing, deburring, and stock removal.

• Bench grinder, which usually has two wheels of different grain sizes for roughing and
finishing operations and is secured to a workbench or floor stand. Its uses include shaping tool
bits or various tools that need to be made or repaired. Bench grinders are manually operated.
• Cylindrical grinder, which includes both the types that use centers and the centerless
types. A cylindrical grinder may have multiple grinding wheels. The work-piece is rotated and
fed past the wheels to form a cylinder. It is used to make precision rods, tubes, bearing races,
bushings, and many other parts.

• Surface grinder which includes the wash grinder. A surface grinder has a "head" which
is lowered to a work-piece which is moved back and forth under the grinding wheel on a table
that typically has a controllable permanent magnet for use with magnetic stock but can have a
vacuum chuck or other fixturing means. The most common surface grinders have a grinding
wheel rotating on a horizantal axis cutting around the circumference of the grinding wheel.
Rotary surface grinders, commonly known as "Blanchard" style grinders, have a grinding head
which rotates the grinding wheel on a vertical axis cutting on the end face of the grinding wheel,
while a table rotates the work-piece in the opposite direction underneath. This type of machine
removes large amounts of material and grinds flat surfaces with noted spiral grind marks. It
can also be used to make and sharpen metal stamping die sets, flat shear blades, fixture bases
or any flat and parallel surfaces.

• Tool and cutter grinder and the D-bit grinder. These usually can perform the minor
function of the drill bit grinder, or other specialist tool-room grinding operations.

• Jig grinder, which as the name implies, has a variety of uses when finishing jigs, dies,
and fixtures. Its primary function is in the realm of grinding holes and pins. It can also be used
for complex surface grinding to finish work started on a mill.

• Gear grinder, which is usually employed as the final machining process when
manufacturing a high-precision gear. The primary function of these machines is to remove the
remaining few thousandths of an inch of material left by other manufacturing methods such as
gashing or hobbing.

• Die grinder, which is a high-speed hand-held rotary tool with a small diameter grinding
bit. They are typically air driven using compressed air, but can be driven with a small electric
motor directly or via a flexible shaft.

Drilling:
 Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut or enlarge a hole of circular cross-
section in solid materials. The drill bit is a rotary-cutting tool, often multipoint. The bit is
pressed against the work-piece and rotated at rates from hundreds to thousands of revolutions
per minute. This forces the cutting edge against the work-piece, cutting off chips from the hole
as it is drilled.

Exceptionally, specially-shaped bits can cut holes of non-circular cross-section; a

square cross-section is possible.

Process:

Drilled holes are characterized by their sharp edge on the entrance side and the presence
of burrs on the exit side. Also, the inside of the hole usually has helical feed marks.

Drilling may affect the mechanical properties of the work-piece by creating low
residual stresses around the hole opening and a very thin layer of highly stressed and disturbed
material on the newly formed surface. This causes the work-piece to become more susceptible
to corrosion and crack propagation at the stressed surface. A finish operation may be done to
avoid these detrimental conditions.

For fluted drill bits, any chips are removed via the flutes. Chips may form long spirals
or small flakes, depending on the material, and process parameters. The type of chips formed
can be an indicator of the machinability of the material, with long chips suggesting poor
material machinability.

When possible drilled holes should be located perpendicular to the workpiece surface.
This minimizes the drill bit's tendency to "walk", that is, to be deflected from the intended
center-line of the bore, causing the hole to be misplaced. The higher the length-to-diameter
ratio of the drill bit, the greater the tendency to walk. The tendency to walk is also preempted
in various other ways, which include:

Establishing a centering mark or feature before drilling, such as by:

• Casting, molding, or forging a mark into the work-piece

• Center punching

• Spot drilling (i.e., center drilling)

• Spot facing, which is facing a certain area on a rough casting or forging to establish,
essentially, an island of precisely known surface in a sea of imprecisely known surface

• Constraining the position of the drill bit using a drill jig with drill bushings

Surface finish produced by drilling may range from 32 to 500 micro-inches. Finish cuts
will generate surfaces near 32 micro-inches, and roughing will be near 500 micro-inches.

Cutting fluid is commonly used to cool the drill bit, increase tool life, increase speeds
and feeds, increase the surface finish, and aid in ejecting chips. Application of these fluids is
usually done by flooding the work-piece with coolant and lubricant or by applying a spray mist.

In deciding which drill to use it is important to consider the task at hand and evaluate
which drill would best accomplish the task. There are a variety of drill styles that each serve a
different purpose. The sub-land drill is capable of drilling more than one diameter. The spade
drill is used to drill larger hole sizes. The indexable drill is useful in managing chips.

Boring:

Boring is the process of enlarging a hole that has already been drilled, by means of a
single-point cutting tool, for example as in boring a gun barrel or an engine cylinder. Boring is
used to achieve greater accuracy of the diameter of a hole, and can be used to cut a tapered
hole. Boring can be viewed as the internal-diameter counterpart to turning, which cuts external
diameters.

There are various types of boring. The boring bar may be supported on both ends, or it
may be supported at one end. Line-boring implies the former. Back-boring is the process of
reaching through an existing hole and then boring on the "back" side of the work-piece.

Because of the limitations on tooling design imposed by the fact that the work-piece
mostly surrounds the tool, boring is inherently somewhat more challenging than turning, in
terms of decreased tool holding rigidity, increased clearance angle requirements and difficulty
of inspection of the resulting surface (size, form, surface roughness).

Boring and turning have abrasive counterparts in internal and external cylindrical
grinding.

Machine tools used:

 The boring process can be executed on various machine tools, including general-
purpose or universal machines, such as lathes or milling machines, and machines designed to
specialize in boring as a primary function, such as jig borers and boring machines or boring
mills, which include vertical boring mills and horizontal boring mills i.e., work-piece sits on a
table while the boring bar rotates around a horizontal axis; essentially a specialized horizontal
milling machine.

Turning:

Turning is a engineering machining process in which a cutting tool, typically a non-

rotary tool bit, describes a helical toolpath by moving more or less linearly while the work-
piece rotates. The tool's axes of movement may be literally a straight line, or they may be along
some set of curves or angles, but they are essentially linear. Usually the term "turning" is
reserved for the generation of external surfaces by this cutting action, whereas this same
essential cutting action when applied to internal surfaces is called "boring". Thus the phrase
"turning and boring" categorizes the larger family of processes. The cutting of faces on the
work-piece that is, surfaces perpendicular to its rotating axis, whether with a turning or boring
tool, is called "facing", and may be lumped into either category as a subset.

Turning can be done manually, in a traditional form of lathe, which frequently requires
continuous supervision by the operator, or by using an automated lathe which does not. Today
the most common type of such automation is computer numerical control, better known as
CNC.

When turning, a piece of relatively rigid material is rotated and a cutting tool is
traversed along 1, 2, or 3 axes of motion to produce precise diameters and depths. Turning can
be either on the outside of the cylinder or on the inside (also known as boring) to produce
tubular components to various geometries. Although now quite rare, early lathes could even be
used to produce complex geometric figures, even the platonic solids; although since the advent
of CNC it has become unusual to use non-computerized toolpath control for this purpose.

The turning processes are typically carried out on a lathe, considered to be the oldest
machine tools, and can be of four different types such as straight turning, taper turning,
profiling or external grooving. Those types of turning processes can produce various shapes of
materials such as straight, conical, curved, or grooved workpiece. In general, turning uses
simple single-point cutting tools. Each group of workpiece materials has an optimum set of
tools angles which have been developed through the years.
Shearing:

Shearing, also known as die cutting, is a process which cuts stock without the formation
of chips or the use of burning or melting. Strictly speaking, if the cutting blades are straight the
process is called shearing; if the cutting blades are curved then they are shearing-type
operations. The most commonly sheared materials are in the form of sheet metal or plates,
however rods can also be sheared. Shearing-type operations include: blanking, piercing, roll
slitting, and trimming. It is used in metalworking and also with paper and plastics.

Several cutting processes exist that utilize shearing force to cut sheet metal. However,
the term "shearing" by itself refers to a specific cutting process that produces straight line cuts
to separate a piece of sheet metal. Most commonly, shearing is used to cut a sheet parallel to
an existing edge which is held square, but angled cuts can be made as well. For this reason,
shearing is primarily used to cut sheet stock into smaller sizes in preparation for other
processes. Shearing has the following capabilities:

• Sheet thickness: 0.005-0.25 inches

• Tolerance: ±0.1 inches (±0.005 inches feasible)

• Surface finish: 250-1000 μ-in (125-2000 μ-in feasible)

The shearing process is performed on a shear machine, often called a squaring shear or
power shear, that can be operated manually (by hand or foot) or by hydraulic, pneumatic, or
electric power. A typical shear machine includes a table with support arms to hold the sheet,
stops or guides to secure the sheet, upper and lower straight-edge blades, and a gauging device
to precisely position the sheet. The sheet is placed between the upper and lower blade, which
are then forced together against the sheet, cutting the material. In most devices, the lower blade
remains stationary while the upper blade is forced downward. The upper blade is slightly offset
from the lower blade, approximately 5-10% of the sheet thickness. Also, the upper blade is
usually angled so that the cut progresses from one end to the other, thus reducing the required
force. The blades used in these machines typically have a square edge rather than a knife-edge
and are available in different materials, such as low alloy steel and high-carbon steel.

Principle:
 A punch is used to push the work-piece against the die, which is fixed. Usually the
clearance between the two is 5 to 40% of the thickness of the material, but dependent on the
material. Clearance is defined as the separation between the blades, measured at the point
where the cutting action takes place and perpendicular to the direction of blade movement. It
affects the finish of the cut (burr) and the machine's power consumption. This causes the
material to experience highly localized shear stresses between the punch and die. The material
will then fail when the punch has moved 15 to 60% the thickness of the material, because the
shear stresses are greater than the shear strength of the material and the remainder of the
material is torn. Two distinct sections can be seen on a sheared work-piece, the first part being
plastic deformation and the second being fractured. Because of normal In-homogeneities in
materials and inconsistencies in clearance between the punch and die, the shearing action does
not occur in a uniform manner. The fracture will begin at the weakest point and progress to the
next weakest point until the entire workpiece has been sheared; this is what causes the rough
edge. The rough edge can be reduced if the workpiece is clamped from the top with a die
cushion. Above a certain pressure the fracture zone can be completely eliminated. However,
the sheared edge of the workpiece will usually experience work hardening and cracking. If the
workpiece has too much clearance, then it may experience roll-over or heavy burring.

Sheet Metal Cutting (Shearing):

Cutting processes are those in which a piece of sheet metal is separated by applying a
great enough force to caused the material to fail. The most common cutting processes are
performed by applying a shearing force, and are therefore sometimes referred to as shearing
processes. When a great enough shearing force is applied, the shear stress in the material will
exceed the ultimate shear strength and the material will fail and separate at the cut location.
This shearing force is applied by two tools, one above and one below the sheet. Whether these
tools are a punch and die or upper and lower blades, the tool above the sheet delivers a quick
downward blow to the sheet metal that rests over the lower tool. A small clearance is present
between the edges of the upper and lower tools, which facilitates the fracture of the material.
The size of this clearance is typically 2-10% of the material thickness and depends upon several
factors, such as the specific shearing process, material, and sheet thickness.

The effects of shearing on the material change as the cut progresses and are visible on
the edge of the sheared material. When the punch or blade impacts the sheet, the clearance
between the tools allows the sheet to plastically deform and "rollover" the edge. As the tool
penetrates the sheet further, the shearing results in a vertical burnished zone of material.
Finally, the shear stress is too great and the material fractures at an angle with a small burr
formed at the edge. The height of each of these portions of the cut depends on several factors,
including the sharpness of the tools and the clearance between the tools.

Sheared edge:

A variety of cutting processes that utilize shearing forces exist to separate or remove
material from a piece of sheet stock in different ways. Each process is capable of forming a
specific type of cut, some with an open path to separate a portion of material and some with a
closed path to cutout and remove that material. By using many of these processes together,
sheet metal parts can be fabricated with cutouts and profiles of any 2D geometry. Such cutting
processes include the following:

 Shearing - Separating material into two parts

 Blanking - Removing material to use for parts
Conventional blanking

Fine blanking

 Punching - Removing material as scrap

Piercing

Slotting

Perforating

Notching

Nibbling

Lancing

Slitting

Parting

Cut-off

Trimming

Welding:
 Welding is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins materials, usually metals or
thermoplastics, by causing coalescence. This is often done by melting the workpieces and
adding a filler material to form a pool of molten material (the weld pool) that cools to become
a strong joint, with pressure sometimes used in conjunction with heat, or by itself, to produce
the weld. This is in contrast with soldering andbrazing, which involve melting a lower-melting-
point material between the workpieces to form a bond between them, without melting the work
pieces.

Some of the best known welding methods include:

• Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) - also known as "stick welding", uses an electrode
that has flux, the protectant for the puddle, around it. The electrode holder holds the electrode
as it slowly melts away. Slag protects the weld puddle from atmospheric contamination.

• Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) - also known as TIG (tungsten, inert gas), uses a
non-consumable tungsten electrode to produce the weld. The weld area is protected from
atmospheric contamination by an inert shielding gas such as Argon or Helium.

• Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) - commonly termed MIG (metal, inert gas), uses a
wire feeding gun that feeds wire at an adjustable speed and flows an argon-based shielding gas
or a mix of argon and carbon dioxide (CO2) over the weld puddle to protect it from atmospheric
contamination.

• Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) - almost identical to MIG welding except it uses a
special tubular wire filled with flux; it can be used with or without shielding gas, depending on
the filler.

• Submerged arc welding (SAW) - uses an automatically fed consumable electrode and
a blanket of granular fusible flux. The molten weld and the arc zone are protected from
atmospheric contamination by being "submerged" under the flux blanket.

• Electroslag welding (ESW) - a highly productive, single pass welding process for
thicker materials between 1 inch (25 mm) and 12 inches (300 mm) in a vertical or close to
vertical position.
Arc welding:

These processes use a welding power supply to create and maintain an electric arc
between an electrode and the base material to melt metals at the welding point. They can use
either direct (DC) or alternating (AC) current, and consumable or non-consumable electrodes.
The welding region is sometimes protected by some type of inert or semi-inert gas, known as
a shielding gas, and filler material is sometimes used as well.

Processes:

One of the most common types of arc welding is shielded metal arc welding (SMAW);
it is also known as manual metal arc welding (MMA) or stick welding. Electric current is used
to strike an arc between the base material and consumable electrode rod, which is made of filler
material (typically steel) and is covered with a flux that protects the weld area from oxidation
and contamination by producing carbon dioxide (CO2) gas during the welding process. The
electrode core itself acts as filler material, making a separate filler unnecessary.

Forging:

Forging is a manufacturing process involving the shaping of metal using localized

compressive forces. The blows are delivered with a hammer (often a power hammer) or a die.

Forging can produce a piece that is stronger than an equivalent cast or machined part.
As the metal is shaped during the forging process, its internal grain deforms to follow the
general shape of the part. As a result, the grain is continuous throughout the part, giving rise to
a piece with improved strength characteristics.

Most forging operations use metal-forming dies, which must be precisely machined and
carefully heat-treated to correctly shape the work-piece, as well as to withstand the tremendous
forces involved.

There are many different kinds of forging processes available, however they can be
grouped into three main classes:

• Drawn out: length increases, cross-section decreases

• Upset: length decreases, cross-section increases

• Squeezed in closed compression dies: produces multidirectional flow.

 The most common type of forging equipment is the hammer and anvil. The principle
behind the machine is simple: raise the hammer and drop it or propel it into the work-piece,
which rests on the anvil. The main variations between drop-hammers are in the way the hammer
is powered; the most common being air and steam hammers. Drop-hammers usually operate in
a vertical position. The main reason for this is excess energy that isn't released as heat or sound
needs to be transmitted to the foundation. Moreover, a large machine base is needed to absorb
the impacts.

To overcome some shortcomings of the drop-hammer, the counterblow machine or

impactor is used. In a counterblow machine both the hammer and anvil move and the work-
piece is held between them. Here excess energy becomes recoil. This allows the machine to
work horizontally and have a smaller base. Other advantages include less noise, heat and
vibration. It also produces a distinctly different flow pattern. Both of these machines can be
used for open-die or closed-die forging.

Effect:

Before the material is hardened, the microstructure of the material is a pearlite grain
structure that is uniform and lamellar. Pearlite is a mixture of ferrite and cementite formed
when steel or cast iron are manufactured and cooled at a slow rate. After quench hardening, the
microstructure of the material form into martensite as a fine, needle-like grain structure.

Before using this technique it is essential to look up the rate constants for the quenching
of the excited states of metal ions.

Equipment:

There are four types of furnaces that are commonly used in quench hardening:

 salt bath furnace,

 continuous furnace,
 box furnace,
 Vacuum furnace.
Each is used depending on what other processes or types of quench hardening are being
done on the different materials.

Quenching media:
 When quenching, there are numerous types of media called quenchants. Some of the
more common include: air, nitrogen, argon, helium, brine, oil and water. Experience shows
that olive oil is particularly efficient as a good quench. These media are used to increase the
severity of the quench.

Filing:

Filing is a material removal process in manufacturing. Similar, depending on use, to both

sawing and grinding in effect, it is functionally versatile, but used mostly for finishing
operations, namely in de-burring operations. Filing operations can be used on a wide range of
materials as a finishing operation. Filing helps achieve work-piece function by removing
some excess material and de-burring the surface. Sandpaper may be used as a filing tool for
other materials, such as glass.

WORKING

in this project machine uses the slider crank mechanism

the motor gives rotating motion to the link which in turn gives linear motion to the extended
arm links

the arm links continuously reciprocate when they bought in contact with land the two-arm
links lift soil along with weed

by changing the extended weed remover to plough extension we can use the same to plough
the land

ADVANTAGES

 Mechanism is a simple one.

 One Labour is enough for operation.
 Working is very easy compared to primitive work method.
 Initial and maintenance cost are less.
 Time consumption is less for weeding

REFERENCES

[1] Anonymous, 1985. RNAM test codes and procedure for farm machinery, Technical series
No. 12, Economic and Social
Commission for Asia and the Pacific, Regional Network for Agricultural Mechanization,
Bangkok, Thailand.

[2] Nag P.K. and P.Dutt. 1979. Effectives of some simple agricultural weeders with reference
to physiological responses, Journal of

Human Ergonomics, 13-21.

[3] Tiwari, V.K., R. Ailavadi, K.N.Dewangan and S Sharangi. 2007. Rationalized database of
Indian agricultural workers for

equipment design. Agricultural Engineering International: the CIGRE journal. Manuscript

MES 05 004, Vol IX. August, 2007.

[4] Dryden, R.D. and C.H.Krishnamurthy. 1977. Year round tillage, Indian Journal of Weed
Science, 9: 14-18.

[5] Gunasena, H.P.M. and L.M.Arceo. 1981. Weed control studies with bachelor in direct
seeded rice in Shri Lawlea, Proceedings of

8th Asian Pacific weed science society conference, Bangalore, India, November 27-29.

[7] Rangasamy, K., M. Balasubramanium and K.R.Swaminathan. 1993. Evaluation of power

weeder performance, Agricultural

Mechanisation in Asia, Africa and Latin America,Vol. 24, No.4: 16-18.

[8] Singh, G.and K.M.Sahay. 2001. Research Development and Technology Dissemination.
A silver Jubilee Publication, CIAE,

Bhopal, India.

Theses:

[9] Quadri, adegbemi wasiu matric number: 05/0204 OCTOBER, 2010.,department of

agricultural engineeringcollege of engineering

university of agriculture abeokuta design, construction and testing of manually operated

weeder.

[10] Biswas, H.S. 1990. Soil tool interaction for mechanical control of weeds in black soils.
Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Indian Institute
of Technology, Kharagpur.