18(i) Fabrication processs of metal matrix composite:

1. Fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites is the process, in which Metal Matrix

Composites are formed as a result of bonding matrix metal and dispersed phase due to
mutual diffusion occurring between them in solid states at elevated temperature and
under pressure.
2. Low temperature of solid state fabrication process (as compared to Liquid state
fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites) depresses undesirable reactions on the boundary
between the matrix and dispersed (reinforcing) phases.
3. Metal Matrix Composites may be deformed also after sintering operation by rolling,
Forging, pressing, Drawing or Extrusion. The deformation operation may be either cold
(below the recrystallization temperature) or hot (above the recrystallyzation temperature).
4. Deformation of sintered composite materials with dispersed phase in form of short fibers
results in a preferred orientation of the fibers and anisotropy of the material properties
(enhanced strength along the fibers orientation).

There are two principal groups of solid state fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites:

 Diffusion bonding
 Sintering

Diffusion Bonding

1. Diffusion Bonding is a solid state fabrication method, in which a matrix in form of foils
and a dispersed phase in form of long fibers are stacked in a particular order and then
pressed at elevated temperature.
2. The finished laminate composite material has a multilayer structure.
3. Diffusion Bonding is used for fabrication of simple shape parts (plates, tubes)
4. Variants of diffusion bonding are roll bonding and wire/fiber winding:
5. Roll Bonding is a process of combined Rolling (hot or cold) strips of two different metals
(e.g. steel and aluminum alloy) resulted in formation of a laminated composite material
with a metallurgical bonding between the two layers.
6. Wire/fiber Winding is a process of combined winding continuous ceramic fibers and
metallic wires followed by pressing at elevated temperature.

18(ii) Wood fabrication is different methods to machine wood materials.

1. The machining centers for wood fabrication are quite similar to those for metal working
processes.
2. In a wood workshop there are commonly lathes, milling centers and grinding machines.
In addition there are also sawing machines.
 3. Sawmills usually have similar equipment and machine tools, but can handle much larger
quantities and dimensions
4. Even if the machine tools are almost alike, wood has completely different characteristics.
Generally, woods is softer, more brittle and more fragile compared to metals.
5. Wood also reacts differently depending on in which direction a cut is made.
6. Workshops specializing in wood work has become scarce.
7. Mostly there are smaller work shops which do wooden moulds, prototypes and models
for manufacturing companies, or small-scale furniture pieces.
8. The heavier production is usually made directly

19. Titanium alloys are heat treated to achieve the following:

1. Stress relieving, to reduce residual stresses developed during fabrication.

2. Annealing, to achieve an optimum combination of ductility, machinability, dimensional
stability and structural stability.
3. Solution treating and aging, to increase strength.
4. Combinations of processes are employed to optimize properties and gain other
advantages such as:
 Fracture toughness
 Fatigue strength
 High temperature creep strength
 Resistance to preferential chemical attack
 Prevent distortion
 Condition the forging for subsequent forming and fabricating operations.

There are three principal types of heat treatment.

1. Stress Relieving Titanium alloys can be stress relieved without adversely affecting
strength or ductility.
2. The process for forgings takes place at 595 to 705°C (1100 to 1300°F) for a period of one
to two hours, followed by air cooling.
3. It decrease undesirable residual stresses that may result during forging processes.
4. Annealing Mill annealing, which is usually applied to forging bar stock, is not a full
anneal, and may leave traces of cold or warm working in some products.
5. Duplex and triplex annealing are used to improve creep resistance and fracture toughness.
6. Solution Treatment and Aging This process consists of heating to a specified temperature
for the alloy, quenching at a controlled rate in either oil, air or water, and aging.
7. Aging consists of reheating to a temperature between 425 and 650°C (800 to 1200°F) for
approximately two hours.
8. This process develops higher strengths than are achievable by the other processes.
17.Applications of CERAMICS:

 Knife blades: the blade of a ceramic knife will stay sharp for much longer than
that of a steel knife, although it is more brittle and can snap.
 Carbon-ceramic brake disks for vehicles are resistant to brake fade at high
temperatures.
 Advanced composite ceramic and metal matrices have been designed for most
modern armoured fighting vehicles because they offer superior penetrating
resistance against shaped charges (such as HEAT rounds) and kinetic energy
penetrators.
 Ceramics such as alumina and boron carbide have been used in ballistic armored
vests to repel high-velocity rifle fire. Such plates are known commonly as small
arms protective inserts, or SAPIs. Similar material is used to protect the cockpits
of some military airplanes, because of the low weight of the material.
 Ceramics can be used in place of steel for ball bearings. Their higher hardness
means they are much less susceptible to wear and typically last for triple the
lifetime of a steel part.
 Ceramics are also more chemically resistant and can be used in wet environments
where steel bearings would rust. In some cases, their electricity-insulating
properties may also be valuable in bearings. Two drawbacks to ceramic bearings
are a significantly higher cost and susceptibility to damage under shock loads.

THERMAL PRODUCTION SYSTEMS OF AEROSPACE APPLICATIONS

19.Properties and applications of Super alloys:

nickel-based superalloys are used in load-bearing structures to the highest homologous

temperature of any common alloy system (Tm = 0.9, or 90% of their melting point).

Among the most demanding applications for a structural material are those in the hot
sections of turbine engines.

The preeminence of superalloys is reflected in the fact that they currently comprise over
50% of the weight of advanced aircraft engines.

The widespread use of superalloys in turbine engines coupled with the fact that the
thermodynamic efficiency of turbine engines is increased with increasing turbine inlet
temperatures has, in part, provided the motivation for increasing the maximum-use temperature
of superalloys.
 In fact, during the past 30 years turbine airfoil temperature capability has increased on
average by about 4 °F (2.2 °C) per year. Two major factors which have made this increase
possible are

Advanced processing techniques, which improved alloy cleanliness (thus improving

reliability) and/or enabled the production of tailored microstructures such as directionally
solidified or single-crystal material.

Alloy development resulting in higher-use-temperature materials primarily through the

additions of refractory elements such as Re, W, Ta, and Mo.

About 60% of the use-temperature increases have occurred due to advanced cooling
concepts; 40% have resulted from material improvements. State-of-the-art turbine blade surface
temperatures are near 2,100 °F (1,150 °C); the most severe combinations of stress and
temperature corresponds to an average bulk metal temperature approaching 1,830 °F (1,000 °C).

Although superalloys retain significant strength to temperatures near 1,800 °F (980 °C),
they tend to be susceptible to environmental attack because of the presence of reactive alloying
elements (which provide their high-temperature strength). Surface attack includes oxidation, hot
corrosion, and thermal fatigue. In the most demanding applications, such as turbine blade and
vanes, superalloys are often coated to improve environmental resistance.

In general, high temperature materials are needed for energy conversion and energy
production applications. Maximum energy conversion efficiency is desired in these energy
applications, which can be achieved by increasing operating temperatures, as described by the
Carnot cycle. Operating temperatures are limited by the performance of today’s superalloys, and
currently, most applications operate at around 1000oC-1400 oC. Energy applications and their
superalloy components include:

Gas turbines (turbine blades)

Solar thermal power plants (stainless steel rods containing heated water)

Steam turbines (turbine blades and boiler housing)

Heat exchangers for nuclear reactor systems

Alumina-forming stainless steels can be processed via melting and ladle casting, similar
to the production of more common steels. Unlike vacuum casting processes, ladle casting is
much more inexpensive. In addition, alumina-forming stainless steel has been shown to be
weldable and has potential for use in high performance automotive applications, such as for high
temperature exhaust piping and in heat capture and reuse.
Corrosion production method:

Active corrosion protection

 The aim of active corrosion protection is to influence the reactions which proceed during
corrosion, it being possible to control not only the package contents and the corrosive
agent but also the reaction itself in such a manner that corrosion is avoided.
 Examples of such an approach are the development of corrosion-resistant alloys and the
addition of inhibitors to the aggressive medium.

Passive corrosion protection

 In passive corrosion protection, damage is prevented by mechanically isolating the

package contents from the aggressive corrosive agents, for example by using protective
layers, films or other coatings.
 However, this type of corrosion protection changes neither the general ability of the
package contents to corrode, nor the aggressiveness of the corrosive agent and this is why
this approach is known as passive corrosion protection. If the protective layer, film etc. is
destroyed at any point, corrosion may occur within a very short time.

Permanent corrosion protection

 The purpose of permanent corrosion protection methods is mainly to provide protection

at the place of use.
 The stresses presented by climatic, biotic and chemical factors are relatively slight in this
situation.
 Machines are located, for example, in factory sheds and are thus protected from extreme
variations in temperature, which are frequently the cause of condensation. Examples of
passive corrosion protection methods are:

Tin plating

Galvanization

Coating

Enameling

Copper plating

Temporary corrosion protection

 The stresses occurring during transport, handling and storage are much greater
than those occurring at the place of use. Such stresses may be manifested, for
 example, as extreme variations in temperature, which result in a risk of
condensation.
 Especially in maritime transport, the elevated salt content of the water and air in
so-called seasalt aerosols may cause damage, as salts have a strongly corrosion-
promoting action. The following are the main temporary corrosion protection
methods:

1. Protective coating method

2. Desiccant method

3. VCI method