Applied Phy Lab Manual

Mohammad Ali Jinnah University
Islamabad Campus
LAB MANUAL
SUBJECT : Applied Physics Lab
COURSE CODE : PH1011
Student NAME REG.NO SECTION
S1
S2
S3
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING

Lab 01
Introduction to widely used components
Resistors
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component
A resistor restricts the flow of current, for
example to limit the current passing through
Resistor
an LED. A resistor is used with a capacitor in
a timing circuit.
This type of variable resistor with 2 contacts
(a rheostat) is usually used to control current.
Examples include: adjusting lamp brightness,
Variable Resistor adjusting motor speed, and adjusting the rate
(Rheostat) of flow of charge into a capacitor in a timing
circuit.
This type of variable resistor with 3 contacts

(a potentiometer) is usually used to control
Variable Resistor
voltage. It can be used like this as a
(Potentiometer)
transducer converting position (angle of the
control spindle) to an electrical signal.
This type of variable resistor (a preset) is
operated with a small screwdriver or similar
Variable Resistor
tool. It is designed to be set when the circuit
(Preset)
is made and then left without further
adjustment. Presets are cheaper than normal
variable resistors so they are often used in
projects to reduce the cost.
Capacitors
A capacitor stores electric charge. A
capacitor is used with a resistor in a timing
Capacitor
circuit. It can also be used as a filter, to
block DC signals but pass AC signals.
Capacitor, A capacitor stores electric charge. This type
polarised must be connected the correct way round. A
capacitor is used with a resistor in a timing
circuit. It can also be used as a filter, to
2
block DC signals but pass AC signals.
Variable Capacitor A variable capacitor is used in a radio tuner.
This type of variable capacitor (a trimmer)

is operated with a small screwdriver or
Trimmer Capacitor similar tool. It is designed to be set when
the circuit is made and then left without
further adjustment.
Diodes
A device which only allows
Diode current to flow in one
direction.
LED A transducer which converts

Light Emitting Diode electrical energy to light.
A special diode which is used

Zener Diode to maintain a fixed voltage
across its terminals.
Photodiode A light-sensitive diode.
Meters and Oscilloscope

A voltmeter is used to measure voltage.
Voltmeter The proper name for voltage is 'potential difference',
but most people prefer to say voltage!
Ammeter An ammeter is used to measure current.
A galvanometer is a very sensitive meter

Galvanometer which is used to measure tiny currents,
usually 1mA or less.
An ohmmeter is used to measure resistance.

Ohmmeter
Most multimeters have an ohmmeter setting.
An oscilloscope is used to display the shape

Oscilloscope of electrical signals and it can be used to
measure their voltage and time period.
3
Breadboard:
A breadboard is used to make up temporary circuits for testing or to try out an idea. No
soldering is required so it is easy to change connections and replace components. Parts will
not be damaged so they will be available to re-use afterwards.
Almost all the Electronics Club projects started life on a breadboard to check that the circuit
worked as intended.
The photograph shows a typical small breadboard which is suitable for beginners building
simple circuits with one or two ICs (chips). Larger sizes are available and you may wish to
buy one of these to start with.
Strip board:
Stripboard has parallel strips of copper track on one side. The tracks are 0.1" (2.54mm) apart
and there are holes every 0.1" (2.54mm).
Stripboard is used to make up permanent,

soldered circuits. It is ideal for small circuits
with one or two ICs (chips) but with the large
number of holes it is very easy to connect a
component in the wrong place. For large,
complex circuits it is usually best to use a
printed circuit board (PCB) if you can buy or
make one.
Oscilloscope:
An oscilloscope is easily the most useful instrument available for testing circuits because it
allows you to see the signals at different points in the circuit. The best way of investigating an
electronic system is to monitor signals at the input and output of each system block, checking
that each block is operating as expected and is correctly linked to the next. With a little
practice, you will be able to find and correct faults quickly and accurately.
The function of an oscilloscope is extremely simple: it draws a V/t graph, a graph of voltage
against time, voltage on the vertical or Y-axis, and time on the horizontal or X-axis.
4
Function Generator:
A function generator is a device that can produce various patterns of voltage at a variety of
frequencies and amplitudes. Most function generators allow the user to choose the shape of
the output from a small number of options.
Square wave - The signal goes directly from high to low voltage.
Sine wave - The signal curves like a sinusoid from high to low voltage.
Triangle wave - The signal goes from high to low voltage at a fixed rate.
The amplitude control on a function generator varies the voltage difference between the high
and low voltage of the output signal. The direct current (DC) offset control on a function
generator varies the average voltage of a signal relative to the ground. The frequency control
of a function generator controls the rate at which output signal oscillates.
5
Exercise:
Q.1: How is a capacitor used in a timing circuit?
Q.2: Why is a Zener Diode better than a simple diode?
Q.3: Discuss briefly the working of a potentiometer?
6
LABORATORY SKILLS RUBRIC (Psychomotor)
7
Lab Title: Second-Order Filters Total Marks: 80
8
Criteria Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Score
<50 50 - 59% 60 - 69% 70 - 79% 80 - 100%
%
S1 S2 S3
Selects Selects and applies Selects and applies the Selects and applies
Procedural inappropriate skills appropriate skills appropriate strategies appropriate strategies
Awareness and/or strategies and/or strategies and/or skills specific and/or skills specific
required by the task required by the task to the task without to the task without
with some errors significant errors any error
Practical Makes several Makes few critical Makes some non- Applies the
Implementa critical errors in errors in applying critical errors in procedural
tion applying procedural procedural applying procedural knowledge in
knowledge knowledge knowledge innovative ways
Safety Requires constant Requires some Follows safety Routinely follows
reminders to follow reminders to follow procedures with only safety procedures
safety procedures safety procedures minimal reminders
Use of Uses tools, Uses tools, Uses tools, equipment Uses tools,
Equipment equipment and equipment and and materials with equipment and
materials with materials with some considerable materials with a high
limited competence competence competence degree of
competence
Work Area Requires constant Requires some Cleans work area with Routinely keeps
reminders to clean reminders to clean only minimal work area clean
work area work area reminders without reminders
Return of Requires constant Requires some Returns equipment Always returns
Equipment reminders to return reminders to return with only minimal equipment with no
equipment equipment reminders reminders
Participatio Shows little Demonstrates Demonstrates Actively helps to
n commitment to commitment to group commitment to group identify group goals
to Achieve group goals and goals, but has goals and carries out and works effectively
Group fails to perform difficulty performing assigned roles to meet them in all
Goals assigned roles assigned roles effectively roles assumed
Interperson Rarely to interacts Interacts with other Interacts with all Interacts positively
al Skills in positively within a group members if group members with all group
Group group, even with prompted, but spontaneously and members, encourages
Work prompting, and sometimes expresses contributes in a way such interaction in
shows frequent lack opinions which are that is sensitive to the others, and is always
of sensitivity to insensitive to the abilities and feelings sensitive to the
others' feelings and abilities and feelings of others abilities and feelings
abilities in opinions of others of others'
expressed contributions
Marks Obtained
Comments, if any:
LABORATORY SKILLS RUBRIC (Cognitive)


<50 50 - 59% 60 - 69% 70 - 79% 80 - 100%
%
S1 S2 S3
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Very little Introduction is Introduction is nearly Introduction complete
Introduction background brief with some complete, missing some and well-written;
information minor mistakes minor points provides all necessary
provided or background principles
information is for the experiment
incorrect
Material/ Does not Materials are Materials are mentioned Materials and amounts
components provide mentioned but but without amounts. are identified. Steps are
enough without amounts. Steps are easy to follow easy to follow and in
information to Steps are vague and in the paragraph the paragraph from.
describe an but in the from.
experimental paragraph from.
procedure.
Procedure The procedure The procedure The procedure could be The procedure is well
does not allow does not allow more efficiently designed and allows
control of all control of some designed, but it allows control of all variables
variables variables selected control of all variables selected. All stages of
selected. Many but many stages of selected. Most stages of the procedure are
stages of the the procedure are the procedure are entered on the lab
procedure are entered on the lab entered on the lab report.
not entered on report. report.
the lab report.
Data Record Data is brief One component of Two components of Data is complete and
and missing data incomplete: data incomplete: relevant. Tables with
significant ___Tables ___Tables units are provided.
pieces of ___Graphs ___Graphs Graphs are labeled. All
information. ___Questions ___Questions questions are answered
correctly.
Data Data are Data are presented Data are presented in Data are presented in
Analysis presented in in ways (charts, ways (charts, tables, ways (charts, tables,
very unclear tables, graphs) that graphs) that can be graphs) that best
manner. Error are not clear understood and facilitate understanding
analysis is not enough. Error interpreted. Error and interpretation. Error
included. analysis is analysis is included. analysis is included.
included.
Evaluation The results are The results are not The results are The results are fully
of not interpreted interpreted in a interpreted and interpreted and
experiment at all. The logical way or compared with compared with
in report limitations and compared with literature values, but not literature values. The
weaknesses are literature values. perfectly. The limitations are
not discussed, The limitations are limitations are discussed and
nor are discussed but no discussed, but few suggestions are made as
suggestions suggestions are suggestions are made as to how to limit or
made as to made as to how to to how to limit or eliminate them.
how to limit or limit or eliminate eliminate them.
eliminate them. them.
Report Report Report is Report is well Report is well
Quality contains many somewhat organized and cohesive organized and cohesive
errors. organized with but contains some and contains no
some spelling or mechanical errors. mechanical errors.
grammatical Presentation seems
errors. polished.
Marks Obtained
Comments, if any:
10
Lab (2a)
TO FIND THE RESISTANCE BY COLOR-CODING

TECHNIQUES
Objective:
To understand the color code techniques of resistors
Apparatus:
 Resistors of different values
 Multimeter
Theory:
While working with electronic circuits and sorting of components resistors are color coded
for their easy selection of junk and enhanced working. Color bands are on the resistors
associated with worldwide known numerical values .Resistors are having different color
coding schemes which are given below.
The 4-band Resistor Code:
The first band gives the first digit.
The second band gives the second digit.
The third band indicates the number of zeros.
The fourth band is used to shows the

tolerance (precision) of the resistor
Tolerance:
Gold 5%
Silver 10%
No color 20%
Examples:
Green, blue, red, with silver tolerance band: 56 x 100 = 5.6 k ohms, with a
tolerance of 10%
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Brown, black, orange, gold tolerance band: 10 x 1000 = 10000 ohms (or 10K
ohms), with a tolerance of 5%
The 5-band Resistor Code: The 5 band code is used for marking high quality, precision
resistors with 2%, 1% or lower tolerances. The rules are similar to the previous
system; the only difference is the number of digit bands. The first 3 bands will
represent the value, the 4th band will be the multiplier and the 5th stripe will give us
the tolerance.
Examples:
Blue, brown, white, brown, red tolerance band: 619 x 10 = 6190 ohms (6.19K
ohms), with a tolerance of 2%
Red, red, brown, black, with a brown tolerance band: 221 x 1 = 221 ohms,
with a tolerance of 1%
The 3-band Resistor Code or Small value resistors:
The standard color code cannot show values of less than 10 . To show these small values
two special colors are used for the third band: gold which means × 0.1 and silver which
means × 0.01. The first and second bands represent the digits as normal.
Examples:
Red, violet, gold bands represent 27 × 0.1 = 2.7
Green, blue, silver bands represent 56 × 0.01 = 0.56
Resistor shorthand:
Resistor values are often written on circuit diagrams using a code system which avoids using
a decimal point because it is easy to miss the small dot. Instead the letters R, K and M are
used in place of the decimal point. To read the code: replace the letter with a decimal point,
then multiply the value by 1000 if the letter was K, or 1000000 if the letter was M. The letter
R means multiply by 1.
For example:
560R means 560ohm
2K7 means 2.7 k= 2700
1M0 means 1.0 M= 1000 k
Resistor Power Rating:
When an electrical current passes through a resistor, electrical energy is lost by the resistor in
the form of heat and the greater this current flow the hotter the resistor will get. This is
known as the Resistor Power Rating. Resistors are rated by the value of their resistance and
the power in watts that they can safely dissipate based mainly upon their size. Every resistor
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has a maximum power rating which is determined by its physical size as generally, the greater
its surface area the more power it can dissipate safely into the air.
The common standard power ratings of resistors are 0.25W, 0.5W, 1W, 2W, 5W, and 25W.
Exercise:
Q.1: Measurements:
No of 1st band 2nd band 3rd band Tolerance Calculated Measured difference
obs Multiplier % Value Value
1
2
3
4
5
Q.2: Calculate the resistance of the following:
(a) Orange, orange, brown, silver
(c) Red, violet, blue, blue, gold
(d) Green, blue, gold
Q.3: Write the color codes of the following resistance values:
(a) 47 k ohm with a tolerance of +/- 5%
(b) 5.2 ohm with a tolerance of +/- 20%
(c) 97 ohm with a tolerance of +/- 20%
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14
15
<50 50 - 59% 60 - 69% 70 - 79% 80 - 100%
%
S1 S2 S3
competence
Marks Obtained
Comments, if any:


<50 50 - 59% 60 - 69% 70 - 79% 80 - 100%
%
S1 S2 S3
16
incorrect
procedure.
the lab report.
correctly.
included.
errors. polished.
Marks Obtained
Comments, if any:
Lab (2b)
TO STUDY RESISTORS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL
17
Objective:
To understand different combinational circuits of resistors
Theory:
Resistors Combinations:
Resistors can be connected together in a series connection, a parallel connection or

combinations of both series and parallel together, to produce more complex networks whose
overall resistance is a combination of the individual resistors. Whatever the combination, all
resistors obey Ohm's Law and Kirchoff's Circuit Laws.
Resistors in Series:
Resistors are said to be connected in "Series", when they are daisy chained together in a
single line. Since all the current flowing through the first resistor has no other way to go it
must also pass through the second resistor and the third and so on. Then, resistors in series
have a Common Current flowing through them, for example:
IR1 = IR2 = IR3 = IAB = 1mA
In the following example the resistors R 1, R2 and R3 are all connected together in series
between points A and B.
Series Resistor Circuit
As the resistors are connected together in series the same current passes through each resistor
in the chain and the total resistance, RT of the circuit must be equal to the sum of all the
individual resistors added together. That is
RT = R1 + R2 + R3
and by taking the individual values of the resistors in our simple example above, the total
resistance is given as:
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 = 1kΩ + 2kΩ + 6kΩ = 9kΩ
18
Therefore, we can replace all 3 resistors above with just one single resistor with a value of
9kΩ.
Where 4, 5 or even more resistors are all connected together in series, the total resistance of
the series circuit RT would still be the sum of all the individual resistors connected together.
This total resistance is generally known as the Equivalent Resistance and can be defined
as; " a single value of resistance that can replace any number of resistors without altering
the values of the current or the voltage in the circuit". Then the equation given for calculating
total resistance of the circuit when resistors are connected together in series is given as:
Series Resistor Equation
Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3 + ..... Rn etc.
One important point to remember about resistors in series circuits, the total resistance (RT) of
any two or more resistors connected together in series will always be GREATER than the
value of the largest resistor in the chain and in our example above RT = 9kΩ were as the
largest value resistor is only 6kΩ.
Resistors in Parallel:
Resistors are said to be connected together in "Parallel" when both of their terminals are
respectively connected to each terminal of the other resistor or resistors. The voltage drop
across all of the resistors in parallel is the same. In the following circuit the resistors R 1, R2
and R3 are all connected together in parallel between the two points A and B.
Parallel Resistor Circuit
In the previous series resistor circuit we saw that the total resistance, R T of the circuit was
equal to the sum of all the individual resistors added together. For resistors in parallel the
equivalent circuit resistance RT is calculated differently.
Parallel Resistor Equation
Here, the reciprocal ( 1/Rn ) value of the individual resistances are all added together instead
of the resistances themselves. This gives us a value known as Conductance, symbol G with
the units of conductance being the Siemens, symbol S. Conductance is therefore the
19
reciprocal or the inverse of resistance, ( G = 1/R ). To convert this conductance sum back into
a resistance value we need to take the reciprocal of the conductance giving us then the total
resistance, RT of the resistors in parallel.
Example No1:
For example, find the total resistance of the following parallel network
Then the total resistance RT across the two terminals A and B is calculated as:
This method of calculation can be used for calculating any number of individual
Example No 2:
20
Ra = R5 // R4 = 6k // 6k = 3k ohm (// means parallel combination)
Rb = Ra + R3 + R6 = 3k + 1k + 4k = 8k ohm
Rc = R1 // R2 = 16k // 16k = 8k ohm
Req = Rb // Rc = 4k ohm
Example No 3:
Ra = R3 // R4 = 6k // 6k = 3k ohm
Rb = Ra + R5 = 3k + 3k = 6k ohm
Rc = Rb // R2 = 6k // 6k = 3k ohm
Req = R1 // Rc = 1.5k ohm
Example No 4:
21
Ra = R5 + R4 = 7k + 5k = 12k ohm
Rb = Ra // R3 = 12k // 12k = 6k ohm
Rc = Rb + R2 = 6k + 6k = 12k ohm
Rd = R1 // R2 = 6k ohm
Req = Rd // R6 = 3k ohm
Exercise:
Question:1 What is the equivalent resistance of these resistance combinations?
Req= ……….. Req=……………
22
Q.2
(a) Are the elements 3 and 4 in series?
(b) Are the elements 1 and 2 in series?
(c) Is the battery in series with any element?
Q.3 Imagine you have a 100 ohm resistor. You want to add a resistor in series with this 100
ohm resistor to limit the current to 0.5 amp when 110 volts is placed across the two resistors
on series. How much resistance should you use? (Hint: Use ohms law)
23
24
25
<50 50 - 59% 60 - 69% 70 - 79% 80 - 100%
%
S1 S2 S3
competence
Marks Obtained
Comments, if any:


<50 50 - 59% 60 - 69% 70 - 79% 80 - 100%
%
S1 S2 S3
26
incorrect
procedure.
the lab report.
correctly.
included.
errors. polished.
Marks Obtained
Comments, if any:
Lab 03
27
FAMILIARIZATION WITH ANALOG AND DIGITAL
MULTIMETER
Objective: To understand and learn the practical use of analog and digital multimeter
Apparatus:
 Analog multimeter
 Digital multimeter
 Ac / Dc power source
 Resistors
Theory: The perfect use of précised measuring of equipment is very important before start
working with electrical and electronics circuits. Analog meter consists of a galvanometer and
a pointer for showing electrical quantities while digital meters use electronics devices like
A/D (analog to digital) converter and seven segment display for reading electrical quantities.
Multimeter:
A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a volt/ohm meter or VOM, is an electronic

measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit. A typical
multimeter may include features such as the ability to measure voltage, current and resistance
Digital Multimeter Analog Multimeter
How meters are connected ?
Using as an Ammeter:
28
It is important for you to have a clear idea of how meters are connected into circuits.
Diagrams A and B below show a circuit before and after connecting an ammeter.To measure
current, the circuit must be broken to allow the ammeter to be connected in series and
ammeters must have a LOW resistance
Figure A Figure B
Think about the changes you would have to make to a practical circuit in order to include the
ammeter. To start with, you need to break the circuit so that the ammeter can be connected in
series. All the current flowing in the circuit must pass through the ammeter. Meters are not
supposed to alter the behaviour of the circuit, and it follows that an ammeter must have a very
LOW resistance.
Using as a Voltmeter:
To measure potential difference (voltage), the circuit is not changed. The voltmeter is
connected in parallel between the two points where the measurement is to be made. Since the
voltmeter provides a parallel pathway, it should take as little current as possible. In other
words, a voltmeter should have a very HIGH resistance. Diagram A and C below show a
circuit before and after connecting a voltmeter:
Figure A Figure C
Circuit Diagram
29
R1=1kΩ, R2=2.2kΩ, R3=4.7kΩ
Procedure:
1. Make the above circuit on the bread board.

2. Set the supply voltage as 5V. Now measure the voltages across R1, R2 and R3 using digital
multi meter by connecting it in parallel with the each resistor. Note down these values in the
table given below.
3. Then measure the current I flowing through the resistors by connecting the multi meter in
series with the resistors. As the resistors are connected in series hence the current flowing
through them will be same.
4. Now measure the voltage drop across R1 using analog multi meter. You will observe that
these values will approximately the same as measured with the help of digital multi meter.
5. Fill the table with these values. Repeat the experiment by changing the supply voltage to
8V and 12V.
Question No: 1:
No of Vdc Voltage Voltage Voltage Current Voltage across R1

Obs (Battery) Across Across Across Across using analog
R1 R2 R3 R1,R2,R3 multimeter
(Volts) (Volts) (Volts) I (mA) (Volts)
1 5V
2 8V
3 12V
Question No: 2:
Measure the resistance of a resistor with the help of analog multimeter using all the four
ranges and comment on your observations.
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<50 50 - 59% 60 - 69% 70 - 79% 80 - 100%
%
S1 S2 S3
competence
Marks Obtained
Comments, if any:


<50 50 - 59% 60 - 69% 70 - 79% 80 - 100%
%
S1 S2 S3
incorrect
34
procedure.
the lab report.
correctly.
included.
errors. polished.
Marks Obtained
Comments, if any:
Lab 04
OHM’S LAW
Objective: To verify Ohm’s Law using different Circuits
Apparatus:
35
 Multi meter
 Resistors of different values
 Connecting wires
Theory:
 Current (I) is same in all parts of a series circuit

 Total resistance (R) equals the sum of all series
resistance
 Total resistance is reciprocal of the sum of all
the resistances
 The applied voltage (V) is the same across the parallel resistors
 Each branch current (I) equals the sum of the Branch currents
Ohm’s Law:
Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between two points is directly
proportional to the potential difference or voltage across the two points, and inversely
proportional to the resistance between them .The mathematical equation that describes this
relationship is:
Where I is the current through the resistance in units of amperes, V is the potential difference
measured across the resistance in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the conductor in
units of ohms.
Precautions:
 No loose connections should exist

 Always insert Ammeter in series
 Always insert Voltmeter in parallel
Circuit Diagram:
36
Procedure:
1. Make the above circuit on a bread board.

2. Keep the value of R= 2.2 k ohms throughout the practical.
3. Set the supply voltage as 3V. Now measure the voltage drop V R across the resistor using a
digital multi meter.
4. Now measure the current in the circuit with the help of digital multi meter.
5. Take the ratio of VR and I. This value should be approximately equal to 2.2 k ohms and
should remain the same throughout the practical. It shows that as current increases by
increasing the supply voltage, the voltage drop across the resistor also increases
proportionally and the ratio of the voltage drop and the current remains the same (i.e. R).
6. Repeat the above procedure by changing the supply voltage to 6V, 9V, 12V and 15V and
note your readings.
7. Then plot a graph between Voltage drop and the current. A straight line graph is obtained
that shows the direct proportionality between V and I.
Table 1: Observation and calculations from the above circuit:
No. of Vs
observations (Applied VR R I R= VR/I
Voltage) (Volts) (ohms) (mA)
1
V(Voltage) Vs I (Current) Graph from the Above Experimental Results
37
(Volts)
V
I (mA)
38
39
40
<50 50 - 59% 60 - 69% 70 - 79% 80 - 100%
%
S1 S2 S3
competence
Marks Obtained
Comments, if any:


<50 50 - 59% 60 - 69% 70 - 79% 80 - 100%
%
S1 S2 S3
41
incorrect
procedure.
the lab report.
correctly.
included.
errors. polished.
Marks Obtained
Comments, if any:
Lab 05
42
Voltage Divider and Current Divider
Objective: To study Voltage Divider rule and Current Divider

Theory:
Voltage Divider:
Voltage and Current division allow us to simplify the task of analyzing a

circuit. Voltage Division allows us to calculate what fraction of the total
voltage across a series string of resistors is dropped across any one
resistor.
For the circuit of Figure 1, Voltage Division formulas are:
The voltage divider formula is derived as follows:
According to OHMS law, the voltage drop across R1 in the above circuit is given as:
V1=IxR1 …………….1
43
‘I’ is the total current flowing through the circuit. As it is a series combination of resistors so
current flowing through them will be same and will be calculated by first taking the
equivalent resistance.
As
Req =R1 + R2
Hence
I = Vs/ (R1 + R2)
where Vs is the supply voltage.
Putting this value in equation 1, we get
Example:1:
Example:2:
44
Vx = - 10 x (5/(5+2))= -7.1 V
By ohms Law,
As the current is opposite to the polarity of the Vx, hence it will be
given as:
Ix= - Vx/5 = 1.42 A
Current Divider:
Current divider is a simple linear circuit that produces an output current (IX) that is a fraction
of its input current (IT).
A general formula for the current IX in a resistor RX that is in parallel with a combination of
other resistors of total resistance RT as shown by Figure .where IT is the total current entering
the combined network of RX in parallel with RT. Notice that when RT is composed of a
parallel combination of resistors, say R1, R2 and R3, then the reciprocal of each resistor must
be added to find the total resistance RT:
45
If we have two resistors in parallel then we can apply current division. For deriving its
formula we use the following steps:
By ohms law,
V1 = I1/R1
As V1= Vs (since the battery is in parallel with the resistors)
So I1 = Vs/ R1……………………………………………………………..1
As R1 and R2 are connected in parallel so the equivalent resistance will be given as:
Req = (R1xR2)/ (R1+ R2)
Hence the total current ‘Is’ supplied by the battery is:
Is = Vs / Req
Vs = Is x [(R1xR2)/ (R1+ R2)]…………………………………………...2
Putting this value in 1, we get:
Example:1:
46
Example:2:
Procedure:
47
For voltage division:
1. Make the circuit in Figure 1 on the bread board.

2. Use R1= 5.6 k ohms and R2= 1.2 K ohms.
3. Set the supply voltage as 5V.
4. Now measure the total current ‘Is’ supplied by the battery with the help of digital multi
meter and note its value in the table.
5. Then measure the voltage drops across both the resistors with multi meter and note their
values.
6. Now find ‘VTotal’ by adding the two voltage drops.
7. Repeat the above steps for R1=R2=5.6 k ohms.
For current division:
1. Make the circuit in Figure 2 on the bread board.

2. Measure the currents and fill the table 2.
Observations & Calculations
Question 1: Verifying the voltage division:
a) Construct the circuit as shown in Figure 1. Measure the voltages v1 and v2 by choosing R1
= 5.6 K ohms, R2 = 1.2 K ohms and setting the variable power supply voltage Vs = 5V.
Repeat this step for R1 = R2 = 5.6 K ohms and note down the values.
b) Calculate the voltages V1 and V2 by using the formulas (1) and (2) in each case.
c) Compare the results from steps 1a and 1b.
Table 1:
No. Supply R1 R2 ITotal V1 V2 VTotal= V1+ V2

of Voltage (k (k (mA) (volts) (volts) (volts)
Obs Vs ohms) ohms)
(volts)
1.
2.
Question 2: Verifying Current Division:
a) Construct the circuit as shown in figure 2. Measure the currents Is, I1 and I2 by choosing
R1 = 2.2 K ohms, R2 = 5.6 K ohms and Rs=1 K ohms. Set the variable power supply voltage
at Vs=10 V. Repeat this step by using R1=R2 =2.2 K ohms and note down the values.
48
b) Calculate the currents I1 and I2 by using the formulas (3) and (4).
Table 2:
No. Supply R1 R2 Rs Is I1 I2 Is= I1+ I2

of Voltage (k (k (k (mA) (mA) (mA) (mA)
Obs Vs ohms) ohms) ohms)
(volts)
1.
2.
Question: 3:
A 1 ohm resistor is connected in series with a 100 k ohms resistor. Calculate the voltage drop
across both the resistors. What do you observe? Comment. (Help: Take any value of supply
voltage)
Question: 4:
A 1 ohm resistor is connected in parallel with a 100 k ohm resistor. Calculate the currents
flowing through each resistor. What do you observer. Comment . (Help: Take any value of
supply current)
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incorrect
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the lab report.
correctly.
included.
errors. polished.
Marks Obtained
Comments, if any:
Lab 6(a)
Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL)
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Objective: Understanding and performing Kirchhoff’s voltage law
Apparatus:
 Resistors
 DMM
Statement:
The directed sum of the electrical potential differences (voltage) around any closed circuit is
zero, or:
More simply, the sum of the emfs in any closed loop is equivalent to the sum of the potential
drops in that loop, or:
The algebraic sum of the products of the resistances of the conductors and the currents in
them in a closed loop is equal to the total emf available in that loop.
By KVL,
-E + V1 + V2 = 0
Or;
E = V1 + V2
Circuit - a circuit is a closed loop conducting path in which an electrical current flows.
55
Path - a line of connecting elements or sources with no elements or sources included more than
once.
Node - a node is a junction, connection or terminal within a circuit were two or more circuit
elements are connected or joined together giving a connection point between two or more
branches. A node is indicated by a dot.
Branch - a branch is a single or group of components such as resistors or a source which are
connected between two nodes.
Loop - a loop is a simple closed path in a circuit in which no circuit element or node is
encountered more than once.
Example:1:
By KVL,
15 V = 6V + 4V + VR3
VR3 = 5V
Example: 2:
56
Loop 1:
-V1 + I1 1k ohm + (I1 - I2) 1k ohm = 0
Loop 2:
I1 1k ohm + (I1 - I2) 1k ohm = V2
Let: V1 = 7V and V2 = 4V
Results:
I1 = 3.33 mA
I2 = -0.33 mA
Finally
Vout = (I1 - I2) 1k ohm = 3.66V
Experimental Setup:
57
Procedure:
1. Make the above circuit on the bread board. Take R1=R3= 5.6 k ohm and R2= 10 k ohm.
2. Set the input value as 5V and measure the potential drop V1, V2, V3 across R1, R2 and R3
respectively with the help of DMM.
3. Note the readings in the table 1(a).
4. Add V1, V2, V3 to get the total emf of the battery. It should be equal to the voltage
supplied.
6. Now repeat the above steps by changing the supply voltage to 12V and 15V.
7. Now fill the table 1(b) with the values calculated theoretically using KVL.
8. The calculated and observed values should approximately be the same.
Question 1
(a) Measured values
No. of Obs. Supply V1 V2 V3 VTotal= V1+ V2+ V3+ V4

voltage (volts) (volts) (volts) (volts)
(volts)
1. 5V
2. 12 V
3. 15 V
(b) Calculated values
No. of Obs. Supply V1 V2 V3 VTotal= V1+ V2+ V3+ V4

voltage (volts) (volts) (volts) (volts)
(volts)
1. 5V
2. 12 V
3. 15 V
Show all calculations done in 1(b)
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correctly.
included.
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Marks Obtained
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Lab 6(b)
Kirchhoff's Current law (KCL)
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Objective: Understanding and performing Kirchhoff’s current law
Apparatus:
 Resistors
 DMM
Statement:
At any node (junction) in an electrical circuit, the sum of currents flowing into that node is
equal to the sum of currents flowing out of that node, or:
The algebraic sum of currents in a network of conductors meeting at a point is zero.
Here,
I = IA + IB + IC
Example: 1:
63
Writing the nodal equations (We assume all currents are leaving the node):
V 1  12 v V 1  5v V 1  V 2
  0
1k 6k 2k
V 2  V1 V 2 V 2  10v
  0
2k 5k 7 k
Rearranging the terms:
10V 1  3 V 2  77
35V 1  59V 2  100
V1= 8.748V
V2= 3.495V
Currents:
V 1  12v V1  V 2
I1k = = -3.252 mA () I2k = = 2.626 mA ()
1k 2k
V 2  10 v V 2  10 v
I3k = = 1.928 mA () I4k = = 1.928 mA ()
7k 7k
V2 V 1  5v
I5k = = 0.699 mA () I6k = = 0.625 mA ()
5k 6k
Experimental Setup:
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Procedure:
1. Make the above circuit on the bread board. Take R2=R3= 10 k ohm and R1= 1 k ohm.
2. Set the input value as 5V and measure the currents IR1, IR2, IR3 across R1, R2 and R3
respectively and the total current Itotal with the help of DMM.
3. Note the readings in the table 1(a).
4. Add IR1, IR2 and IR3 to get the total current supplied by the battery. It should be equal to the
total current Itotal measured with the help of DMM.
6. Now repeat the above steps by changing the supply voltage to 12V and 15V.
7. Now fill the table 1(b) by using the values calculated theoretically with KCL.
8. The calculated and observed values should approximately be the same.
Question 1
(a) Measured values
No. of Obs. Supply Itotal IR1 IR2 IR3 Itotal= IR1+ IR2+ IR3
voltage (mA) (mA) (mA) (mA) (mA)
(volts)
1. 5V
2. 12 V
3. 15 V
(b) Calculated values
No. of Obs. Supply Itotal IR1 IR2 IR3 Itotal= IR1+ IR2+ IR3
voltage (mA) (mA) (mA) (mA) (mA)
(volts)
1. 5V
2. 12 V
3. 15 V
65
Show all the calculations done in part 1(b)
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incorrect
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correctly.
included.
errors. polished.
Marks Obtained
Comments, if any:
Lab 07
Magnetic lines of Force
Objective:
 To understand the properties of magnetic field.
70
 To draw the line of force or flux and to understand and utilize electromagnet.
Apparatus:
 Magnet Bars
 Multi meter
 Compass Needle
 Electromagnet
Theory:
Magnetic lines of Force:
Introduction:
Magnetic line of force is continuous curve in a magnetic field. Any point in the magnetic
lines of force represents the direction of the magnetic field at that point. These force lines can
be drawn by using the compass needle and the iron fillings. Magnetic lines of force provide
the direction of magnetic field.
Characteristics of magnetic lines of force:
 Magnetic lines of force have a travel

path from north to South Pole of a
magnet for outside and for inside it
have a travel path from south to North
Pole of the magnet.
 Magnetic lines of force are continuous
curve and closed.
 The strength of the magnetic field
should be calculated by measuring the
number of lines per unit area.
 The lines of force are closer at the
poles of the magnet and they are wider
when it moves away from the poles of the magnet. Thus the magnetic field is stronger
at the poles and it is reduces when it is move away from the poles.
 At any point the tangent of the lines of force provides the magnetic field direction also
at the same point.
 It is impossible that the magnetic lines of force intersect.
71
Procedure:
1. Set the bar magnet on the table as shown in figure.

2. Place compass around the magnet for at least 15 positions and record the directions printed by
the compass needle.
3. Plot your observed directions and draw the smooth curve to show the lines of force.
4. Repeat the above procedure for the case of two attracting bar magnets and two repelling ones.
5. Give a brief conclusion to your observations.
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included.
errors. polished.
Marks Obtained
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Lab 08
FAMILIRIZATION WITH LDR

Objective: to study the resistive properties of LDR by varying intensity of light
Theory:
Light Dependent Resistor (LDR):

An LDR is an input transducer (sensor) which converts brightness (light) to resistance. It is
made from cadmium sulphide (CdS) and the resistance decreases as the brightness of light
falling on the LDR increases.
A multimeter can be used to find the resistance in darkness and bright light, these are the
typical results for a standard LDR:
 Darkness: maximum resistance, about 1M .

 Very bright light: minimum resistance, about 100 .
An LDR may be connected either way round and no special precautions are required when
soldering.
Experimental Setup:
78
Resistors Used: LDR ,100Ω, 1k Ω, 10k Ω, 100k Ω,1M Ω
Exercise:
Procedure:
1. Make the circuit shown in the above figure.
2. Set the input voltage to 5V.
3. Keep the value of the resistance as 100 ohms.
4. Measure the voltage across the LDR in light (V1) and in the shade (V2) and find the
difference of the two voltages. Also note the current in the series circuit.
5. Now repeat the above procedure by changing the value of the resistance and fill the
following table.
6. Write a brief conclusion of the experiment performed.
No of R1 Vdc Vout in Vout in Voltage Change in Total Current

Observations (Battery) the the Across R1 Voltage in the circuit
Light Shade ∆V=V2-V1 It
V1 V2 mA
1 100Ω 5V
2 1k Ω 5V
3 10k Ω 5V
4 100k Ω 5V
5 1M Ω 5V
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the lab report.
correctly.
included.
errors. polished.
Marks Obtained
Comments, if any:
Lab 9
84
To Generate Waveforms of Different Frequencies and View them
on Oscilloscope and Learn Graph Plotting
Objective:
The main aim is to get familiar with the function of Volts/Div and Time/Div knobs of the
oscilloscope and to learn how to plot a graph displayed on the oscilloscope on a graph sheet.
Theory:
The time period of a wave is the time taken to complete one cycle.
The time period of a wave changes with the change in frequency according to the following
equation:
t= 1/f
When a wave is displayed on the oscilloscope and the volts/Div and Time/div knobs are
varied, then only the values of scale on the oscilloscope change (i.e. the value of one box
along x-axis or y-axis). It does not affect the peak-to-peak voltage or the time period of the
wave as it depends upon the frequency and peak-to-peak values that we have set using the
function generator. Once the waveform is to be plotted on a graph sheet, the following things
should be clearly mentioned:
1. The scale chosen should be mentioned at the top right corner of the graph sheet e.g.
Scale:
Along x-axis:
1 big box = 1 ms
Along y-axis:
1 big box = 1V
2. The quantities plotted on x and y axes should be mentioned along with their symbols
and units in brackets.
85
3. The time period and the peak-to-peak voltage should also be shown.
Procedure:
1. Set the function generator to give the following inputs one by one:
a) Vin = 3Vp-p
f= 0.5 kHz
b) Vin= 4Vp-p
f= 2.5 kHz
c) Vin= 5Vp-p
f= 2.75 kHz
2. Connect the input to the calibrated oscilloscope and view the waveform. Read the
graph according to the set Volts/Div and Time/Div values. The time period of the
wave should correspond to the inverse of the given frequency. Draw the graph on the
graph sheet by properly labeling the waveform and mentioning the necessary
information.
3. Repeat the above procedure for part b and c and draw their graphs.
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incorrect
procedure.
the lab report.
correctly.
included.
errors. polished.
Marks Obtained
Comments, if any:
Lab 10 (a)
CHARGING AND DISCHARGING OF CAPACITOR
91
Objective:
The aim of this lab is to show that the charging and discharging follows an exponential
function and that the time constant is RC.
Theory:
Charging a Capacitor:
When a battery is connected to a series resistor and capacitor, the initial current is high as the
battery transports charge from one plate of the capacitor to the other. The charging current
asymptotically approaches zero as the capacitor becomes charged up to the battery voltage.
Charging the capacitor stores energy in the electric field between the capacitor plates. The
rate of charging is typically described in terms of a time constant RC.
Discharging a Capacitor:
When a charged capacitor is connected to a resistor and Voltage source V b is disconnected ,

the charge flows out of the proportional to the voltage, and thus to the total charge present.
This exponential decay of voltage may be likened to a water tank with a
small hole in the bottom, filled with water shown by figure, in which the
flow or rate of loss of volume of water in the tank (analogous to the rate
of loss of electrical charge from the capacitor) is proportional to the
pressure of the water as it exerts itself on the hole (analogous to the
voltage across the resistor). As the pressure is proportional to the height
of water in the tank, which is in turn proportional to the total volume of
water, we find that the volume of water and the pressure exhibit
exponential decay.
92
Experimental Setup:
Procedure:
1. Make the circuit as shown in the above figure. Use R= 10 k ohm and C= 0.1 uF (capacitor
code: 104).
2. Set the input voltage to 5Vp-p square wave and f=50 Hz on function generator. Connect this
input into the circuit by connecting the positive probe to one leg of the resistor and black
probe to one leg of the capacitor.
3. Now turn on the oscilloscope and calibrate CH-1 and CH-2. Now connect the input from the
function generator to CH-1 of the oscilloscope. Connect another probe to CH-2 of the
oscilloscope and connect it across the capacitor to see the output on the oscilloscope. Use
“DUAL” vertical mode to view both the input and output. The waveforms should look like
the following: Draw the waveform displayed on the oscilloscope on a graph sheet.
Red= square wane input

Blue= capacitor output
4. Now remove the AC input from the circuit.
Connect a 5V DC battery to the circuit.
5. Connect a DMM across the capacitor to
measure the voltage across it. Turn on the
trainer and start the stopwatch at the same time. Keep noting the voltage displayed on the
DMM. Stop the stopwatch when the voltage across the capacitor stops changing. This value
should correspond to the time constant calculated with the help of the following formula:
T = RC
93
6. Note this value as the charging time T1. Now reverse the input leads (connect the 5V wire to
ground) to make the capacitor discharge. Note the time on the stopwatch until the capacitor
discharges from Vc to 0V. This is the discharging time of the capacitor T2.
7. Change the values of resistors and capacitors and fill the following table:
No of Input Calculated Voltage Charging Dis-Charging

Obs. voltage R C time across time of time of the
“Vi” constant capacitor the capacitor
(volts) τ=R*C “Vc” capacitor “T2”
(volts) “T1” (seconds)
(seconds)
1 5V 100 k ohm 22 uF
2 8V 47 k ohm 100 uF
3 12V 1M ohm 1 uF
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95
incorrect
procedure.
the lab report.
correctly.
included.
errors. polished.
Marks Obtained
Comments, if any:
Lab 10(b)
To Learn Soldering with the Help of a Soldering Gun
Objective:
96
The aim is to learn soldering of a Vero board or PCB.
Theory:
Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are joined together by melting and
flowing a filler metal (solder) into the joint, the filler metal having a lower melting point than
the work piece. Soldering differs from welding in that soldering does not involve melting the
work pieces. Electronic soldering connects electrical wiring and electronic
components to printed circuit boards (PCBs).
A soldering iron is used with a solder wire for soldering.
A soldered Vero board:
Class Activity:
Solder a Vero board in class.
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included.
errors. polished.
Marks Obtained
Comments, if any:
101
Lab 11
Familiarization with Capacitor coding
Objective:
The aim is to read the capacitor codes and decipher them to get the value of capacitance.
Theory:
Capacitance:
This is a measure of a capacitor's ability to store charge. A large capacitance means that more
charge can be stored. Capacitance is measured in farads, symbol F. However 1F is very large,
so prefixes are used to show the smaller values.
Three prefixes (multipliers) are used, µ (micro), n (nano) and p (pico):
 µ means 10-6 (millionth), so 1000000µF = 1F

 n means 10-9 (thousand-millionth), so 1000nF = 1µF
 p means 10-12 (million-millionth), so 1000pF = 1nF
Capacitor values can be very difficult to find because there are many types of capacitor with
different labeling systems.
There are many types of capacitor but they can be split into two
groups, polarised and unpolarised. Each group has its own circuit symbol.
Polarised capacitors (large values, 1µF +):
Examples: Circuit symbol:
Unpolarised capacitors (small values, up to 1µF):
Examples: Circuit symbol:
Large capacitors usually have their value printed plainly on them, such as 10.uF (Ten Micro
Farads) but smaller disk types along with plastic film types often have just 2 or three numbers
on them.
Small value ceramic, mylar, and polyester type capacitors have their values stamped on their
bodies as a numerical code, 102, 473, etc. in very small print. These codes can easily be
deciphered into a standard value in microfarads. Sometimes the multiplier is used in place of
the decimal point:
For example: 4n7 means 4.7nF.
102
Capacitor Shorthand:
Smaller capacitors use a shorthand notation, to display all the relevant information in the
limited space. The most commonly used format is: XYZ J/K/M VOLTS V, where XYZ
represents the capacitance (calculated as XY × 10 Z pF), the letters J, K or M indicate the
tolerance (±5%, ±10% and ±20% respectively) and VOLTS V represents the working voltage.
A number code is often used on small capacitors where printing is difficult:
 the 1st number is the 1st digit,
 the 2nd number is the 2nd digit,
 the 3rd number is the number of zeros to give the capacitance in pF.
 Ignore any letters - they just indicate tolerance and voltage rating.
Multiplier Table (Ceramic)
Multiplier (this times the first two digits

Third digit
gives you the value in Pico-Farads)
0 1
1 10
2 100
3 1,000
4 10,000
5 100,000
6 n/a
7 n/a
8 .01
9 .1
Table 1: Digit Multipliers
Common Temperature Coefficient Codes (Ceramic)
103
Code Tolerance
C ±0.25pF
J ±5%
K ±10%
M ±20%
D ±0.5pF
Z +80% / -20%
Tolerance:
The percentage of allowed deviation of the capacitance from the rated value is called
capacitance tolerance. The actual capacitance value of a capacitor should be within the
tolerance limits, or the capacitor is out of specification.
Example: 1:
You have a capacitor with "103" stamped on it.
The first two digits are: 1 0
The third digit is: 3 so add three zeros to the 1 0 --> 1 0, 0 0 0 pf
Now to covert the 10,000pf to microfarads:

Move the decimal point to the left six places giving 0.01 microfarads.
Example 2:
You have another capacitor with "104" stamped on it.

The first two digits are: 1 0
The third digit is: 4 so add four zeros to the 1 0 --> 1 0 0, 0 0 0 pf
Now to covert the 100,000pf to microfarads:

Move the decimal point to the left six places giving 0.10 microfarads.
Values greater than 1 microfarad are also coded this way.

Example 3:
Number stamped on capacitor: 223

Decoded value: 22 + 000 = 22,000pF = 0.022 microfarads.
Exercise:
Question:1: Find the capacitance of the following in uF:
1. 473J
2. 154M
3. 105K
4. 101J
104
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included.
errors. polished.
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included.
errors. polished.
Marks Obtained
Comments, if any:
109

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Mohammad Ali Jinnah University

SUBJECT : Applied Physics Lab

COURSE CODE : PH1011

Student NAME REG.NO SECTION

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING

Introduction to widely used components

This type of variable resistor with 3 contacts

Variable Capacitor A variable capacitor is used in a radio tuner.

This type of variable capacitor (a trimmer)

LED A transducer which converts

A special diode which is used

Photodiode A light-sensitive diode.

Meters and Oscilloscope

Ammeter An ammeter is used to measure current.

A galvanometer is a very sensitive meter

An ohmmeter is used to measure resistance.

An oscilloscope is used to display the shape

Stripboard is used to make up permanent,

Q.2: Why is a Zener Diode better than a simple diode?

Q.3: Discuss briefly the working of a potentiometer?

LABORATORY SKILLS RUBRIC (Cognitive)

Criteria Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Score

TO FIND THE RESISTANCE BY COLOR-CODING

The 4-band Resistor Code:

The first band gives the first digit.

The second band gives the second digit.

The third band indicates the number of zeros.

The fourth band is used to shows the

The 3-band Resistor Code or Small value resistors:

Red, violet, gold bands represent 27 × 0.1 = 2.7

Green, blue, silver bands represent 56 × 0.01 = 0.56

Resistor Power Rating:

Q.2: Calculate the resistance of the following:

(a) Orange, orange, brown, silver

(c) Red, violet, blue, blue, gold

(d) Green, blue, gold

Q.3: Write the color codes of the following resistance values:

(a) 47 k ohm with a tolerance of +/- 5%

(b) 5.2 ohm with a tolerance of +/- 20%

(c) 97 ohm with a tolerance of +/- 20%

Lab Title: Second-Order Filters Total Marks: 80

LABORATORY SKILLS RUBRIC (Cognitive)

Criteria Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Score

TO STUDY RESISTORS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

To understand different combinational circuits of resistors

Resistors can be connected together in a series connection, a parallel connection or

IR1 = IR2 = IR3 = IAB = 1mA

Series Resistor Circuit

RT = R1 + R2 + R3 = 1kΩ + 2kΩ + 6kΩ = 9kΩ

Series Resistor Equation

Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3 + ..... Rn etc.

Parallel Resistor Circuit

Parallel Resistor Equation

Rc = R1 // R2 = 16k // 16k = 8k ohm

Req = R1 // Rc = 1.5k ohm

Rb = Ra // R3 = 12k // 12k = 6k ohm

Req= ……….. Req=……………

(a) Are the elements 3 and 4 in series?

(b) Are the elements 1 and 2 in series?

(c) Is the battery in series with any element?

Lab Title: Second-Order Filters Total Marks: 80

LABORATORY SKILLS RUBRIC (Cognitive)

Criteria Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Score

A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a volt/ohm meter or VOM, is an electronic