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Wireless Technology

Chap 1. Fundamentals of Wireless Communication


1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Wireless communication?
Advantages of Wireless Communication:
1. Mobility: Electromagnetic waves are used for wireless communication. These waves do not
require any medium to travel from one place to another
2. Economical: Wireless Communication is achieved without the deployment of cables. Sometimes
it is hard to achieve communication in difficult to wire areas, hence wireless communication is
advanced in such areas
3. Flexibility: In case of Wireless networks, it is easier to add a new device. Failure of devices
won’t pose any impact on the operation of other devices
4. Convenience: It is convenient to use wireless devices such as Mobile Phones, Laptops, PDA’s.
These devices are portable and easy to carry along the go
Disadvantages of Wireless Communication:
5. Range: The range of wireless network is limited because signals fade and become weaker as
they travel through air or space
6. Speed: Wireless systems have low data transmission rate as compared to wired communication
systems
7. Reliability: Bad weather can affect signal transmission, signals can suffer interference because
of signals transmitting from other wireless devices. These factors make wireless communication
less reliable
8. Frequency planning: Frequency planning is always required because only a limited range of
frequencies is available to be shared among multiple devices to increase bandwidth utilization
2. Explain in detail TDMA, CDMA and FDMA [D15, D16 – 10 Marks]
1. TDMA
o TDMA stands for Time Division Multiple Access
o Different users share the same time slots of the complete time available
o It uses time instead of frequency
o Each user is allocated a time slot in which a user can access the channel


Features:
o Shares single carrier frequency
o Makes Handoff Simpler
2. CDMA
o CDMA stands for Code Division Multiple Access
o Users share the same carrier frequency
o Several users can send information simultaneously over a single communication channel
o This allows the users to share a band of frequencies
o Each user is allocated an individual pseudo random codeword that is different from the
codewords of the other users

o
Features:
o Soft Handoff
o Multipath fading can be reduced
3. FDMA
o FDMA stands for Frequency Division Multiple Access
o The entire radio spectrum is divided into many slices of frequency bands and each band or
channel is allocated to a user
o The channel allocation is done according to the demands or on the basis to the user’s requested
service
o Users are assigned a pair of frequencies, one for forward channel and one for backward channel

o
Features:
o No synchronization is necessary
o Less Complexity
o Hard Handover is done

3. Why is the concept of Spread Spectrum important? Briefly explain FHSS and DSSS? [D16, D17,
M18 – 10 Marks]
4. Explain Hidden Node and Exposed Terminal Problem? [M16, D16, M18 – 10 Marks]

Hidden Node Problem


o Station S1 can communicate with Station R1.
o Station S2 can also communicate with Station R1.
o However, Stations S1 and S2 cannot communicate with each other since they cannot sense each
other on the network, because they are out of range of each other.
o The hidden node problem occurs when a node is visible to a wireless access point (AP), but not
to other nodes communicating with that AP.
o This leads to difficulties in MAC sub layer.
o Hidden Node problem can be solved using (CSMA/CA) RTS/CTS Mechanism

Exposed Node Problem


o When a node is prevented from sending packets to other nodes because of a neighbouring
transmitter is known as the exposed node problem.
o Consider an example of 4 nodes labelled R1, S1, S2, and R2, where the two receivers (R1, R2)
are out of range of each other, yet the two transmitters (S1, S2) in the middle are in range of
each other.
o Here, if a transmission between S1 and R1 is taking place, node S2 is prevented from
transmitting to R2 as it concludes after carrier sense that it will interfere with the transmission
by its neighbour S1.
o However, note that R2 could still receive the transmission of S2 without interference because it
is out of range of S1
o Exposed Node Problem can be solved using (MACA) Multiple Access Collision Avoidance which
again uses RTS/CTS mechanism
5. Note on: Electromagnetic Spectrum
• Hertz (HZ) is the SI unit used to measure frequency of an electromagnetic wave
• An Electromagnetic Spectrum simply categorizes electromagnetic waves depending upon their
frequencies
1. 3 KHZ to 30 KHZ – Very Low Frequencies (VLF)
2. 30 KHZ to 300 KHZ – Low Frequencies (LF)
3. 300 KHZ to 3 MHZ – Medium Frequencies (MF)
4. 3 MHZ to 30 MHZ – High Frequencies (HF)
5. 30 MHZ to 300 MHZ – Very High Frequencies (VHF)
Region Frequency Range (HZ)
Long Wave Radio < 3 x 10^7
Short Wave Radio 3 x 10^7 to 3 x 10^9
Microwave 3 x 10^9 to 3 x 10^11
Far Infrared 3 x 10^11 to 3 x 10^13
Thermal Infrared 3 x 10^13 to 3 x 10^14
Visible 4 x 10^14 to 7 x 10^14
Ultraviolet 7 x 10^14 to 1.5 x 10^15
X-Rays 3 x 10^16 to 3 x 10^19
Gamma Rays 3 x 10^19
6. Note on: OFDMA [5 Marks]
• OFDMA stands for Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA)
• OFDMA refers to a multi carrier modulation format
• An OFDM signal consists of a number of closely spaced modulated carriers
• When modulation such as a voice or data is applied to a carrier, sidebands spreads out on both
sides
• In order to successfully demodulate the data, receiver must receive the complete signal
• When signals are transmitted close to one another, spaces must be provided between them
and there must be a guard band between them so that receiver can distinguish them
• This is not in the case of OFDMA, because sidebands of each carrier overlapping can be received
without any interference because they are orthogonal to each other
• OFDMA has been adopted for number of broadcast standards from DAB, Video Broadcast
Standards, DVB etc.
Chap 2. The Cellular Concept
1. Note on: Handoff Strategies [D16, M18 – 10 Marks]
• The process of transferring a mobile station from one base station to another base station is
called as Handoff or Handover
• When a mobile device moves into a different cell while call/conversation is in progress, the
mobile switching center (MSC) automatically transfers the call to a new channel belonging to a
new base station
• This Handoff needs to identify the new base station and see to that all voice and control signals
are assigned to the new base station
• The Handoff must be accurate to avoid any call termination
• If there is excessive delay at Mobile Switching Center (MSC) in assigning handoff, then the signal
drops down below minimum acceptable level and it will lead to improper handoff
• A stronger signal is used as the Threshold and Handoff is done at this Threshold level (∆)
• The ∆ level must be optimum and it must not be too large or too small
∆ = PrH - PrM
Where, PrH = Received Handoff Signal Power
PrM = Received minimum usable signal power

• Improper Handoff is where handoff is not done and the signal level drops below the minimum
acceptable level to keep the channel active
• There is excessive delay by the MSC in assigning handoff (Call Drop) when ∆ is very small
2. Note on: Frequency Reuse [D17 – 10 Marks]
• Frequency Reuse is a technique of reusing frequencies and channels within a communication
system to improve capacity and spectral efficiency
• While deciding the number of channels needed for a particular geographical region, it is
important to know the radio coverage area of that region
• Base station is allocated on the basis of number of cells


• The hexagonal cell shape is universally accepted for representing a simple model of radio
coverage of area
• In the figure above, it can be seen that cells labelled with same number use the same group of
channels or frequencies
• The radio coverage area for a cell is called as Footprint
• Here, the cluster size represented by “N” is 7, so N = 7
Frequency Reuse factor = 1/N
As a single cell can gave 1/N channels out of the total number of channels
So, here, frequency reuse factor = 1/7
Let ‘S’ be the number of duplex channels for use
Then, the measure capacity ‘C’ is:
C = KMN (i)
Where, K = set of channels assigned for each cell and K<S
M = number of times cluster ‘N’ is replicated
If total number of duplex channel ‘S’ is equally distributed among all cells, then the total
number of channels available will be:
S = KN (ii)
Substitute (ii) in (i), we get the measure of cellular capacity as
C = MS
Chap 3. Cellular Networks
1. Explain the evolution of cellular systems highlighting 1G/2G/3G/4G [D17 – 10 Marks]
1G technology
o 1G technology refers to the first generation of wireless telephone technology which was first
introduced in 1980’s and completed in early 1990’s
o It used analog signals and AMPS when it was launched in USA in 1G Mobile systems
Drawbacks:
• Poor Voice Quality • Large Phone Size
• Poor Battery Life • Less Secure
2G Technology
o 2G technology is the second generation which is based on GSM
o It was launched in Finland in the year 1991 and used digital signals
o Its data speed was up to 64 kbps
Advantages:
• It supports features like SMS, Email, Internet, MMS etc.
• Better Quality and Capacity
Drawbacks:
• Unable to handle complex data
• No protection against eavesdropping
3G Technology
o 3G technology was introduced in year 2000’s
o It offers high data rates up to 2 Mbps
Advantages:
• Faster communication • More secure
• Video conferencing • Gaming
• High Speed Internet Surfing
Drawbacks:
• Cost of services was high • Low battery life
• High Power Consumption
4G technology
o 4G technology refers to the fourth generation which was introduced in late 2000’s
o It is capable of providing data rate at 100 Mbps – 1 Gbps speed
Advantages:
• High Speed and Capacity • Low cost per bit
• More Secure
Drawbacks:
• High Battery Consumption • Hardware design is complicated
• Expensive 4G compatible devices
2. List and explain different types of channels of GSM. Compare GSM with CDMA [D17 – 10
Marks]
Logical Channels:
1. Traffic Channel (TCH)
o Specifies the channel that carries speech or data
Types of TCH:
1. Full Rate (FR)/ Half Rate (HR)
o Standard voice codec for FR is 13 kbps
o Standard voice codec for HR is 6.5 kbps
2. Enhanced Full Rate (EFR)
o It has low transmission error rate
o It generates data rate at 12.2 kbps
3. Adaptive Multi-Rate (AMR)
o It specifies a channel that is used with 3G systems
2. Control Channels (CCH)
o Control channels (CCH) controls Medium access, allocation of traffic channels, mobility
management etc.
Types of CCH:
1. Broadcast CCH (BCCH)
o Specifies a channel that is used to send information about the identity of the network
o This information is used by MS to get access to a network
2. Common CCH (CCCH)
o Specifies a channel that is used to exchange information about connection setup
between MS and BS
3. Dedicated CCH (DCCH)
o Consists of channels that are bidirectional while other channels are unidirectional
Types of DCCH:
1. Standalone Dedicated Control Channel (SDCCH)
2. Fast Associated Control Channel (FACCH)
3. Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH)
Comparing GSM with CDMA
Parameters GSM CDMA
1. Storage type SIM Internal Storage
2. Global Market Share 75% 50%
3. International Roaming More Accessible Less Accessible
4. Data Transfer GPRS/E/3g/4g/LTE EVDO/3g/4g/LTE
5. Frequency Band Multiple Single
6. Network Service SIM Specific Device Specific
3. Compare CDMA 2000 and W-CDMA [D15, M17 – 10 Marks]
Parameters CDMA 2000 W-CDMA
1. Frame Duration 20 ms 10 ms
2. Channel BW 1.25 MHz 5 MHz
3. Carrier Frequency 3.75 MHz 5 MHz
4. Base Station Synchronous Asynchronous
5. Power Control 800 Hz 1500 Hz
Frequency
6. Spreading Factor Higher Lower
7. Frequency Reuse Factor 1 1
8. Packet Data Packet Scheduling Load Based Packet Scheduling
9. Multiplexing FDD FDD & TDD
10.Overhead Low High

4. Explain GSM Architecture and explain how Authentication and Encryption is provided in GSM
[M18 – 10 Marks]
The security aspects supported by GSM SIM are:
o Authentication Algorithm (A3)
o Subscriber Authentication Key (Ki)
o Cipher key generation algorithm (A8)
o Cipher key (Kc)
o Control of access to SIM’s Stored data and functions performed in SIM
The basic Security Mechanisms in GSM are:
1. Access Control and Authentication

o
o A 128-bit Random number (RAND) is sent to the Mobile Station (MS)
o MS computes the 32-bit Signed Response (SRES) based on encryption of RAND with
Authentication algorithm (A3) using Authentication key (Ki)
o Upon receiving the SRES from subscriber, the GSM network repeats the calculations until it
verifies the identity of the subscriber
o If the SRESs are identical, then authentication is complete
2. Encryption

o
o Once the user is authenticated, RAND is delivered from the network
o This RAND is delivered along with Ki from SIM using A8 Algorithm
o A8 Algorithm is stored in a SIM Card and it produced Cipher Key (Kc)
o Using Kc with A5 Algorithm, helps in encryption and decryption of data
3. Confidentiality
o Encryption and Decryption methods are used to maintain confidentiality

5. Explain CDMA Architecture in detail. [D15, M17 – 10 Marks]

6. Explain in detail GSM Architecture. [D15, M16 – 10 Marks]

o
Mobile Station (MS): Mobile Station is made up of two entities
A. Mobile Equipment (ME)
o ME is a portable, vehicle mounted, hand held device etc.
o It can be uniquely identified by IMEI number. ME is used for voice and data transmission
B. Subscriber Identity Module (SIM)
o It is a smart card that contains the International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)
o It allows users to send and receive calls and avail other subscriber services

1. Base Station Subsystem (BSS)


o BSS is also known as Radio Subsystem
o It provides and manages radio transmissions between MS and MSC
o It also helps the MS to communicate with other subsystems of GSM
o It consists of two parts:
A. Base Transceiver System (BTS)
o BTS consists of the transceiver units
o It communicates with the MS via radio air interface and also communicates with BSC through
Abis Interface
B. Base Station Controller (BSC)
o It assigns frequency and time slots for all MS in its area
o It handles all the operations performed by the MS such as calling, transcoding, handoff etc.
o It communicates with MSC and BTS

2. Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS)


o It manages the switching functions of the system and allows MSC to communicate with other
networks such as PSTN, ISDN etc.
o It consists of:
A. Mobile Switching Center (MSC)
o MSC is the heart of the network
o It manages communication between GSM and other networks such as PSTN, ISDN etc.
o Operations performed by MSC are Call Setup, Routing, Switching, Handoff etc.
B. Home Location Register (HLR)
o HLR is a permanent database which stores information of the mobile subscriber in a particular
area
C. Visitor Location Register (VLR)
o It is a temporary database which updates whenever a new MS enters its area by HLR database
D. Authentication Center (AuC)
o It maintains authentication keys and algorithms and provides security triplets (RAND, SRES, Ki)
E. Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
o It is a database which consists of IMEI number of all the handsets in its service area
o It is used to track handsets using IMEI number
o It is made up of 3 lists: White, Black and Gray
F. Operation and Maintenance Center (OMC)
It supports the operation and maintenance of GSM and allows system engineers to monitor,
diagnose and troubleshoot all aspects of GSM system
7. Explain in detail GPRS Architecture [D16, M17 – 10 Marks]

Chap 4. Wireless Local Loop (WLL)


1. Neatly explain WLL Architecture. Explain two local loop techniques with neat diagram [D16,
M17, M18 – 10 Marks]
2. Draw and Explain the main components of Wireless Local Loop (WLL) Architecture [D17 – 10
Marks]
3. Note on: WLL Architecture [M16 – 5 Marks]
4. Note on: MMDS [D15 – 5 Marks]
5. Explain in detail MMDS and LMDS working in WLL based technology [M16 – 10 Marks]
Answers to 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
• WLL refers to a system that is used to link subscribers to PSTN with the help of radio signals

WLL Architecture consists of the following major components:


1. Wireless Access Network Unit (WANU)
2. Wireless Access Subscriber Unit (WASU)
3. Switching Function (SF)

1. Wireless Access Network Unit (WANU)


• WANU consists of Base Station Transceiver or Radio Ports, An Access Manager, a Radio Port
Controller Unit (RPCU) and a Home Location Register (HLR)
• WANU is an interface between wired and wireless systems
• Functions of WANU are as follows:
o It provides Radio Resource Management
o It provides authentication and privacy of air interface
o It provides billing, maintenance, routing and switching function etc.
o It also converts protocols and encrypts voice and data signals
2.Wireless Access Subscriber Unit (WASU)
• WASU is an interface which includes protocol conversion, transcoding, authentication functions
• WASU offers two interfaces UWLL towards network and TWLL towards the subscriber
• WASU translates wireless link into a traditional telephone connection
• UWLL uses standard interfaces like GSM, PACS etc.
• TWLL uses interface like RJ-11, RJ-45 etc.
3.Switching Function (SF)
• A Switch which can be a digital switch that may or may not have Advanced Intelligent Network
(AIN), an ISDN or MSC
• A cable, microwave link, leased line or optical links can be used for data transmission between
switching function (SF) and Wireless Access Network Unit (WASU)
Two Local Loops Techniques:
1. MMDS (Multichannel Multipoint Distribution Services)
• MMDS is a WLL based communication technology that operates in frequency 2.1 GHz to 2.7
GHz
• It was initially used for transmitting data for business firms
• MMDS is also known as Broadband Radio Service (BRS), it is now mainly used for wireless
broadcast of television signals
• MMDS system uses point to multipoint transmission, because single transmitting station serves
multiple subscribers
• MMDS system mainly has two components -> a transmitting station and a subscriber’s receiving
station where the signals are received and routed to a television set
• The basic idea of its usage is to distribute satellite link data using Local Radio Broadcasting and
Alarming

o
2. LMDS (Local Multipoint Distribution Services)
• LMDS is a fixed wireless access technology that operates on high frequencies (much higher as
compared to MMDS) ranging from 26 GHz – 43 GHz
• Because of propagation characteristics of frequencies used in LMDS, cellular network
architecture is used
• LMDS provides high speed data transmissions
• It is an ideal solution for bringing in high bandwidth services to areas where cable or optical
fiber may not be convenient or economical

6. Note on: Satellite System [M16 – 5 Marks]


• Satellite based system can be used for providing telephony services in rural areas, islands and
other different isolated areas
• They can be used for WLL applications or Mobile Satellite Systems
• Advantages:
o They provide telephony to remote areas of the world, where landlines are not cost
effective or where emergency backup is required
o Low bit data rate for voice and data
o Low cost mobile terminals
o It provides quality and grade of service for WLL applications
• Disadvantages:
o Number of satellites and propagation delay put restrictions on system design
o Handover/Handoff capability is needed
Chap 5. Wireless Local Area Network
The following are the WLAN topologies:

1. Infrastructure-based WLAN client-server system

2. Infrastructure-based WLAN distributed system

3. Infrastructure-less Ad-hoc-based WLAN system


Chap 6. Wireless Personal Area Network
1. Explain in detail Bluetooth Architecture [D15 – 10 Marks] OR Explain in detail Bluetooth
Protocol Architecture with neat diagram [M16, M17 – 10 Marks]

2. Define Piconet and Scatter-net with respect to Bluetooth [D16, M18, D17 – 5 Marks]
Bluetooth Architecture defines two types of networks:
1. Piconet
• Piconet is a Bluetooth network that consists of two or more devices connected in an ad-hoc
fashion
• A Piconet must have a master device and one or more slave devices
• The Master device initiates a Bluetooth communication link
• Once a link is established, Slave devices can request Master device for a switch and can become
a Master
• It should be noted that Slave devices are not allowed to communicate directly with other Slave
devices
• All communication takes place between the Master and the Slave device only
• There can be a maximum of seven active devices in a Piconet and can have up to 255 Parked
Slaves


2. Scatter-net
• Two or more Piconets can be combined to form a large network known as a Scatter-net
• A device can be a part of two or more Piconets that together forms a Scatter-net
• A device can serve as a Master in one Piconet and might act as a Slave device in another Piconet
at the same time


3. Explain Zigbee (LR-WPAN) Stack Architecture with a neat diagram OR Explain in detail LR-
WPAN [D15, D17, M18 – 10 Marks]
o Zigbee or Low Rate WPAN (LRWPAN) is an IEEE 802.15.4 standard that has low data transfer
rate, low cost, low power consumption etc.
o Zigbee can be used to develop low-cost wireless devices that have longer battery life which can
last for several months or even years without charging or changing the battery
o Some of the applications in which Zigbee can be implemented are as follows:
o Embedded System o Industrial and medical data
o Safety and Security Sensors collection
o Home Automation


1. Physical Layer (PHY)
o The IEEE 802.15.4 standard defines the Physical Layer (PHY) in all Zigbee devices
o It is responsible for data transmission and reception by using a defined radio channel and
specific modulation and spreading techniques
o The IEEE 802.15.4 standard specifies two physical layers that represent three operational
frequency bands (868 MHz/ 915 MHz/ 2.4 GHz)

2. Medium Access Control (MAC) Layer


o In addition to physical layer, the IEEE 802.15.4 standard defines MAC Layer
o The functions of MAC Layer includes Synchronization, frame validation, acknowledge frame
delivery, association and disassociation
o It defines two types of devices: Full Function Device (FFD) and Reduced Function Device (RFD)

3. Zigbee Layers
Based on IEEE 802.15.4, the Zigbee standards defines the higher layers as:
i. Network Layer (NWK)
o Network Layer is responsible for joining/leaving a network security, routing and storing the
neighbor information
ii. Application Layer (APL)
o It includes Application framework, Zigbee Device Objects (ZDO) and Application Sub Layer (APS)
o ZDO defines the role of the device, initiates and responds to requests and establishes secure
relationship between devices
o APS offers interface to APO and ZDO

4. Note on: Wireless Sensor Network [D16, M17, M18 – 5 Marks]


• Wireless Sensor Network (SWN) are spatially distributed autonomous sensors to monitor
physical or environmental conditions such as temperature, sound, pressure etc. and pass their
data through the network to a main location

Components of WSN
1. Sensor
• It is a transducer that converts physical or environmental conditions such as temperature,
sound, pressure etc. into electrical signals
2. Sensor Nodes
• It is the basic unit in Sensor Network that contains on-board sensors, processors, memory,
transducer and power supply
3. Sensor Network
• It is a network which consists of a large number of sensor nodes deployed inside or very close to
the area which has to be sensed
4. Sink
• The flow of data ends at special nodes called base stations sometimes referred as sinks
Applications of WSN:
• Home and Office Automation • Environmental Applications
• Health Care System • Automotive Applications
• Military usage
Chap 7. Wireless Metropolitan Area Network
1. Give in detail Comparison between WiMAX and LTE/3GPP [M17 – 10 Marks]
Sr No. Parameters WiMAX LTE/3GPP
1 Access Technology
Uplink (UL) OFDMA SC-FDMA
Downlink (DL) OFDMA OFDMA
2 Frequency Band 2.3 – 2.4 GHz, 2.496 – 2.69 GHz, Existing and new
3.3 – 3.8 GHz frequency bands
3 Channel Bandwidth Utilization 40 MHz 1.4 to 100 MHz
4 Cell Radius 2 – 7 kms 5 kms
5 Frame Rate 5ms 10ms
6 Speed 120 km/hr. 450 km/hr.
7 Handovers/Handoff Supported Soft
Handovers/Handoffs
are supported
8 Number of users 100 – 200 users >400 users
9 Compliant to 2G and 3G NO YES
10 Cost Less More
2. Note on: WiMAX [D15 – 5 Marks] [D17 – 10 Marks]
3. Explain WiMAX system and Compare different 802.16 standards [D16 – 10 Marks]
4. Describe the system that uses 802.16 standard and compare different 802.16 standards [M18
– 10 Marks]
• WiMAX provides wireless transmission of data using a variety of transmission modes from point
to multipoint links and provides portable and full mobile internet access
• WiMAX is associated to IEEE 802.16 a/REVd/e standards
• These standards were issued by IEEE 802.16 subgroup that originally covered Wireless Local
Loop (WLL) technologies with spectrum from 10 GHz to 66 GHz


1. The subscribers transmit wireless traffic at a speed ranging from 2 Mbps to 155 Mbps from a
fixed antenna on a building
2. The Base Station receives transmissions from multiple sites and sends traffic over wireless or
wired links to a Switching Center using 802.16 protocol
3. Switching Center sends traffic to the ISP (PSTN)
• A WiMAX system consists of two major parts
1. A WiMAX Base Station
2. A WiMAX Receiver
1. WiMAX Base Station
• A WiMAX Base Station consists of devices and a WiMAX tower similar in concept to a cell phone
tower
• WiMAX Base Station is similar to accessing a wireless access point in a WIFI network, but here
the coverage area is greater
• WiMAX Base Station uses multiple antennas pointed in different directions
• Area covered by one antenna’s signal is called as a “SECTOR”
• Uplink and Downlink channels are shared among different subscribers in a given SECTOR
• WiMAX is connection oriented. This enables WiMAX to offer better quality of services and
guarantees Latency and Jitter
2. WiMAX Receiver
• A WiMAX Receiver can have a separate antenna or could be a stand-alone box, a computer or
any other device
• It is also called as Customer Premise Equipment (CPE)
• For customers located at several kilometers away from WiMAX Base Station, may require a self-
installed outdoor antenna
• To serve isolated customers, a directive antenna pointing to WiMAX Base Station may be
required
• For customers requesting Voice in addition to Broadband Services, specific CPE will allow
connection of VoIP phones
Comparing different IEEE 802.16 Standards
Sr No. Parameters 802.16 802.16a 802.16e
1 Spectrum 10 – 66 GHz 2 – 11 GHz <6 GHz
2 Configuration Line of Sight (LOS) Non – Line of Non – Line of
Sight (NLOS) Sight (NLOS)
3 Mobility Fixed Fixed <75 mph
4 Channel BW 20, 25, 28 MHz Selectable 1.25 5 MHz Planned
MHz – 20 MHz
5 Cell Radius 1 – 3 Miles 3 – 5 Miles 1 – 3 Miles
6 Completion Dec 2001 Jan 2003 2nd Half of 2005
Chap 8. Security Issues in Wireless Systems
1. Explain possible attacks on Wireless LAN. [D15, D17 – 5 Marks]
There are two types of attacks on Wireless LAN:
A. Active Attack
o Attacks where user data is modified or fraud data is created
o Types of Active Attacks:
1. Masquerade: When one identity behaves like another identity
2. Reply: Capturing data unit passively and retransmit data to build undesired access
3. Modification: Some part of message is modified, recorded, delayed for unauthorized
result
4. Denial of Service: Sending frequent requests to knock down the site and make it offline

B. Passive Attack
o Passive Attacks are the attacks where attacker tries to get access to data that is transmitted
over the network
o Two types of Passive attacks:
1. Traffic Analysis: The attacker can get data about the user location, frequency and length
of the message that is transmitted that can help to determine the nature of the message
2. Release of Message Content: The attacker can attack the user’s email or file that is being
transmitted
Some of the other attacks are:
1. Service interruption: System resources are destroyed or services are made unavailable
2. Modification: The attacker accesses the data of the network and modifies or destroys the data
3. Jamming: The network service is interrupted if the traffic is such that it cannot reach the client
4. Fabrication: Network authenticity is attacked. The attacker puts obstruction objects in file
records
5. Misconfigurations: Some of the access points have unsecured configuration as they are rapidly
deployed, such AP’s can be attacked by unauthorized users
2. Explain WEP Protocol in detail. Explain WEP Security based on Access Control List with neat
diagram [D15, D17, M16, M17 – 10 Marks]
Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP)
• WEP is widely used for security in IEEE 802.11 WLAN system
• It uses RC4 stream cipher and a 64-bit key consisting of:
1. A 40-bit master key
2. A 24-bit initialization vector (IV)


• Same key is used to encrypt and decrypt the data in WEP
• The WEP encryption algorithm works as follows:
1. 40-bit shared key is concatenated with a 24-bit initialization vector (IV) resulting in a 64-bit total
key size
2. The new 64-bit key is fed into RC4 algorithm to create an encryption key
3. Before encrypting the data, an integrity check is performed with CRC-32 algorithm. This intends
to protect data
• The CRC-32 operation generates a 4-byte CRC which is concatenated to initial data to
obtain plaintext that will be used as input in step 4
4. The plaintext is encrypted with encryption key generated in step 2, using XOR function to obtain
the cipher text
5. The encrypted output can now be sent to transmission with IV appended to cipher text
6. The client at the receiver end will use reverse steps to decrypt ciphertext and recover the
original data

• WEP was developed to support network confidentiality with wireless protocols


• It is designed to protect wireless networks from unauthorized user access to network and
eavesdropping
• The lowest level of security can be provided using Access Control List
• It is based on Ethernet MAC addresses of the client
• Access Control List consists of the MAC address of all clients who are authorized to access the
network
• Any users who are not specified in this list are restricted from accessing the network

3. Note on: VPN [D16, M18 – 10 Marks]
• A Virtual Private Network (VPN) connects the components and resources of one network over
another network
• It accomplishes this by allowing user to tunnel through wireless networks or public network in
such a way that the tunnel participants enjoy the same level of confidentiality and features as
when they are attached to private wired network
• A VPN is a group of two or more computer systems connected to a private network which is
built and maintained by the organization for its own with limited public network access
• In Remote User Applications, a VPN provides a secure dedicated path called a tunnel over an
untrusted network
• A comprehensive VPN needs to maintain three main components
1. Security
2. Traffic control
3. Enterprise Management
• For ensuring VPN security, following protocols are used:
1. PPTP
2. SSH
3. L2TP
4. IPSec


Advantages:
1. Security: VPNs secure data from being accessed by hackers and other unauthorized users by
using advanced encryption and authentication schemes
2. Scalability: VPNs allows addition of more users to their network easily without modifications in
system architecture
3. It has low administration requirements
4. Cost effective and are deployed on many Enterprise networks
Disadvantages:
1. It doesn’t support Multicasting and Roaming in wireless networks
2. VPN technologies belonging to different manufacturers may not be compatible
4. Note on: Mobile IP [D15, D16, M17, M18 – 10 Marks]
o Mobile IP was developed in response to the increasing use of mobile computers in order to
enable computers to maintain Internet connection during their movement from one internet
access point to another
o The term mobile implies that the user is connected to one or more application across the
internet and the access point changes dynamically
o Mobile IP modifies the standard IP so that it allows the client to send and receive datagrams no
matter where it is attached to the network
o The solution proposed by a working group within IETF suggests that the mobile node should use
two different IP Addresses:
1] Fixed Home Address – The Mobile Node’s static home address
2] Care-of Address – The address that changes at each point of attachment
o The solution requires two additional components
1] Home Agent (HA) – A network node such as a router on the home network
2] Foreign Agent (FA) – A network node such as a router on the foreign network
Working of Mobile IP


The following scenario shows how a datagram moves from one point to another within Mobile IP
framework:
1. The Internet host sends a datagram to the mobile node using the mobile node’s home address
2. If the mobile node is on its home network, the datagram is delivered through the normal IP
process to the mobile node. Otherwise, the home agents picks up the datagram
3. If the mobile node is on a foreign network, the home agent forwards the datagram to the
foreign agent
4. The foreign agent delivers the datagram to the mobile node
5. Datagrams from the mobile node are sent to the Internet host using normal IP routing
procedures
6. If the node is on a foreign network, the packets are delivered to the foreign agent
7. The foreign agent then forwards this packet to the Internet Host
Phases of Mobile IP
Chap 9. Economics of Wireless Network
1. Explain the main factors of change in economics of Wireless Technology. [D16, M17, M18 – 10
Marks]
The main factors responsible for changes of economics of Wireless Technology are:
1) Terminal Manufacturers:
o Current wireless terminals will be replaced by Internet enabled terminals such as Pagers,
Phones, Digital Assistants etc. which will reduce the size of the device, provide low power
consumption and provide high speed data services
o With new development and implementations, the sale of mobile devices which are based
on silicon technology will increase and the cost of mobile terminals will decrease as
compared to earlier ones
2) Role of Government:
o Governments earn large revenues in spectrum licensing
o The Spectrum Licenses limits the way spectrum is being used and time period up till
which it must be used
o This can be seen in case of 3G spectrum auction, which helped government to earn huge
revenue
o The high prices of 3G spectrum indicates competitions among different mobile carriers
o By increasing or decreasing the number of mobile carriers in Spectrum, we can boost the
market growth rate
3) Infrastructure Manufacturers:
o With development of next generation wireless technology, the infrastructure of the
mobile market will increase rapidly
o Thus, building a bright future for Mobile Manufacturers
4) Mobile Carriers:
o The Mobile Carriers will face the greatest challenges in the new era of wireless
technology
o The Mobile Carriers will need to provide new services like 4G, 5G etc. to stand in the
competition of growing wireless industry
o They also need to create content for their portal
2. Note on: Economics of Wireless Network [D17 – 10 Marks]
Economic benefits of wireless networks are:
1) Easy installation:
o They can be easily installed without deployment of cables
2) Lower costs:
o The need of cables is eliminated which results in significant cost savings
3) Prohibition of Cable Deployment:
o Wireless Networks proves to be useful in areas where there is difficult to deploy cables
such as old buildings, offices etc.
4) Deploying temporary network:
o Network is used for small time period, Wireless networks follows pay per usage model,
hence you can avail resources up to certain period as per your requirement and pay
accordingly
5) Using Network Capacity:
o Wireless Network offer quick and complete use of network capacity
o Remaining unused Network Capacity in Wireless Network can be used to serve new
subscribers in range
Write Changing Economics of Wireless Technology from previous answer

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