Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
by
Amy F. Hinrichs
Doctor of Philosophy
Capella University
July 2013
UMI Number: 3589242
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Abstract
Low reading levels and lack of comprehension are current problems in high school
comprehension problems move into the workplace with students who do not have the
necessary reading skills on the job. Midwestern high school science club students served
as participants in the study with ages ranging from 14-18. The study was based on a pre-
test-post-test control-group design by Creswell. Quantitative data was collected six times
over a three-week period and was broken into two parts: Part 1 was three sessions using
completing first three sessions; and Part 2 was three sessions of during-reading
sessions. This independent online course room study examined reading comprehension
comparing pre and post-test comprehension results. Non-fiction high school level reading
text sets were selected from Quality Reading Inventory-5th edition by Leslie and Caldwell
(2011). Data was uploaded into a statistical analysis software program, Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 21.0) which provided an analysis of data
using one-way ANOVA and means testing. Analysis showed a negative difference in
group means between pre-and post-test results in both parts of the study; however, three
Several implications for the field of instructional design emerged including careful use of
Rationale...............................................................................................................5
iii
Memory and Hemispheres .................................................................................29
Reflection ...........................................................................................................56
Introduction ........................................................................................................78
Results ................................................................................................................83
Introduction ........................................................................................................99
Limitations .......................................................................................................108
Conclusion ........................................................................................................113
REFERENCES...................................................................................................116
v
List of Tables
Table 13 Group B Part 1 Means Statistics by Cut Point Lexile Score (>1251).....93
vi
List of Figures
vii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Reading comprehension has been an issue that crosses age lines and causes
national concern. Reading crosses subject areas and has impacted comprehension in all
employee rules. This study investigated instructional design strategies impacting reading
Students have used IPods and MP3 players to create individual environments to
whether or not music itself translates to a good learning environment or if simply having
individual choice adds to learner motivation (Dunn, 1987). Auditory distractions have
been well studied and have been identified as elements of workplace and classroom
environments (Beaman, 2004; Dunn, 1987; Dunn, Honigsfeld, Doolan, Bostrom, Russo,
Schiering …Tenedero, 2009; Hughes, Vachon, & Jones, 2007; Marsh, Hughes & Jones,
2009; Popoola, 2008; Simcoe & Samaha, 2007). Stimuli within the environment may
have been an issue standing between learners and accuracy in computations or in hitting
performance targets (Beaman, 2005). Some experts believed that listening to radio or
television while studying had been conducive to a good study environment at home,
work, or school; others have contended that absolute silence had been required to
comprehend text (Armstrong & Chung, 2000; Pool, Van Der Voort, Beentrjes, &
1
Koolstra, 2000; Popoola, 2008; Simcoe & Samaha, 2007). What learners may not have
considered were the effects auditory stimuli in the environment may have had on
related to auditory stimuli and cognitive processing implemented with sound design
education.
When memory clarity and comprehension couple with auditory noises, cognitive
load theory applies. (Clark et. al., 2006). Cognitive processing was defined as, “paying
attention to the presented material, mentally organizing the presented material into a
coherent structure, and integrating the presented material into a coherent structure, and
integrating the presented material with existing knowledge” (Mayer & Moreno, 2003, p.
44). Working memory has limited capacity (Paas, Renkl, & Sweller, 2003, p. 2) so
learners have connected new learning with prior knowledge (existing schemas) stored in
long-term memory (Clark et. al., 2006; Mayer & Moreno, 2003; Paas et. al., 2003).
completing a task enhanced a person’s ability to perform spatial reasoning tasks (Nantais
& Schellenberg, 1999; Rauscher & Hinton, 2006; Rauscher, Shaw, & Ky, 1995). Critics
of early pre-task music studies perceived a conceptual flaw because time of day, food
intake, and other physical elements were not recorded by the researchers (Dowd, 2007).
Learners’ alertness or hunger could be intrinsically related to lack of focus while reading,
as could the time of day that data collection occurred (Dunn et. al., 2009). This will be
2
Stimulating the brain’s short-term memory may have occurred when listening to
highly-structured non-repetitive music was added to motivate and focus learners during
tasks (Giardino-Cherico, 1989; Nantais & Schellenberg, 1999; Rauscher & Hinton, 2006;
Rauscher et. al., 1995). Numerous studies have shown increased spatial reasoning when
classical music was introduced to participants before tasks were performed (Nantais &
Schellenberg, 1999; Rauscher & Hinton, 2006; Rauscher et. al., 1995). Insufficient
research has occurred to predict whether this same effect may occur with reading.
application with graduate students using baroque (a highly-structured music), rock and
roll, and silence in a control group. Combination of before and during variables may have
had conflicting effects; therefore, isolation of the variables may be indicated to bring
clarification to the issue. The background music variable was also unique because it was
not during-reading but instead during answering the questions. Background music
during-reading was not attempted during the Giardino-Cherico study; however, the study
clearly defined the potential conflict of variables. The Giardino-Cherico study used music
background music design (detailed in Chapter 2). Based on the date of original pre-task
was worth re-examining based on choices that exist today for instructional design of
online learning such as integration of music into online course rooms or electronic
The primary goal of this research study was to determine what effect, if any,
questions were based on whether the instructional design strategy of introducing highly-
reading and during-reading music variables were isolated in order to measure whether or
not an effect exists. Participants read silently from online text sets so it was a clear test of
reading comprehension based on publishers’ page layouts with visuals precisely placed.
Using the precise placement was important to avoid split effect (Clark & Mayer, 2008), a
Low reading levels and lack of comprehension have been and are current
problems in high school classrooms confirmed by low standardized test scores and
employer feedback as comprehension problems move into the workplace with students
who do not have necessary reading skills on the job (National Assessment of Adult
Literature, 2008). Lack of focus has become commonplace in and out of classroom and
computer lab environments. Auditory distractions often swayed learners away from
reading materials (Beaman, 2005), and wandering minds have had difficulty paying
reader’s interest in and background knowledge of the topic, strategies the reader knows
how to use, and even the reader’s physical and emotional state and self-image” (Gill,
2008, p. 107). To pursue instructional design strategies that assist learners in focusing
attention, even if for a short period of time has importance and relevance in good
instructional design. “Understanding what we read is at the heart of the reading process,
for without it reading becomes a purposeless activity” (Tregenza & Lewis, 2008, p. 24).
4
Identifying how or to what extent music has affected reading comprehension in high
school students will provide greater understanding about possible instructional design
strategies to consider.
The purpose of this study was to determine to what extent an instructional design
reading comprehension in high school students. Jazz and classical music both fell into
Rationale
been divided on whether or not music deters or enhances listeners’ ability levels. Use of
highly-structured music appeared to be the key in the studies where listening to music
had positive effects. Music primed cortical firing patterns responsible for higher brain
functions (Jausˇovec & Habe, 2004). “It is suggested that auditory background
stimulation can influence visual brain activity, even if both stimuli are unrelated”
(Jausˇovec & Habe, 2004, p. 261). Interhemispheric and right hemispheric electrode
electroencephalograms (EEGs) to study brain stimulation which used classical music and
silence as different auditory stimulus conditions. A 2004 study found that by using
Mozart’s classical music structure, brain hemispheres connected. Jazz as another highly-
structured music was used to test the research theory about tapping into the potential of
using two hemispheres of the brain. Auditory conditions and the brain’s reaction have
been important and relevant additions to the instructional design knowledge base.
5
Research Questions
1. To what extent does the instructional design strategy of listening to music before
and silence measured through pre and post comprehension variables? [between
groups]
groups]
reading significantly increase the difference between pre and post reading
classical]
Research Hypotheses
The null hypothesis was: there will be no significant difference in the pre and post
[between groups]
6
The first directional hypothesis was: listening to non-lyrical jazz music before
reading will increase reading comprehension scores compared to the standardized reading
The second directional hypothesis was: listening to non-lyrical jazz music during
reading will increase reading comprehension scores compared to classical music group
The third directional hypothesis was: listening to classical or jazz music compared
with silence/none before reading will create a significant difference in the pre and post
learners, instructional designers, and employers. Results of this study should help
electronically.
A number of studies (Jausˇovec & Habe, 2004; Rauscher et. al., 1995) have tested
the effects of classical music played before spatial reasoning tasks on performance in
spatial reasoning. Results of the studies were mixed, with some demonstrating a short-
term effect on students’ memories and recall. Tempo and mood of music selections for
Husain (2001) indicated that listeners changed emotionally based on music, and that
“arousal and positive mood are not identical” (p. 251). Schellenberg (2005) indicated a
7
fast-tempo piece in a major key had a positive effect compared to silence or a slow
tempo, minor key when tested on a variety of cognitive tasks. The hypothesis asserted
that classical music, because of its structure, helped create short-term gains in spatial
reasoning. Some studies that tried to recreate the effects concluded that the pre-task
classical music treatment did not improve spatial abilities (Dowd, 2007; McKelvie &
Low, 2002; Nantais & Schellenberg, 1999; Standing, Verpaelst, & Ulmer, 2008;
Cognitive load theory worked from the premise that for effective learning to
occur, environmental and cognitive functions must align (Paas & Kester, 2006). Working
memory may be overloaded when listening to ambient sound that impedes learning
unfamiliar material because of the higher cognitive load created (Clark et. al., 2006).
Clark and Mayer (2008) explained that, “in short, according to the coherence principle,
you should avoid adding any material that does not support the instructional goal” (p.
151). Does music support the instructional goal? Under the application of the coherence
principle, Clark and Mayer (2008) made a case to exclude background music, sounds,
programs. Pre-task music produced less strain on working memory and cognitive load
than listening to music during-reading (Clark et. al., 2006). Reading difficult or
unfamiliar text created more cognitive load; however, when unfamiliar content has been
(Reigeluth, 1999; Tierney, 1990). Background music created a higher intrinsic cognitive
load when paired with difficult text (Clark et. al., 2006). The complexity of classical
music was thought to engage the brain. Being cognizant of learners’ mental abilities,
8
learners’ prior knowledge of content, and environmental limitations has been
& Paas, 2004). Choices of delivery methods, cognitive load, music as help or distraction,
and whether the information delivered was new or already in the learner’s knowledge
Definition of Terms
Cognitive Load. “The amount of mental resource in working memory required for
Cognitive Learning Theory. “An explanation of how people learn based on the
idea of dual channels (information processed in visual and auditory channels), limited
capacity (only a small amount of information can be processed in each channel at one
time), and active learning (meaningful learning occurs when learners pay attention to
relevant information, organize it into coherent structure, and integrate it with what they
already know). Also called cognitive theory and cognitive theory of multimedia learning”
Complexly Structured Non-Repetitive Music. For the purpose of this study, this
will be known as non-lyrical classical or jazz musical genres. This specific musical
During task music. Is music played while a person is doing something which is
Effect Size. Is “… a measure of how different two groups are from one another—
9
Integration Process. “A cognitive process in which visual information and
auditory information are connected with each other and relevant memories from long-
Inventory) provides an assessment of reader’s ability to read and comprehend text. Result
is a number within a range which provides instructor with an appropriate level or range
Redundancy Principle. A guideline that supports the idea that people are unable to
focus when they both hear (verbal) and see (visual) the same message during a
presentation.
our perceptions. They serve as filters to the world and shape our cognitive structures and
sequencing, motivation, and metacognitive training” (Wilson & Myers, 2000, p. 64).
Split Effect. A guideline that supports the idea that attention is divided, “When
learners must divide mental resources unnecessarily between two or more media
elements. For example, when a graphic is explained by text that is located far from the
graphic, the learner must divide his or her attention between the two” (Clark & Mayer,
2008, p. 471).
Task modeling. “Tasks can be modeled using flowcharts and other sequential
Working Memory. “Part of the cognitive system in which the learner actively
information from long-term memory. Working memory has two channels (visual and
The main assumption of this study design was that participants of varied reading
abilities could read and understand text within six to 10 minutes and be able to answer
enhancement was of interest; allowing extra time for reading was not conducive to
reliable data collection based on design of studies using music as a pre-task component
having used equivalent amounts of time for pre-task music listening and task completion.
Six to 10 minutes of music variable and six to 10 minutes of task completion was the pre-
task music study design (Rauscher et. al., 1995). The equivalent time limitation was
task music studies indicated that length of time for auditory variables before reading must
closely match the time allotted for reading the text to establish that music did or did not
Next limitation was the range of reading levels within the test groups. Six non-
fiction texts arranged by the authors in three sections for each topic (e.g., World War I
Parts 1,2,3 and Characteristics of Viruses Parts 1,2,3) were selected from a reading test
series for the high school reader. The lexile or reading level was in a high school range;
11
however, the reading levels were not specific to the individual learner’s reading ability or
comprehension level. High school reading materials were in a lexile range designated as
high school level; however, not all high school age students can read at level. Providing
one level of text was a limitation for students tested below that lexile level.
The next assumption was that students were motivated by integration of music in
instructional design of study. Student motivation surrounding the types of music selected
for the study was a true limitation. Motivation and cognitive load were described in more
detail in Chapters 2 and 3. Individuals have tended to be selective about personal music
classical music genre may have deterred participants’ open-mindedness. There may have
Participants may have been resistant and unable to find motivation with nonlyrical music.
place to complete the pre-test, reading, and post-test with the audio inclusions as
instructed by the researcher. The study design created another limitation which was that
participants were relied upon to follow the research design and instructions. To verify
whether or not participants followed the design, exit interview questions were inserted
into the post-test questions to establish reliability and credibility of independent study
design. An accompanying final assumption was that participants no longer had issues
with time of day, alertness, hunger or thirst because they were choosing when best to
12
Theoretical Framework
foci by accessing both hemispheres of the brain (Jausˇovec & Habe, 2004). The pre-task
musical study design was developed by Rauscher and Shaw (1995); and it was used to
study spatial-temporal task performance after listening to Mozart music. This research
design indicated that complexly structured non-repetitive music had an effect for a brief
period of time (10 to 15 minutes). As applied to this study, the original design may have
predicted that because classical or jazz music increased attention for a brief period of
time, complex music (e.g., classical, jazz) increased reading comprehension (Jausˇovec &
instructional designers who participated indicated that they rarely if ever used music in e-
learning. One of the concerns about music integration in learning or homework was the
potential for distraction which has been studied often with mixed results (Armstrong &
Chung, 2000; Pool et. al., 2000; Poopola, 2008; Simcoe & Samaha, 2007). Cognitive load
theory was relevant to the decisions about instructional design because learner’s
performance could have been affected by multimedia, “due to an ‘auditory cognitive load
effect’” (Ardac & Unal, 2008, p. 79). Cognitive overload was a concern in instructional
design, educational materials, and in the design of this study. Consideration has been
given in selecting musical genres that were arousing in nature, but non-lyrical to prevent
auditory cognitive overload. Analyzing music was considered a left hemisphere function,
13
and reading text was also a left hemisphere function (Ornstein, 1997; Sprenger, 1999;
Williams, 1983), so caution was necessary. The study design weighed cognitive load,
learning objectives, and potential delivery mechanisms with tools and objects for the best
possible learner-centered study design. The decision was made to use Portable Document
Format (PDF) version e-text in an online delivery method which became an independent
study to avoid pressure structure, time of day, and resulting hunger or physical issues
relevant in Dunn’s review (1987) of environmental factors and the impact on learners.
(Scholastic Reading Inventory) gave the study a framework used to evaluate reading
comprehension and compare the pre and post-test score results with the participant’s
measurements assisted in giving the data collected statistical relevance. For example, if a
participant was tested with the standardized reading test and categorized as reading at the
high school level that provided a field-tested, relevant benchmark. If a high-level reader
did not score well on the study’s professional reading materials which were also field-
tested and categorized at the high school reading level, the independent variables may
have impacted comprehension results. Standardized reading scores set a credible, reliable
comparison for the pre and post-test results. The study’s test results were then compared
within the independent variable groupings: classical music group, jazz music group, and
silence (none) to determine whether statistically, the group hearing classical music scored
similarly, or if there was a correlation between test scores. Pre and post-test analysis
compared the independent variables (e.g., groups) to each other to assess whether or not
by the pre and post comprehension data results. Using an independent study design was
Chapter 1 Summary
may provide focus for future course development and selection of music variables or
training, and in the workplace (Brünken, Plass, & Leutner, 2004). Chapter 2 addresses
framework for study components through review of what studies have been attempted
and which are of interest to instructional designers including principles that guide good
instructional design. In Chapter 3, the research design choices, methodology, and data
collection were defined; while Chapter 4 provides the outcomes in form of descriptive
statistics, data collected, and correlations based on research questions asked. Finally,
Chapter 5 provides an analysis tied back to literature reviewed, study design, and
15
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
music component to a reading activity. This chapter addressed topics such as identifying
participants’ cognition and prior knowledge. Next, the role of technology, electronic text
and integration of music into learning environments were examined for learner impact
Instructional Design
models would be most useful and appropriate to help address this problem?” (p. 25).
one’s learning and thinking processes. “The needs of the situation rise above the dictates
of rules, models, or even standard values (Wilson & Myers, 2000, p. 82). Many paths to
problem-solving have existed, but a single solution, model, or theory does not exist to
resolve all design issues. “No single ID model is well matched to the many and varied
16
design and development environments in which ID personnel work” (Gustafson, &
Did multimedia fit into one model, theory or principle? Several articles noted that
guidelines in designing multimedia (Calandra et. al., 2008; Moreno & Mayer, 1999).
“Great instruction without multimedia may be more effective than great multimedia
without solid instructional design” (Rosenberg, 2001, p. 57). The ideas, research studies
and opinions conflict about multimedia; however, designing for the learner was a priority.
For example, designers noted there were issues in designing multimedia presentations
because the learner’s visual field was compressed to the size of a computer screen
(Moreno & Mayer, 1999, p. 366). Cognitive load was a learner delivery issue although,
“…research provides little evidence on how auditory memory might interact with
environment” (Ardac & Unal, 2008, p. 79). Another element considered was that
effect’” (Ardac & Unal, 2008, p. 79). Ardac and Unal (2008) pointed to task and learner’s
instructional design may not be significant if the task demand is low, because the
additional load due to inadequate instructional procedures may not matter if the working
memory capacity is not to be exceeded” (p. 87). Balancing multimedia design elements
17
Instructional design has been complicated with so many choices, models, and
initiated a study in 2003 and finished in 2004. In the study, 19,000 adults (16 year of age
or older) were measured in the following three types of literacy skills: 1) prose (e.g.,
search or comprehend texts such as job applications, maps, tables, drug or food labels),
and 3) quantitative literacy (e.g., balancing checking, figuring out a tip, filling in order
form or determining amount of order). Fourteen percent were below the basic level in
prose; twelve percent were below the basic level in document literacy; and twenty-two
percent were below the basic level in quantitative literacy. Thirteen percent were
Literacy and comprehension have had a long-term impact that has not stopped being an
issue when learners finished school but tended to translate into post-secondary or
employee-based problems.
The U.S. Department of Education Nation’s Report Card tracks scores at ages
nine, 13, and 17, with 500 as the top scale reading score. From 1971 to 2008, 17-year-
olds had a one-point change from 285 to 286, 13-year-olds had a five-point change from
255 to 260, and 9-year-olds had a 12-point change from 208 to 220. The reading survey
questioned how often students read for fun and answers varied significantly. Thirty-one
percent of 17-year-olds read almost every day for fun in 1984, compared to 20 percent in
18
2008; 13-year-olds reading for fun decreased from 35 to 26 percent; while nine year olds’
pleasure reading decreased from 53 to 38 percent (NCES, 2008). The report did not give
has changed since 1984 (e.g., wireless connectivity, laptops, cell phones, IPODs, MP3s,
other handhelds, Internet social networks, upgrades in video games, etc.). Nine to
seventeen year olds’ scores tabulated over thirty-seven years did not show much
variation; however, the pleasure reading showed a significant decrease. What were the
Internet reading has increased with youth, but enthusiasm for print such as books
and magazines has diminished (Leddy, 2008). Textbooks have been transferred into
electronic versions to follow the handheld device sales as well as Internet-based research
trend. The Internet has provided resources for reading, yet poverty also has limited access
in many households (Ogle, 2009). The National Education Association statistic reported
an average of seven minutes per day for pleasure reading in the 15 to 24 age group
(Leddy, 2008). High school students graduated to the work force where 38% of
lacking reading skills (Leddy, 2008). Looking at the high school studies should have
described the current trends. Figure 1 indicates the 2011 American College Test (ACT)
reading readiness was an issue nationally and in the state of the research.
19
Figure 1
ACT Reading and Composite Scores
Note: Data compiled from ACT (2011) National Statistics including Wisconsin data. This information was
combined with local school district results from Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction (WINSS,
2011).
college readiness benchmarks. In 2011, 49% of high school graduates took the ACT
examination according to the national ACT web site. That means 51% of high school
graduates’ reading levels were not measured by the ACT test. Examinees for the state
where this study was conducted totaled 71% of high school graduates (29% untested).
Average national ACT reading score (2011) was 21.3. The 2011 ACT average reading
score for the state in this study was 22.2, and local school district scores for this study
were 20.8 (females), and 21.8 (males). Scores were available for review by subject, and
composite scores by state or nationally (see Figure 1). According to the specific study
location’s high school guidance office, 44.9% of graduates were tested in 2011. The ACT
organization published state and national college readiness reading benchmarks based on
annual test results. In 2011, the National benchmark for reading was a score of 21: 60%
20
of test takers for the state in this study met this benchmark whereas 52% met it
college-level course” (Gasper, 2011, p. 4). Career and college readiness was a top
were important to gauge readiness, and have been equally important with mastery of
reading strategy skills transferred to career training readiness. Reading for understanding
and applying that knowledge from text to practice have become graduation objectives.
Alfassi (2004) asserted that critical thinking was necessary for successful reading.
With learning theories such as schema and constructivism theories, students must invent
models to organize information from a text and then relate it to reality to fit a perception
classes asked, did stand-alone literacy instruction work as well as literacy strategies
embedded in the content? This question was important for classes and instructional
design across the content areas especially when the independent study was a course
reading competence were they self-sufficient? In the Alfassi (2004) study, one ninth
grade class had reading strategies (e.g., questioning, summarizing, clarifying, and
predicting) incorporated into its curriculum, and a second class was given stand- alone
literacy instruction (e.g., think-alouds, guided practice, reciprocal teaching). Phase one
21
was a pre-test in which 49 ninth graders pre-tested in the 45th percentile or above. The
group was split 29 and 20 (experimental group and control group); the two groups in the
Phase two was the intervention (scaffolding) which consisted of three stages. In Stage
One, four strategies were modeled through think-alouds (two days). Stage Two was
guided practice where students assumed the role of leader (two days). Stage Three was
reciprocal teaching. Small groups were assigned course-related texts and adopted student
leader roles (two days). This third stage was followed by practice during phase three of
measure reading comprehension growth. The findings from this study supported
comprehension. The study’s class with stand-alone literacy instruction showed less
improvement than the class with strategies embedded, meaning that students could multi-
students ranging from first grade through senior high school were administered The
Critical Reading Inventory (Prentice Hall) written by Applegate, Quinn, and Applegate.
Questions were phrased to require thinking about ideas versus recall of specific details.
Eight reading profiles were created based on patterns of response to the questions; and
readers were sorted as literalists, fuzzy thinkers, left fielders, quiz contestants, politicians,
dodgers, authors and minimalists. Eight labeled reading profiles specified instructional
creating a supportive classroom environment. The conclusion drawn from the study was
22
that effective comprehension instruction geared toward meeting student’s individual
needs benefited learners. Applegate, Quinn, and Applegate (2006) concluded that deeper
students began to build personal levels of knowledge (schema) of the world (Wolfolk,
2001). Using the right type of question such as concept-based or open-ended was another
Reading Comprehension
Reading was a complex skill reliant on working memory (Burton & Daneman,
2007); and it has been common for novice readers to overload working memory in the
process of decoding words (Hall, 2007). Reading comprehension strategies can activate
neural networks through alternative sensory means and strengthen long-term memory.
Significant research has been done on poor readers and working memory difficulties
external aids such as graphic organizers to help students understand what they read (Ogle,
visualize, and enter (type or hand write), say (read aloud), helped students remember the
(Bishop, Reyes, & Pflaum, 2006). Strategies became second nature and comprehension
According to Gill (2008), the following three things effect comprehension: the
reader, the text, and the situation. Self-concept, esteem, and physical and emotional states
23
impacted the reader as did background knowledge and reading strategies applied to the
text. For reading done outside of school, home distractions such as television, children
and household duties limited comprehension (Armstrong & Chung, 2000; Pool et. al.,
2000; Poopola, 2008; Simcoe & Samaha, 2007). How readers applied strategies to the
text, or how they learned to deal with distractions was integral to current study because
were unable to understand certain texts and needed the teacher’s help (Ediger, 2007;
Nassaji, 2007).
which texts were selected for the data collection. Texts that required specific background
knowledge were carefully screened to avoid lack of comprehension. Texts that were
above the average reading levels of the participants were also avoided because of the
participants’ reading ranges and interests was important to student success as was
harnessing personal interests which are intrinsically linked to motivation (Driscoll, 2005).
Comprehension Solutions
based practices for learners at differing stages of development and from differing cultural
24
and linguistic backgrounds” (Godt, 2009, p. 59). One type of reading strategy or teaching
method did not work for every student (Allington, 2005). English language learners may
not benefit from certain reading strategies such as think-alouds if it detracts or distracts
mentally from the objectives of reading text. McKeown and Gentilucci’s (2007) study
done with ESL population concluded that not all reading strategies fit all students, and
individual’s strengths.
level. Pressley and Allington, (2006) indicated half of all students encountered texts that
were too difficult. The lexile analyzer feature at Lexile.com can evaluate the reading
range of the text to attempt to fit the participants’ reading levels. For this study, Leslie
and Caldwell (2011) have field-tested and provided lexile ranges for all reading materials
used.
Comprehension solutions have begun with basic word identification and climbed
inferentially (Sanacore, 1985). Perfetti, Yang, and Schmalhofer (2008) stated limitations
to infer. Assessing inference and applying knowledge from reading passages has been
essential to integration of higher mental processes; therefore, assessment itself must take
question creation beyond regurgitation of facts into inference. Nassaji (2007) said
determining what should be tested was just as important as text selections. Multiple
questions were required to determine true comprehension (Schwarz & Oyserman, 2001).
25
Prigge (2002) said individual answers may vary in depth of comprehension, but cognition
Reis, 2009; Pressley & Allington, 2006; Lefevre & Lories, 2004). Readers’ involvement
with text was situational and based on who readers were individually, prior knowledge
motivation and prior knowledge were important considerations in text selection (Driscoll,
2005; Tierney, 1990). The readers’ self-perceptions about the perfect reading
environment motivated buy-in and reception of study parameters (Armstrong & Chung,
2000; Beaman, 2005, 2004; Simcoe & Samaha, 2007), “Students who self-
specific study location, setting up regular study periods, setting realistic goals,
& Strahan, 2005, p. 12). Driscoll (2005) and Reigeluth (1999) indicated self-regulation
was a point where the individual takes control of learning. Instructional strategies related
(Driscoll, 2005).
According to Driscoll (2005), van Merriënboer and Sweller (2005), the basis of
cognitive load theory came from schema-theory and information-processing theory. Clark
and Mayer (2008) defined the strain put on working memory in the form of information
for processing as cognitive load. Working memory stored information over short periods
26
of time (Savage et. al., 2007). Familiar materials created a low cognitive load
(McCrudden, Schraw, Hartley, & Kiewra, 2004). Advance organizers used by instructors
aided learners in construction of schema by activating prior knowledge (Clark et. al.,
2006; Driscoll, 2005). Instruction had two main goals: help learners form new schema,
and help learners automate new schemas for efficient and effective job performance
(Clark et. al., 2006). Design and delivery of instruction impacted all learners regardless of
age.
In a study conducted by Olina, Reiser, Huang, Lim, and Park (2006), cognitive
load theory was tested on 209 ninth graders who were learning basic comma rules by
practicing a set of skills in random order to see if this group of learners would retain and
transfer the skills better than learners completing practice problems for one punctuation
skill at a time. Olina et. al. (2006) studied random problem sequences shown to increase
germane cognitive load, whereas pre-existing schemas were not impacted by treatments.
One perceived issue in the study was that language arts did not have a rule-based
The original cognitive load theory studies were done by Sweller in 1988, two
essential characteristics of a powerful learning environment were identified as: the design
of the environment itself, and consideration given to the background of the learners
including ages (Rikers, 2006). Rikers (2006) indicated instructional designers must
decide how materials are best presented, avoid split effect or redundancy within the
delivery because it causes extraneous cognitive load; and determine how learners interact
with the environment. An example of redundancy effect was on-screen text with narrated
27
audio; whereas split attention effect involved design of materials with words and pictures
far apart. Rikers (2006), Clark and Mayer (2008), and van Merriënboer and Ayers (2005)
agreed split attention and the redundancy effect should be avoided within instructional
design. Even with attention to avoidance of extraneous cognitive load, learners may have
found the materials difficult to process; therefore, van Merriënboer and Ayers (2005)
stated the solution was simplifying tasks or introducing smaller pieces of information for
Complexity of text fell under intrinsic cognitive load; and mental motivation of
the learner was under germane cognitive load (Wallen, Plass, & Brünken, 2005). How
does an instructional designer weigh and balance the needs of learners and the desired
outcomes of training? A brief look at the Morrison, Ross, and Kemp (2007) model
outcomes, instructional strategies, and assessment of whether or not desired skills have
been learned were integral to many instructional design models (Morrison et. al., 2007).
The Morrison et. al. model provided a solid framework for designers to equally weigh the
four components in the instructional design process. Within the model, Morrison et. al.
indicated if assimilation did not occur, learning loss occurred within 24 hours.
examples or analogies increased the chance of meaningful learning (Morrison et. al.,
2007).
28
Expert readers accessed long-term memory by linking new materials to prior
knowledge enabling prediction and inference. Bishop, Reyes, and Pflaum (2006)
(Mayer & Moreno, 2003). For reading comprehension to occur, a certain automaticity
must happen.
would be when a song plays and within the first few bars, a person recognizes and sings
the song (Sprenger, 1999). Explicit memory storage was in the hippocampus and stored
words, places, or facts (semantic memory). Explicit and episodic terms referred to facts,
ideas and events kept in long-term memory (Given, 2002). Memory for skills, language,
and actions (Given, 2002) included procedural, automatic, and emotional types of
tables, sets of words, the alphabet, ability to read, connection to songs, and ability to
decode words were stored in the cerebellum in an automatic memory lane (Sprenger,
1999). The automatic memories required practice and repetition for long-term memory
storage. Working memory sorted prior knowledge and compared it with new knowledge
to determine if new should be stored with old (Sprenger 1999). Simple associations or
cues such as setting rote memorization to a well-known song triggered memory recall
(Springer & Deutsch, 1998). “Music is one of the most powerful means for enhancing
automatic memory” (Sprenger, 1999, p. 75). These cues were strengthened with emotion,
29
so the more exciting or entertaining the event, the easier the recall. Recalling memory has
been a challenge when under stress such as in a state of test anxiety. Reduction of stress
began with creating a calm classroom environment focused on positive brain chemistry.
Some suggestions for brain-friendly classrooms were: playing calming music such as
Baroque era, allowing teamwork to reduce tension, allowing physical movement, giving
students choices or options for an element of control (Willis, 2007), and letting students
know that it is okay to make mistakes (Sprenger, 1999). Allowing choice stimulated a
linked to enjoyable experiences made students’ brains seek out those activities (Willis,
2007). Setting up conditions for optimal student engagement captured attention, and
to perceive stimuli, consciousness, initial focus, sustained focus, ability to shift focus, and
cognitive operation. The constructivist view of memory was that memories are actively
actual recording of a past event existed (Given, 2002). Williams (1983) compared the
30
reshuffled images and patterns constantly in infinite numbers of ways while logic and
while music can be processed in either hemisphere, most listeners seem to use
their right hemispheres, so we will include music as a ‘right-hemisphere
technique.’ Of special interest in this area is the work of Georgi Lozanov, a
Bulgarian physicist who uses music to facilitate and accelerate learning of foreign
languages. His techniques are being applied to other subjects as well (p. 35).
more quickly with less effort (Bancroft, 1995; Williams, 1983). Williams (1983) reported
that Lozanov’s foreign language students acquired a 2000-word vocabulary over four
weeks in eight-four hours of instruction. Suggestology was based on the premise that a
mind was capable of learning more efficiently when barriers were removed and an
internal and external distractions. Music was used in Suggestology as a tool to relax the
students and induce a mental state for material to be more easily absorbed and retained.
Students do not concentrate on the words but enter a receptive state in which the
teacher’s words may suggest images and the dialogue is absorbed without
conscious effort. Lozanov uses music written in 4/4 time played at a slow tempo
of 60 beats per minute, because it is believed that such music lulls the mind into a
receptive state where it is fully relaxed yet also alert and open to
stimuli….Lozanov’s work suggests a powerful new role for music in learning (p.
165).
Levy (1983) disputed the idea that right and left hemispheres have specialty tasks.
Split-brain patient studies demonstrated speech confined in the left hemisphere; however,
other aspects of language were not so easily categorized into hemisphere functions.
"Right-hemisphere processes are very important for the apprehension of full meaning
31
from oral or written communications and for the expression of full meaning” (Levy,
1983, p. 67). Levy said that both hemispheres contributed to understanding. Right
abstract words are (Springer & Deutsch, 1998). Words such as justice or hate seemed to
were understood by the right-hemisphere alone (Springer & Deutsch, 1998). Springer and
Deutsch (1998) agreed that musical skills resided in both hemispheres. Analyzing music
was done with the left hemisphere, and enjoying it was a function of the right hemisphere
(Sprenger, 1999). Division of opinions on how a brain understood and processed music
and language abound. Television was an example of what was proven to increase right
hemispheres during television viewing. Finding ways to use both sides of the learner’s
brain seemed to be a good targeted outcome for educational purposes (Given, 2002;
Analyzing music was a left hemisphere function and reading text was also a left
comprehension of the full meaning of text was right hemisphere function (Ornstein,
1997; Sprenger, 1999; Williams, 1983). Between music and reading, both hemispheres
were needed for full appreciation and comprehension to happen with exceptions such as
in hemisphere removal or split where the brain finds a way to do both functions with one
32
Multimedia and the Internet
multimedia, and many 21st century tools which have become commonplace. Words,
images, pictures and inferences of relationships through text were a visual literacy that
multimedia and online sources require students and teachers to navigate (Mackey, 2003;
Williams, 2005). Internet access to education can open the door for nontraditional
learners to attend class on flexible schedules around work and family obligations
(Rosenberg, 2001). Internet can also be an obstacle to learning (Nworie & Haughton,
from fun (e.g., email, social networking, or music). Social Internet activities as well as
cheating, bullying, and instant messaging may be viewed as distractions from learning
(Barnes, Marateo, & Ferris, 2007; Nworie & Haughton, 2008). Instructional designers
balanced edutainment and text heavy sources as a means to successful, interactive, and
engaging learning through multimedia and online course materials. Rosenberg (2001)
indicated that, “multimedia can be a great tool in enhancing learning and motivating
learners. But, like technology, multimedia is not in and of itself an e-learning strategy”
(p. 58).
effects, and animation provided distractions from learning (Voithofer, 2004). Finding
objects, music, sound, and digital text required a different type of literacy processing
according to Walsh (2008). New skills needed to be taught at different levels to allow
33
learners to engage more efficiently. Visual, graphic, sound, and kinesthetic modes needed
to be taught through reading, writing, and talking about it (Walsh, 2008). Through
Gavin, & York, 2010). It was and is common for teenagers to have music playing, the
television on, talk on a phone and a textbook open to scan for homework answers.
Watching television during homework extended the amount of time needed for
completion (Armstrong & Chung, 2000; Pool et. al., 2000), but multi-tasking through
television, music, and varied delivery mechanisms for learning and information; and all
of these mediums compete simultaneously for time and attention. Multi-tasking was a
common skill for the 21st century learner, so keeping track of all of these at once might
not have seemed to detract or distract from homework. Reading comprehension could
and understanding what students are up against has been important to comprehending the
nature of students.
Handheld Devices
because the world has been moving into digital devices for communication, education,
34
and the future of online coursework. Combining music with informational reading on a
handheld device suggested that it became relevant to students’ lives personally and
educationally since the two elements have already been combined at the touch of a finger.
The use of MP3 and cell phones during private and public time was part of a 2006
focus group study with students from Toronto and Southern Ontario (also known as
Whitton). Sixteen teachers and five administrators from twelve different schools also
participated in interviews on cell phone and MP3 bans in the classroom and schools
(Domitrek & Rady, 2008). The ubiquitous nature of cell phone ownership in Canada
marks 70.1% of households owning a mobile phone, and 46% of 11th-graders (2006
data). According to focus group students (ages 14 to 21), and several teachers, MP3s
(music) was a good way to relax or unwind. Some teachers allowed music during
seatwork time because of the added benefits of reduction of social distractions and
helping students focus during boring tasks. Negative potential was identified as second
hand noise which may distract other learners because of overhearing MP3 music based
that administration should have the power to decide whether or not MP3 are banned on a
policy scale, and individual teachers or students should not be allowed to make this
of opinion on cell phone policies. Since many administrators and teachers used portable
devices (cell phones and MP3s) during the school day, students saw this as inequitable.
Many Canadian schools have banned student cell phone use on campus; and although
students conceded that electronics might undermine education, students felt strongly cell
35
phone use should be allowed during lunch, between classes, and before or after school
Handhelds have been embedded in society from family to community level (Song, 2007).
Design of software for handhelds needed to be created with collaboration in the forefront
(Liu, Chung, Chen, & Liu, 2009; Liu & Kao, 2007). An eight week study of two graduate
school settings used Tablet Personal Computers (PCs), Personal Digital Assistants
(PDAs), and peripheral devices focused on three groups of five students in Taiwan in a
“Statistics and Data Mining Techniques” course (Liu et. al., 2009). One to one computing
with tablet PCs resulted in fragmented communication due to lack of shared workspace
which ended in less promotive discussion. Students tended to solve statistical problems
individually using handhelds, but were less likely to communicate in groups. In the
second setting, handhelds were used with shared display groupware. A result of shared
visual workspace was more discussion, more arguments and positions taken with a
resulting analysis based on informed agreement (Liu et. al., 2009). Mobile learning was
individual in nature, but with design of collaborative learning applications and student
training on new technology use (Liu & Kao, 2007), results were quite different and
collaboration results better. One on one computing environments could still work well in
the thinking stage (Liu & Kao, 2007) where individuals use handhelds for exploration.
Network file sharing environments focused students’ attention on PCs and not on group
or partners (Liu & Kao, 2007). Students and old rules of classroom engagement could be
barriers to learning.
36
Significant barriers to using technology for learning in the Winter et. al., (2010)
graduate learner study listed barriers such as: lack of prior knowledge and experience,
time and knowledge needed to update skills, financial limitations to do so, and a general
preference for face to face learning. Online pitfalls listed by participants include learning
assignments away from distractions like e-mail, computers, music, or other social
networking situations (Winter et. al., 2010). On the positive side, mobile learning
removed barriers to education because the classroom was moved to locations without
computers, and made learning accessible in business and education (Koszalka &
longer disrupting learning because through wireless Internet service and handhelds, the
Non-linear access through data bases was a change from the linear method of textbook
reading (Eshet-Alkalai, 2004). Finding unlimited amounts of information did not mean
that learners understood it or that engagement would occur (Sumara, Luce-Kapler, &
Iftody, 2008).
and education according to a case study conducted by Viljoen, Preez, and Cook (2005) in
South Africa. Closing the gaps meant that 97% of the participants had cell phone access
while only 0.8% had e-mail access (Koszalka & Ntloedibe-Kuswani, 2010). M-learning
or location. E-learning had become synonymous with people using electronic devices
37
(Liu & Hwang, 2010). There were technical problems including bandwidth, access,
storage, and technology failures, yet mobile education was now anywhere, and anytime
K-12 and higher education studies in podcasting (Hew, 2009) stated that similar
barriers exist including unfamiliarity with the medium or tools, technology problems, not
seeing relevance in learning through this method. Participants in eight studies reviewed
by Hew (2009) perceived podcasting as a safety net or back up for face to face learning.
Podcasts were a nice back up for missing a class lecture and were accessible 24/7 (Harris
& Rea, 2009). While audio or video files were portable, most students used home
materials for class. The time invested in podcasting was not seen as especially effective
because of the redundancies; however, one survey indicated student satisfaction increased
when podcasts were available although quizzes were not impacted by the same
availability. Please note the reviewer indicated that no control groups were used in the
studies of podcasting, so the true impact or effect of podcasting on test scores was
access as a requirement, and that podcasts were not interactive (Harris & Rea, 2009).
Perception of an academic podcast versus listening to music was a point made by Hew
(2009) because multi-tasking which was integral in digital natives’ daily lives was
somewhat different when the MP3 or iPod was used for academic purposes. Music
listening was perceived as a different function of the MP3 player or handheld device
compared with course podcast listening based on students’ ability to absorb facts through
38
auditory means. Contradiction was that auditory learning was most portable, and 96% of
students preferred MP3 file types over audio cassettes (Hew, 2009).
(Morris & Easterday, 2008). Portability, mobility, and small personal size of the iPods
were employed to study algebraic thinking in the ELL classroom through teacher training
specifically focused on user’s ability to listen while doing other things such as driving the
car, making dinner, and exercising (Morris & Easterday, 2008). While acknowledging a
learning curve existed and technology support was needed for new users, the summary
was positive and hopeful that multi-tasking teachers in the study would in turn use the
portable technology in classrooms with students. Teachers needed exposure and time to
specialists used book reviews upgraded into technology projects via audio or video book
reviews created by students to promote use of the online card catalogue for viewing the
creative presentations, and generate excitement for reading. Video book talks combined
understanding and harnessing technology, library specialists have already conquered the
divide. Using the handheld medium, how could instructional designers design materials
Electronic Texts
Electronic text (e-text) and tests were the delivery mechanisms for this study
because they have become more readily available. A thorough literature review was
needed to explore and understand the issues contained within e-text and as a delivery
39
mechanism. Fair use documents were free and online, also known as the Classics;
learner’s reading futures may literally be online, in a paperless environment quite soon.
Understanding this and how it combines with multimedia is relevant and important to
Choices abound for alternatives to reading text on paper. Digital storytelling was
a recent advancement in combining narrative, visual images, and music or sound effects.
Use of digital video was not as new, but it supported students of all types in
comprehension of stories and building knowledge of characters, setting, and plot with
handhelds that offered electronic, e-text or e-reading features (text read aloud functions).
Read-aloud functions were great for reluctant or slow readers. Taking that up a
specialization notch, the Kurzweil 3000 provided high-tech accommodations from scan
and read text functions to multisensory to adapt screen speed for reading accommodation
rates. Texts, tests, quizzes, or worksheets could be scanned to become read-aloud text-to-
speech formatted (Kaplan, 2003). Many other software programs existed for text to
speech outside of specialized computer equipment. Other devices such as the Kindle,
Nook, Sony Reader, iPad, iLiad, and other e-text technologies allowed downloadable
books wherever an Internet or WiFi connection was available (Larson, 2010). The
Internet offered students research reference materials on portable devices, and connected
users to many virtual libraries regardless of locale or financial resources of the local
school. Online book sellers have started promoting free e-books along with the free
software required to read them on handhelds or computer desktops (Franklin & Ferguson
2005; Larson, 2009). E-books have been available through school libraries for check out,
40
as are MP3 like audio players (Playaways) to allow students digital novel listening. Free
audio and e-books as well as magazines were available through a multitude of web sites
Garland and Noyes (2004) conducted a study comparing printed text with an
electronic version of the same text. Researchers wanted to see if human memory or
cognitive systems view the e-text in a different manner. Retrieval of knowledge varied
between paper and computerized text, and found that reading from a computer could
provide less accurate information and a slower reading rate than from the paper version
comprehension was that the computer (CRT) monitor interfered with the mental
Spencer (2006) conducted a study of printed text versus computer screen delivery
of text with 500 graduates and undergraduates at 254 Royal Roads University School of
Business to survey online course-related reading habits and choices (Spencer, 2006). Of
the 500 learners involved in the survey, 254 completed it online. Some participants were
percent of participants were between 30 and 49 (Survey average age 30 to 39). Age did
not make much difference in choices made of printed text versus online reading: 73%
under 30 and 78% over 50 chose to read 50% of the text online. Physical demands of
using computer screens for reading and accompanying eyestrain and headaches were
factors noted by the survey participants in choosing to read printed text. Upgrades to
LCD and plasma may change this habit (Spencer, 2006). Some other statistics of interest
41
were 82% of learners printed articles when long or complicated; 75% printed if notes
needed; 80% printed if needed to study for an exam or assignment; 92% printed if needed
information to work with other documents. Participants liked having the choice of printed
versus online versions. Even with a cost savings (no printing) for electronic text, a
textbook or printed page (Spencer, 2006). Annotations and highlighting were available
online, so perhaps comfort with the tools might change this in the future with exposure to
Shepperd, Grace, and Koch (2008) completed a study of 466 students enrolled in
textbooks. Ease of using an electronic text was highlighted as being searchable for key
terms, lightweight, less bulky, and eco-friendly. Publishing company demonstrated the
CD before giving learners purchase options. There was a cost savings built into the e-text
CD and study guide with $40 for the CD/e-text, $81.25 for a new printed textbook, and
$60.95 for a used printed textbook. Even with cost savings potential, 90% of students
purchased a printed textbook. Final class grades did not differ significantly between e-
text and print users although less study time was spent by the bulk of e-text learners
(Shepperd et. al., 2008). A final thought of researchers was perhaps an adjustment time
period was needed for e-text to become a more widely accepted alternative to a
traditional print version. It appeared that students who planned to read an entire textbook
reading rate by 50% unless a learner skim-read (Shepperd et. al., 2008). The study used
electronic text with teenage participants which fit the e-text research successes. Starting
42
students at a younger age using e-text and accompanying tech-tools should be equated to
What has motivated students to read and write may also have changed based on
the technology they have used. Twittering has a potential if a student approaches authors
with questions or comments. Snail mail did not offer the same immediacy or global
intimacy that instant messaging and online social interaction does. Young author web
sites, personal web pages, and blogs allowed the Net generation (Oblinger & Oblinger,
2005) to share writing with a much wider, critical audience. A teacher was no longer the
sole reader of students’ creative and well-constructed ideas which should add in
motivation for writing, and reading each other’s work. The doors have come off the
classroom and widened the level of engagement when adults were not getting in the way
of technological advances. Bird and Giles (2010), the editors of Voices from the Middle
did not care what type of book was read or listened to, the point was that teenagers should
read whether via eBook, listening to an iPod audio book, or a regular print book.
Technology was part of the typical teenager’s life, so “yet even as technology changes
our perceptions and definitions of ‘books,’ students will still read, and books will still be
Because studies indicated electronic text reading has independent and varied
issues for learners, standardized delivery of the e-text through an Internet course room
site (Moodle) is chosen as a realistic delivery of the materials, music, and tests for this
study. Before the study began, reading comprehension was measured through a
standardized online testing system (Scholastic Reading Inventory) that allowed computer
entry of answers over handwritten responses. Study pre-test and post-tests were inserted
43
into an online course room using the MoodleTM test creator for open-ended (short answer)
question format. Instructional design of online learning directed the designer to avoid
split effect and redundancy (Clark & Mayer, 2008) in setting up the online materials for
the study. Because of this specific design strategy, Leslie and Caldwell’s (2011) high
school reading materials with visuals included were uploaded as e-text, PDF files. An
online delivery method for the study was another motivational factor for participants.
Using audio in e-learning was the focus of a study conducted by Calandra et. al.,
defined as music, speech, and sound effects. Four questions about designed audio-
responses to question one were that 50% of participants indicated they rarely if ever used
music in e-learning. Narration was the most popular audio element. In response to
in their decision making process than theoretical principles” (p. 600). Finally, the
learners’ attributes were noted as a factor in choice of audio. Low reading levels merited
narration for understanding, and younger audiences merited music clips (p. 601). Overall,
designing for less technical disciplines meant higher inclusion of audio elements in
design (answering question 4). Current study was targeting a high school population, so
the insight offered by instructional designers in Calandra et. al., study (2008), opened the
44
door to music inclusion. Two music study types have been done, pre-task and
Pre-Task Music
the effects of classical music played before spatial reasoning tasks giving a short-term
piece in a major key (happy sounding) had a positive effect compared to silence or a slow
tempo, minor key (sad sounding) when tested on a variety of cognitive tasks.
enhancement.
Bangerter and Heath (2004) tracked the evolution of the Mozart Effect (pre-task
music). In an original study done by Rauscher and Shaw in 1993, researchers played a
Mozart Sonata for ten minutes, and administered a spatial intelligence test afterwards;
and college participants had a temporary increase in spatial task performance of eight to
nine IQ points (Caufield, 1999; Rauscher et. al., 1995). Enhancements were short-term,
and lasted only as long as exposure to a Mozart Sonata. “The main finding of this study
was that one specific composition of Mozart enhanced adult spatial test performance for
up to about 15 min” (Rauscher & Hinton, 2006, p. 233). A control group of college
students sat in silence or relaxation for 10 minutes before taking the same test. Popularity
of this study grew significantly as it was mutated and marketed by a businessman, Don
Campbell, as a method to increase intelligence for infants still in mother’s womb (Dowd,
2007). Classical music sales soared, as did the newspaper articles referencing the study
(478 articles referencing the study in a single year). A myth about infants was just that,
45
because this population has never been tested or studied. Larkin (1999) indicated there
are studies that attempted to reproduce the study and results, but failed to follow the
Multiple studies detailed that pre-task music studies had not improved spatial
abilities, and cannot be replicated under all laboratory conditions (Dowd, 2007;
McKelvie & Low, 2002; Nantais & Schellenberg, 1999; Standing et. al., 2008;
Thompson et. al., 2001; Wilson & Brown, 1997). Nantais and Schellenberg (1999)
hypothesized that pairing of musical or audio conditions were a key because music paired
with a less engaging stimulus had a more positive result. Rauscher and Hinton (2006)
stated the value found within the Mozart Effect studies may have been the knowledge
that music and spatial task performance share neurologically related elements. Exposure
to classical music selections may have excited large groups of neurons which would
explain the heightened state of arousal (McKelvie & Low, 2002). Of 11 studies evaluated
by McKelvie and Low (2002); four supported the Mozart Effect, while seven did not.
McKelvie and Low (2002) reviewed the researchers’ designs, and evaluated how closely
those replication studies were in design to the original. Steele study used a spatial-
temporal task from the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (paper folding and cutting)
folding and cutting task. In Steele’s pre-test-post-test design with a distracter between
A New Zealand study, populated with 55 students, aged 11 to 13, replicated the
Rideout and Steele design. The 16 minute tape used included a distracter: poetry readings
(4:30 minutes), followed by musical selections: one group listened to a Mozart Sonata in
46
D (8:29 minutes), and the other group listened to Cartoon Heroes by Aqua (7:30
minutes). The Aqua music selection, repetitive, up-tempo dance music, was chosen
because it is dissimilar to classical music, and would verify that any positive results were
not from music creating a physical reaction (e.g., involuntary physical arousal due to
musical beat versus intellectual arousal). Exposure to Mozart’s Sonata in D did not result
used where participants served as control group. The Rideout design incorporated
relaxation techniques to enhance the Mozart Effect (Nantais & Schellenberg, 1999).
Study participants from Wellington, New Zealand, totaled 48 children from 11-13 years
of age. Three musical types were used: classical, relaxation, and contemporary dance
music. Classical was Mozart’s Sonata in D (8:29 min), the relaxation music was
comprised of Debussey’s Clare de Lune (7:49 min) and Gershwin’s Rhapsody in Blue
(1:47 min); and the contemporary dance music was Cartoon Heroes by Aqua (no time
given). Students who tested high on the control test also scored high on the experimental
test. Overall, there was no significant effect indicated by musical condition; and the
Mozart Effect was not replicated in this study (McKelvie & Low, 2002). Relaxation was
found to bore or tire the subjects; whereas the Mozart selection elevated participant’s
state of arousal, which may have led to improved performance on the post-test (McKelvie
& Low, 2002). Not surprisingly, students enjoyed dance music more than two other
musical selections.
reason listening to music rewards participants. Music served as a stimulant for some
47
learners; however, this effect may have diminished over time. Cognitive science studied
the memory, learning, repetition, and physical or environmental factors for distraction
from or enhancement of the learning process (Waterhouse, 2006). Wilson and Brown
(1997) indicated music alone does not promote learning, yet silence may be as good an
Cassity, Henley, and Markley (2007) tested a Mozart Effect theory with a
realistic, modern application during game play of Tony Hawk Pro 3. Study results
showed better game play results with heavy metal music versus Mozart selections. Heavy
metal music has a definite beat that could result in arousal during the game to promote
attention. Other skill required in video gaming is coordination or psychomotor skills, not
a true parallel to cognitive organization. The Hall (1952) Texas University research
categorized as a Mozart Effect study was not a replication because music was not played
Many of the pre-task music studies considered in this literature review did not
replicate the original research conditions. For example, techno-pop, heavy metal, rock n
roll, and dance music, although popular to student participants, did not replicate the
highly-structured classical music used in the original studies. Brain’s potential reaction to
musical structure of classical music placing marketing outcomes aside; short-term impact
on memory made the inclusion of classical music an element that stood apart, and was
successful studies. Sound instructional design should help when reviewing studies and
Background music studies netted mixed results in elementary, junior high, high
school, and undergraduate college settings (Barnes, 2002). Oliver (1996) studied
university. Oliver’s premise was students reproduce or memorize facts; students do not
recall or study using deeper cognition to produce thought. Without connections, Oliver
indicated it was easy to forget. Study stated that the left hemisphere was for reading,
logical writing (speech and language), reasoning, analysis and sequence; while the right
hemisphere was for nonverbal ways of knowing (e.g., rhythm, music, images,
imagination). The highest potential for cognition would have been to engage both
hemispheres of the brain at once (Oliver, 1996). “Classroom teachers at all levels have
been exhorted to encourage greater right-brain involvement in their students” (Springer &
Deutsch, 1998, p. 299). Education was geared to favor teaching to one hemisphere of the
brain, the left; therefore, involving the right hemisphere is an objective of using music
within the classroom (Springer & Deutsch, 1998). Ornstein (1997) indicated, “there is so
much evidence for right-hemisphere superiority in certain tasks using tactile, kinesthetic,
and auditory modalities—because to describe knowing the outlines of the world as spatial
omits its musical and other auditory aspects, and it ignores the obvious need to spatial
Oliver’s (1996) study used baroque music with a calming 60 beats per minute to
increase alpha waves, New Age music, and standard lab noise as a control (Williams,
1983). Results of this study showed improved performance for reading comprehension,
49
yet Oliver stated that a generalization cannot be made for different populations or musical
genres.
Effects of music mediated by arousal and mood instead of cognition look closely
at the continuum of invigorating to calming states, and individual cognition was also
effected by dislike of particular music genres (Hallam, Price, & Katsarou, 2002). Teens
listened to music about three hours per day so it was a normal part of the day.
Background music had a calming effect on special education students (Hallam & Price,
1998). First junior high study was conducted in London with 15 minute fraction sessions.
conditions. Study one’s participants performed at an 84% accuracy rate with the calm,
relaxing background music, and with an 80% accuracy rate in non-musical condition
(silence). Findings suggested music can enhance the speed of working with math
problems (Hallam et. al., 2002). Second study attempted to disrupt learning with musical
selections intent on unpleasant or aggressive tone. Participants were thirty students, three
groups of 10, from Greek schools in England. Study two used a control with no music,
uncomfortable to participants. Memory task for each group was to recall a word from a
sentence. Ten sentences were used during the treatment, and 10 cued recall cards were
used to assess memory. Results showed aggressive music had a negative effect on
performance of a memory task. Calm music and no music results showed no significant
difference. Distractibility was mentioned as a possible reason for these results. Music can
disrupt concentration; and calming music over time may lose its positive effect because
eighth and ninth graders (Hall, 1952). In a Sherman High School, Sherman, Texas, study
of 278 eighth and ninth graders, four groups totaling 245 students served as control
groups testing with Forms A and B of the Nelson Silent Reading Test Grades 3-9,
Vocabulary and Paragraph. A fifth group served as a control group testing on Forms A
and B without music. The two day data collection in study hall conditions played
background music during one of the two days; however, the titles and types of music
were undisclosed. The Hall (1952) study found that 58% of 245 students in the four
classes increased scores when reading with background music present (Hall, 1952). The
other element of this study hall comprehension collection focused on intelligence as The
Otis Quick Scoring Mental Ability Test was administered to 90 ninth graders, and 124
eighth graders were tested with the Metropolitan Achievement Test. That meant 214 of
278 students in the study were tested with intelligence and achievement tests. The
compiled results indicated students who scored below average intelligence and
achievement did better with background music than counterparts; however, the actual
numbers were not listed. The researcher hypothesized that the reasons for the difference
could have been because these students need something to concentrate or focus against.
In the study’s boys’ versus girls’ data comparison, boys showed a 4.52 increase in scores
while background music played versus a 1.47 increase for girls (Hall, 1952).
reading comprehension test in the Department of English (Chou, 2010). The 133
participants were from a two-year technical college in Taiwan, ages ranging from 20 to
50 years (average age, 31.8). The practice reading tests were taken from Test of English
51
as a Foreign Language (TOEFL), and texts selected based on high background
knowledge by the participants (e.g., Kodak, Forbidden City, blood donation). Structure of
the study included three groups: a control group who took the reading comprehension test
(10 multiple choice questions) in silence; a hip-hop group with upbeat rhythm and tempo
selections including wind ensemble and strings, vocal or piano, slow tempo selections.
The results were not what the researchers expected. Hip hop music had a significant
positive effect on the performance of the reading comprehension. Classical music had
slightly lower results than the control group’s silent conditions. Attention drainage effect
took a toll on both background music groups’ comprehension. Chou (2010) suggested
Ocean County College in Toms River, New Jersey, researcher compared two methods of
reading: self-read and being read to (Giardino-Cherico, 1989). Musical variables used
were baroque, rock-n-roll, and silence during a relaxation period. Musical selections were
chosen based on four-four (4/4) time, and sixty beats per minutes for consistency in
phenomena by playing baroque music to obtain the optimal physiological state as well as
use of positive suggestion. Music in 4/4 with 60 beats per minute created a relaxed state
and opened the mind to learn (Williams, 1983). Under Losanov’s theory, emotion was
tied to music, and the rhythm within music must be calm and relaxed to achieve the
relaxation period when either baroque, rock n roll or silence (control) ensued; and then
the researcher invited participants to walk around the room to stretch for two minutes, but
remain within the testing room. Next, in the self-read groups, participants were asked to
read an essay silently (no time constraints indicated); the essay was a college level
standardized entrance exam piece. Before the question-answer sheets and questionnaires
were handed out, the researcher told used positive suggestions telling participants they
would do well on the test, and then the musical variable was introduced for a second
time. In the read-to group, the researcher read the essay aloud to the participants while
the musical variables played, and the rest of the data collection was the same as the self-
read group. Overall, the study concluded that participants did better when self-reading,
and self-readers were significantly better when rock-n-roll was played. Giardino-Cherico
(1989) concluded that individual musical preference played a role in the results of this
study. Music variables combined in the same treatment may have conflicting effects;
therefore, isolation of the variables may be indicated for clarification. The during-reading
or background music variable was also unique because it was not during-reading but
instead during assessment. The goal of this study was to determine what effect, if any,
whether or not an effect exists. Giardino-Cherico (1989) study also had read-to and self-
read variables. Participants who were read-to applied listening skills instead of reading
exposed to nonlyrical music played through a vibroacoustic chair (a chair equipped with
internal speakers enabling music to vibrate through the students) during-reading time in
an urban, midwestern study. Premise of the study was that rhythm in music had a
relaxation effect which calmed students and enabled them to recall information more
took part in a vibroacoustic chair during-reading time over six months of the study. Ten
participants were labeled as at risk students. Participants individually took a pre and post-
test on comprehension, oral reading accuracy, and word recognition. The Reading
Inventory for the Classroom, and the San Diego Quick Assessment Test were used to
evaluate sight words. There were no time limits imposed on the tests. Pre-tests were
given before the vibroacoustic music chair’s arrival. Post-tests were administered after
six months of students’ use of the vibroacoustic music chair. Music was selected with
criteria of fifty to sixty beats per minute nonlyrical music played through the
vibroacoustic chair, three times per week. Participants’ results showed increased
vocabulary and reading scores. Reading comprehension results indicated that below
grade level readers improved to grade level or higher within the six months, something a
regular reading program would not have been able to do according to the researchers
(Carlson, Hoffman, Gray, & Thompson, 2004). Eady and Wilson (2004) reviewed a
focused on whether music had an effect on performance, and whether students would be
motivated to return to a task if music was involved. Was pop or rock music a
achievement.
students to see if lyrical music during-reading had a positive or negative effect when
study as girls may be better at this than boys. The Gates-MacGinitie Reading Tests,
Fourth Edition, was used as the assessment instrument in this study to measure
comprehension: students read short passages and answered five multiple choice questions
afterwards. Music played during-reading was selected from top hits from the Billboard
magazine top 100 (pieces were excluded for offensive language, and parental warning
labels). A survey was taken of participants in the seventh and eighth grade; it asked about
likes or dislikes of the music used in the study. Study’s music proved to be popular with
age range studied, and typical of what participant’s listen to while doing homework at
males and females; however, females showed decline in reading scores under the music
condition. For approximately 1½% of students who indicated a preference for music
playing when studying, scores were better with music than with silence. Anderson’s
study refers to the Hallam et. al. studies which show opposite results: 10 to 11-year-olds
had increased math problem-solving speed because of the calming effects of background
music (Hallam et. al., 2002). Music perceived as arousing or aggressive had a negative
effect on 11 and 12-year olds’ math problem-solving speed and skills (Hallam et. al.,
2002). Studies involving Hallam, et. al. have indicated the type of music selected may be
55
a key to the outcome when using background music as an auditory element in the
learning environment.
unique study designs, varied musical selections, participants with vast ranges of
experience, musical genre likes and dislikes, and prior knowledge gaps. Did background
music become elevator music blocked out unconsciously? Did background music allow
students to concentrate even briefly against other environmental distractions? What type
of music worked best for teenagers to focus on the text at hand without cognitive
overload? The instructional designer must try to uncover these answers before using any
kind of music within an educational design online. A final design question was: were
there implications that certain types of learners might benefit from varied design
elements?
Reflection
Design decisions about when, where, and how audio elements were used has been
perplexing for instructional designers (Calandra et. al., 2008). Three primary audio
elements used in educational technology are music, speech (narration), and sound effects
which can “deliver information, direct attention, convey emotions, and provide feedback”
(Calandra et. al., 2008, p. 589). Again, low reading levels should have narration for
understanding, and younger audiences should have music clips (Calandra et. al., 2008, p.
601). Veteran instructional designers do not use one model; instead, designers problem-
solve with objectives of satisfying targeted learning outcomes, meeting learners’ ability
levels, providing tasks with a multimedia design that does not exceed working memory
56
capabilities or produce cognitive overload. Potential benefits of studying music
integration at different times in the learning process could assist instructional designers in
placement of music instead of narration should the study results prove beneficial. The
question becomes which of the two treatments if any will assist learner’s reading
comprehension?
Chapter 2 Summary
attention. Split effect, and the redundancy principal must be remembered in designing an
effective online reading assignment with visuals and additional audio. Strong readers may
overcome poor design, but struggling readers may not have reading strategies required to
be successful. Since the study includes readers of varied levels and abilities, there were
challenges in selecting text type and level. Challenges for learners of all abilities include
working memory issues, lack of prior knowledge, problems connecting text with reality,
Adding audio design elements could have added hurdles to reading comprehension for a
distracted learner. Familiar materials created a low cognitive load, and new materials
increased that to a high cognitive load. Cognitive load theory gave designers insight into
what not to mix and match. Technology also caused a problem with cognitive load and
anxiety. Teenagers have used technology, and can be taught to use tools for reading
electronic text; whereas, adults were more accustomed to print text and gravitate towards
its familiarity. Many studies have added music into the learning environment with mixed
rock-n-roll, to Billboard’s Top 100 list, and the results were as different as the musical
57
genres. True pre-reading classical music studies played classical music prior to asking
interest as are the many conflicting results. Because of the varied results with different
studies, need still existed for studying pre-reading and during (background) reading
music treatments and the potential design impact that existed for reading comprehension
improvement. Structurally sound design of the study was the core of whether or not it
could have been replicated successfully and whether or not principles and theories of
instructional design have been followed and have been effective. Auditory elements and
whether they assisted or hindered learners is the focus of this study. Complexly structured
music was used as a research design element for this study. Classical and jazz music met
the criteria for complex structured music, and these musical treatments were compared to
silence as another variable. Studying auditory elements and whether they assisted or
hindered learners will assist instructional designers in better understanding learners and
strategies that may improve performance. Next, research design was narrowed, research
58
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
Introduction
comprehension were combined with a more recent background (during task) music
design to comprise a study of instructional design strategies for reading. This study used
music in two different ways, before reading and during reading. Introduction of music in
paired with reading comprehension, and these studies included participants ranging from
elementary to college students as shown in the following list: Anderson and Fuller (2010)
junior high; Barnes (2002) undergraduates; Carlson, Hoffman, Gray and Thompson
(2004) third graders; Chou (2010) Taiwanese college students; Hall (1952) eighth and
ninth graders; and Oliver (1996) at-risk college freshman. Hall’s 1952 background music
study of ninth graders appears to be the closest to the research design strategy. Updating
this study with an online reading component (integration of technology) was a rational
59
Pre-task music studies have been conducted to measure effects of musical
variables on students’ spatial abilities (e.g., paper folding), and other tasks (Cassity,
Henley, Markley, 2007; Jausˇovec & Habe, 2004; McKelvie & Low, 2002; Rauscher &
Hinton, 2006; Rauscher et. al., 1995; Thompson et. al., 2001). Pre-task music reading
A decision was made to focus this quantitative research design using highly-
music selection in a major key, and nonlyrical jazz music. Using two types of highly-
structured music before and during reading attempted to determine whether a positive or
increasing online reading comprehension. Results of the study may further define useful
instructional interventions.
Because reading selections were based on individual likes and dislikes of topics, a
conscious design strategy was made to select expository (non-fiction) text from science
and social studies because selecting non-fiction text sets removes personal preference and
creates a more academic feel. Science and history text sets provide factual readings
wherein looking for facts becomes more focal to the reader than personal choice of
literature. Fictional text sets were discarded because personal preference drives choice,
and the motivation to read or participate in the study may be diminished. The decision to
adopt the pre and post-test design was made in order to verify and recognize that some
participants may already know the informational text content before reading.
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Research Questions
1. To what extent does the instructional design strategy of listening to music before
and silence measured through pre and post comprehension variables? [between
groups]
groups]
reading significantly increase the difference between pre and post reading
classical]
Research Hypotheses
The hypotheses range from comparisons between all groups to only musical
variable groups, to within group analysis of standardized reading scores compared with
results.
The null hypothesis was: There will be no significant difference in the pre and
61
The first directional hypothesis was: Listening to non-lyrical jazz music before
reading will increase reading comprehension scores compared to the standardized reading
The second directional hypothesis was: Listening to non-lyrical jazz music during
reading will increase reading comprehension scores compared to classical music group
compared with silence/none before reading will create a significant difference in the pre
Jones and Kottler (2006) defined the type of sample for this study, which was
cluster sampling. “In cluster sampling the basic unit … is a naturally occurring group of
people—for example, a classroom, a school, or a club” (p. 62). Students ranged from 15
to 18 years-of-age, and will be 92.7% White, 3.3% Hispanic, 2.3% American Indian,
0.7% Black, 0.3% Asian, and 0.7 two or more nationalities (WINNS, 2011). Even though
groups were heterogeneous, individual results were examined. The goal was to discover
the learning sequence had a different effect on individual participants by reviewing lexile
levels, eighth grade standardized test scores, grade point averages as well as pre and post-
Data Collection
Prior to data collection, one instrument was administered through the Scholastic
Letters were mailed to the parents of science club a week prior to a recruiting
meeting which overviewed the study, how it worked, and time commitment. Groups A,
B, C were volunteers from the science club, 30 per group recruited from high school
freshman, sophomores, juniors and seniors for a total of 90 participants. Equal groups for
all comparisons were used based on sample size standards of 30 for each group needed to
run a valid ANOVA (Gall, Borg & Gall, 1996). The groups were randomized by the
research assistant, the science club advisor, based on the number of students whose
parents signed the Parental Permission Form, FERPA (release of records) and
independently filled out the Minor Assent Form. Groups A, B, and C worked as an
independent study. Participants were given access to a Moodle™ Group via a sign up
card with dummy username (A1-A35, B1-B35, and C1-C35), a generic password for
initial sign-in where instructions for session one were provided. Participants were
allowed to complete the study during study hall, at the public library, or at home if
Internet was available. Potential issues noted in other studies regarding alertness based on
time of day, thirst, hunger, or alertness was alleviated by participants’ choice of time and
use of technology for the components of the study. Since the premise of previous studies
has been that music is a short-term memory enhancement, there should be no danger of
transfer through conducting twice-weekly sessions (Bangerter & Heath, 2004; Rauscher
& Hinton, 2006; Schellenberg, 2005; Standing et. al., 2008). Participants were given
access Sunday through Tuesday for Part 1 (WWI Part 1), and Thursday to Saturday as
63
Part 2 of week one (WW1 Part 2) and from Sunday to Tuesday for Part 3 (WWI Part 3).
p. 170). Quantitative data was collected six times over a three-week period. Groups A
and B were tested using the same treatment schedule with the difference being in genre of
music. Consideration was given to using classical music only in the study; however
individual cognition is effected by dislike of particular music genres (Hallam et. al.,
2002), a determination was made to use jazz as an alternative. Background music studies
used multiple genres of music; however, many of those audio selections were dissimilar.
Decision was made to focus on two similar musical genres. The larger participant number
groups using jazz and classical treatments as well as comparisons within each group
focused on pre and post comprehension measures. Group C served as the control group
with silence as the auditory element. Table 1 describes the treatment schedule related to
64
Table 1
Pre-Reading Music Treatment Schedule
Time Period Pre-Reading Pre-Reading
Treatment Treatment
Sunday to Tuesday Thursday
to Saturday
Week 1 (Group A) Finale, Allegro no. 39 Finale, Allegro no. 39
(5:49 minutes) (5:49 minutes)
Three separate online course rooms were created to avoid potential overlap and
curiosity of the participants. Separate course rooms kept study participants from listening
to the other study group’s music files. Majority of the participants had familiarity with
using the computer and course room for handing in homework, taking quizzes, online
reading and responses. Others were given a brief overview of how to access the course
room and how to navigate it. Typed instructions were given out by the research assistant
on cards detailing how to change passwords the first time logging into the course room
along with session date ranges, web site address, username, and first time password.
Online instructions appeared with the reading and tests which were available for three
65
days in each session. A weekend day was open for each study portion so that students
could work from home. Pre-test, auditory variable, text, and post-test were preloaded in
online course room. Music selection was preloaded as a clickable audio file. Non-fiction
text set was loaded as a PDF from the CD-ROM accompanying the Quality Reading
Inventory-5 (QRI-5) to preserve visuals and page layouts created by Leslie and Caldwell
(2011). Pre and post-test questions created and field-tested by Leslie and Caldwell were
entered into online test software, then assigned in the online course room, but hidden
strategy in the background music (during-task) modality for part of week two and week
three. This is a repetition of the schedule for weeks one and two, so the process was
familiar to learners.
Table 2
Background Music Treatment Schedule
Time Period Background Background
Treatment Treatment
Sunday to Tuesday Thursday to Saturday
Week 2 (Group A) Finale, Allegro no.
39 (5:49 minutes)
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Data collection (see Table 3) includes a during-reading (background) variable for
participants to take a pre-test (self-paced), read text (5-6 minutes) while listening to the
auditory variable, and take a post-test (self-paced). Over the data collection time period
(four weeks), six pre-tests and six post-tests will be collected for each participant in
Groups A, B, and C, and then scored by the researcher (see Table 3).
Table 3
Data Collection
Time Group A Group B Group C
Period Classical Jazz
Silence
Week 1 Pre-Reading Classical Pre-Reading Jazz Pre-Reading Silence
Two pre-tests Two pre-tests Two pre-tests
Two post-tests Two post-tests Two post-tests
Week 2
Pre-reading Classical Pre-reading Jazz Pre-reading Silence
One pre-test One pre-test One pre-test
One post-test One post-test One post-test
Week 3
Background Classical Background Jazz Background Silence
Two pre-tests Two pre-tests Two pre-tests
Two post-tests Two post-tests Two post-tests
Week 4
Background Classical Background Jazz Background Silence
One pre-test One pre-test One pre-test
One post-test One post-test One post-test
for pre-reading treatment study (weeks one and two). Pre-treatment study instructions
were similar for Groups B, and C, the difference being the audio treatment. Text sets and
67
Validity and Reliability
The six text selections (see Appendix A) were taken from the high school level of
Qualitative Reading Inventory-5 (QRI-5) (Leslie & Caldwell, 2011). This resource is
teachers as a tool for authentic assessment of students’ reading abilities. Because the
materials were recognized as industry standards and have been field-tested, the validity
and reliability was proven which was relevant to a research study’s credibility. The QRI-5
offers elementary, middle, and high school level texts for readers ranging from emerging
to advanced abilities. Authors tested the materials and determined that a standard error of
measurement was in order because there is no variability in the data (Leslie & Caldwell,
2011, p. 479). “The mean, standard deviation, and standard error of measurement (SEM)
of the proportion-correct total comprehension score for all passages” (Leslie & Caldwell,
2011, p. 479). The Social Studies passages were reported as Means (with standard
deviations in parenthesis) for “World War I” Parts 1 through 3 as .35 (.24), .39 (.26), .44
Parts 1 through 3 as .20 (.15), .37 (.20) and .20 (.18) respectively (Leslie & Caldwell,
2011, p. 481). Standard Error of Measurement was .14 for each “World War I” section,
The authors’ recommendation for most reliable results was for an examiner to use
the same types of passages such as expository or narrative because the student will be
more familiar with the text type and student results will be more accurate. (Leslie &
Caldwell, 2011, p. 479). Six expository text sets have been selected from the materials to
68
comply with the experts’ advice on reliable results. The titles of each section were
“World War I” (Part 1, 2, and 3), and “Characteristics of Viruses” (Part 1, 2, and 3)
Leslie and Caldwell (2011) indicated readers’ prior knowledge is a powerful tool
to harness, and that is the author’s rationale for inclusion of pre-reading questions with
the materials (see Appendix B). Good instructional design acknowledges pre-reading
strategies and incorporated them to help students organize thoughts and connect to prior
agreement at 98% (p. 478). Pre-reading concept questions were used in the study.
For the purpose of this study, six texts from the QRI-5 high school level reading
materials were used. Accompanying pre and post-test open-ended questions verify
were avoided by using pre-written materials by experts who incorporated pre and post-
tests in the text sets. The high school level selections were categorized by content as
science and social studies; these were broken into two smaller reading sections titled
World War I (Social Studies) parts one, two and three and Characteristics of Viruses
(science content) parts one, two and three. Concept questions for each reading session
became the pre-test for each reading section, and the post-tests were comprehension
questions with implicit and explicit responses; answers to the questions were provided by
the authors for correcting the tests. All six text selections were categorized as non-fiction
(expository), a strategy recommended by the authors to attain the most valid, reliable test
results. Using content area texts from an expert outside reading source should provide
69
reliable, credible data collection for study, and avoid potential overlap in instructional
materials or redundancy.
A reading level range was provided for texts selected for this study by the authors
(Leslie & Caldwell, 2011). Six non-fiction text pieces chosen range from 920 to 1180
lexile level, and were categorized as high school level reading materials. Reading level
was a reliable one published by professors of reading for educational experts. Lexile
levels assist instructors in selecting appropriate reading materials for students not too far
After participants completed online pre-tests and post-tests, tests were scored
based on reading experts’ materials offering no potential for bias on the part of the
researcher completing the scoring. Participants were kept completely anonymous through
the numbering system with no names associated with participants. Pre-reading questions,
labeled as concept questions, had answers provided by the authors and scores included
the following:
characteristic
Post-test questions have explicit and implicit answers provided by the authors (Leslie &
Caldwell, 2011).
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Operationally Defined Variables
The independent variable was an audio treatment: classical music, jazz music, and
silence/no music. Groups were classified as one of the three independent variables.
Classical and jazz music were defined for the purpose of this study as non-repetitive,
highly-structured complex music that is non-lyrical. Dependent variables were pre and
post-tests to measure reading comprehension. Tests were scored on grading score scales
of 0 to 4 for pre-test, and 0 to 10 (1 point each for each content question. Pre and post-
tests were used with permission (pending) from QRI-5 were completed online by study
participants, scored by the researcher based on the author’s published rubric for
evaluating test short answers, and then converted into a number 0 to 4 for pre-test and 0
to 10 for post-test, and entered into an Excel™ spreadsheet under the columns (sessions
1-6) for each anonymously numbered participant) and then converted to percentages
(100%) for true comparison. The Standardized Reading Inventory (SRI) was
administered before the study to consenting participants. Reading test was automatically
scored by the computer and a report generated for the research assistant. Lexile scores 0-
Scores for each participant included four questions for each pre-test (concept
questions scored as one to three points per question), and 10 open-ended questions for
each post-test (one point per question). Three pre-reading treatments (variables: classical,
jazz, silence) and three background (during-task) reading treatments (variables: classical,
jazz, silence) were implemented. Resulting numerical data was entered into a statistical
71
analysis program to conduct an Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) with the following three
groups:
II=jazz/no lyrics
III=silence.
The mixed design ANOVA test was selected to indicate that within group and
between-group comparisons could be easily done through this single factorial designed
test. 1. Within group design compares pre and post comprehension results. 2. Between
group design compares comprehension results between the types of music (Groups A, B).
A Repeated Measures ANOVA would not produce results needed to explain within and
between groups. The Repeated Measures ANOVA focuses on significant differences over
time, and then gives the user the ability to compare times (time 1 vs. time 3).
Comparisons drawn were between independent variables and within groups looking at
the pre and post comprehension scores; and then finally using the standardized reading
scores to evaluate the data more deeply to see if any patterns existed between lexiles and
scores (reading levels as a predictor to success). Repeated Measures ANOVA would not
A more complex type of ANOVA called a factorial design was used to explore
more than one treatment factor (Salkind, 2008). In this case, the factorial design mixed
design was used to compare pre and post comprehension measures (within groups
design), and compare groups on independent variables of classical, jazz, and none
(between groups design). This was the best test for the study because it allowed
comparisons within a group and between groups tested with one analysis. Two musical
72
styles were included because of the potential negative participant reaction to the classical
genre, and were compared with each other between-groups looking at the independent
For the purpose of this study, reading scores (measuring overall reading
variable has any relationship to an individual’s low, medium, or high level of reading
ability. Anonymity was assured through a random participant numbering system. Group
A was randomly numbered A1-A30, Group B as B1-B30, and Group C with C1-C30.
assistant. Participant key was kept under separate cover, sealed so that the researcher was
not aware of who the participants were. This was done with intent to remove researcher
In implementing the pre-task music design strategy, a set time was given for the
musical variable of five to six minutes with approximately the same amount of time for
the task of reading a text set. Pre-task studies indicated that pre-task music had a limited,
short term enhancement of approximately the same time as the music was played
(Rauscher et. al., 1995). An obvious limitation of following the pre-task study’s design
was that not all participants work at the same pace, and individualized education plans
add in time for special needs students as needed for reading and completing tasks.
73
participants had experience with timed reading, writing, and answering multiple choice
test questions. Practice should have minimized the impact of a time frame limitation.
The next limitation identified within the design method was that during the period
of controlled silence, it was impossible to control what learners were thinking about or
how they behave (e.g., falling asleep) within relaxed silence. Encouraging students to
relax during this silence may calm the participant (Wilson & Brown, 1997).
Motivation was a third limitation of the study. Learners may tune out background
distractions (Pool et. al., 2000) when the primary task is more important than the
secondary (e.g. homework with television, or music videos). When motivated to do well
preference. Like or dislike of a musical genre is out of the researcher’s control; however,
being a study participant in this high school is something that is out of the norm and
desirable; for this reason, it should have created a level of motivation to be a research
participant.
Ethical Issues
This study incorporated activities done almost every day in a normal language arts
classroom. Inclusion of private records from the eighth grade standardized reading test
results, and current year’s reading level (lexile scores) were protected by entering the data
on a spreadsheet. Spreadsheet was then given to the research assistant who entered the
reading scores onto a different spreadsheet once signatures were obtained. On the second
spreadsheet, participants were known only by an anonymous letter associated with the
study groups and a number (e.g., C1, A21), individual SRI reading scores, age, gender,
and grade level. Informational data collected will be stored for seven years in a locked
74
file cabinet. Researcher will have the only keys for accessing the data and records
collected. Privacy and confidentiality for minors was insured through the school district’s
employment contract which includes HIPPA rules and regulations. Private and
The form provided confidential release of records for study keeping the educational
records, and participant names private. Privacy was protected through participant’s
individual online course room passwords set up with anonymous numbers and letters.
Study pre-tests and post-tests were scored, catalogued and stored in a private location off-
site from the school so that no printed copies were accessible to other staff. Copies of
data results and analysis will be kept in a locked file cabinet for seven years.
In this study, the researcher was also a language arts instructor where the
participants were recruited. In order to alleviate the potential ethical dilemma of a power
structure with vulnerable populations, data collection did not take place during formal
instructional time. Flexibility of online delivery encouraged students who were truly
peer pressure. Independent study design removed any implication that participation was a
requirement of a language arts class by moving the study focus to the science club
participant pool where the teacher was not in a position of authority. Working with
minors was embedded in the teaching career. High school principal provided a site
permission letter for this study approving students to complete the study during non-
instructional time. Parental permission and FERPA forms were required based on
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discussions between the superintendent of the school district and Capella University’s
Inclusion of music has been done routinely in the researcher’s classroom allowing
students independent choices of music, and was something that other teachers do to
create conducive learning environments. Many of the participants have attempted music
integration through headsets and ear buds during independent reading time freshman and
sophomore years. Participants have not been exposed to class-wide music. Willingness to
try music elements during reading does not predispose learners to a certain outcome with
study, they chose gift cards from a selection of four local businesses. After the data
collection was completed, participants were given their chosen gift cards as a sign of
appreciation for study participation. Research study as designed did not create ethical
Capella University.
The study participants were 102 teenage students from a science club in a
midwestern high school with a population of nearly 300 students. Study was designed as
an independent one so that the language arts instructor who was also the researcher was
not in a power position over participants. This design allowed the researcher to perform
the role of researcher without a potential power struggle with participants. Pre-tests, text
sets, post-tests, and musical variables were set up through three separate online
classrooms created for this study through the cooperative education center which allowed
participants to access study assignments in free time at their discretion from home or
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school, but not during a scheduled language arts class. Classical (Group A) and Jazz
(Group B) genres were nonlyrical musical variables used to test whether music before
non-fiction text sets. Group C was the control with silence only as an audio treatment.
First two weeks of the study (three sessions) introduced the effect of complexly
Second two-week portion of the study (three sessions) reviewed the effect of complexly
Each session collected pre-test and post-test comprehension data. Resulting numerical
data was entered into a statistical analysis program for a factorial design (mixed design)
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CHAPTER 4: DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
Introduction
Two studies were conducted using three separate online course rooms, one for
each group: classical, jazz, and silence (control group). Part 1 was three sessions over ten
days designed as a before-reading independent musical variable study. Classical and Jazz
groups had a pre-test, an mp3 music file, short non-fiction text set, and a post-test posted
for each session with detailed instructions. The control group’s only difference was to put
headsets on for the required amount of silence. Part 2 of the study began after Part 1
concluded and was again three sessions over a ten day period designed as a during-
reading musical variable study with the same groups (classical, jazz, and silence as
the independent musical variable groups for the study. Control group (Group C)
discrepancies within musical variable groups resulted in a discussion about data analysis
because of uneven sample sizes. A description of the samples was followed by the
methodology and analysis used. Description of the sample begins the chapter along with
school science club with ages ranging from 14 to 18 (ninth to twelfth graders). Science
club was chosen because of assurance from faculty advisor that students possessed a
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natural curiosity, familiarity with experiments, and active members were 120 strong, a
high number in a small high school. Parent letters and consent forms were mailed and an
participate in the study based on membership in the science club. Parental consent and
release forms needed to be signed and given to the science club advisor (a science
teacher) before minor assent forms were signed. The advisor served as dissertation
research assistant, assigning random group and number to ensure participant anonymity
and providing participants with sign-on details. A spreadsheet of science club members’
lexile scores were given to the assistant before study enrollment began. Lexile tests
measure a reader’s comprehension, and the software used in this school was the
reading levels. Lexile scores were and are used by reading and English teachers to assist
were and that the text sets were appropriate for the participants. Upon conclusion of data
collection, the research assistant provided spreadsheets for each group with names
removed to ensure anonymity and current lexile level score/range, age, grade level, and
continued as the study was implemented because insufficient numbers had returned
parental consent forms. The research assistant encouraged students through Wednesday
of the first week of study to bring in forms. By Wednesday, 33 participants were assigned
to Group A with the same number added into Group B. Group C had 36 assigned; the
extras in Group C were to assure 30 active control group participants. Study had 102
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participants signed up in week one with eleven dropping out voluntarily after the first
three sessions of the study (approximately a week and a half to two weeks later).
finish by hitting submit in the online test system. The test status showed as open in the
Moodle course room which meant the researcher could not view participants’ answers.
One participant did not finish this step, so answers were not included in study since they
could not be scored. At mid-point of the study, the research assistant re-recruited inactive
participants, asking them to participate or advise if they wished to drop out of the study.
Table 4
Participation Numbers and Timing
Three Week Study Group A Group B Group C
Enrolled Participants 33 33 36
(Week 1)
Sessions 1 to 3 17 21 31
(completed by Week 2)
Sessions 4 to 6 20 24 31
The decision was made to exclude data from participants who did not complete pre-tests
and post-tests for all three sessions of Part One or Part Two (Part One was the before-
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reading study, Sessions 1 to 3; and Part Two was the during-reading study Sessions 4 to
6). Using ANOVA with participation rates below 30 in each group was something that
needed to be reconsidered from the study proposal; it was determined that ANOVA was
still allowable because the two musical variables (Groups A and B) were different
enough that a t-test would not sufficiently measure the independent variables’ potential
effects. The independent samples t-test was used for lexile range cut point analysis as
compared to pre-test and post-test means for the first directional hypothesis.
The first descriptive statistic used in the analysis of variance was gender (see
Table 6). Part One of study had 46% males and 54% females (69 total active
participants), and Part Two study active participants were 44% male and 56% female (75
total participants).
Table 5
Participant Gender
Group A Group B Group C % (n)
The second descriptive statistic used was participant age (see Table 7). The 15 to 16 year
old age group was the largest, comprising 65% (n = 45) of the 69 participants in Part 1
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Table 6
Participant Ages
Group A Group B Group C % (n)
Part 1 (S1-3) (17) (21) (31) 100% (69)
14 0 3 3 9% (6)
15 5 3 15 33% (23)
16 7 7 8 32% (22)
17 2 8 5 22% (15)
18 3 0 0 4% (3)
Lexile levels were used as a third descriptive statistic. Rather than use actual lexile
level scores (ranging from Below Basic reading to 1251 and above), the Scholastic
Advanced and Proficient readers comprised 85% (n = 122) of participants, Basic readers
were 15.27% of participant pool, and there were no Below Basic readers (see Table 7).
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Table 7
Lexile Ranges based on SRI
Category A Part 1 A Part 2 B Part 1 B Part 2 C Part 1 C Part 2 Total %
Advanced 7 9 9 10 13 13 42.36%
Proficient 6 7 11 11 13 13 42.36%
Basic 4 4 1 3 5 5 15.27%
Below Basic 0 0 0 0 0 0 0%
Participant 17 20 21 24 31 31 144
Total
Results
Spreadsheet software (Excel™) was used to record data from test results, current
year’s lexile reading scores (SRI), ages, genders, and groups. Data was then uploaded
into a statistical analysis software program entitled Statistical Package for Social
Sciences (SPSS version 21.0) which provided an analysis of data using one-way ANOVA
and means testing. Aggregated data separated by group was used to create a new data set
with means for each group’s pre and post-tests. An independent samples t-test was
performed with a cut point test (e.g. researcher selected lexile score to separate results
from advanced/proficient and basic) test for lexile scores compared with means scores.
The following data results were organized by research questions and hypotheses to
provide data for each to verify whether or not questions have been answered by the data
results.
Research Question 1
First research question explored was, to what extent does the instructional design
strategy of listening to music before reading increase the difference between independent
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variables of classical/ jazz, and silence measured through pre and post comprehension
variables? Part 1 of the study was comprised of Session 1, 2, and 3 of the before reading
study with pre and post-tests results. One-way ANOVA was run for Groups A, B, and C
and results displayed in Table 9. Post-test 2 had a significance of .042, and Pre-test 3 had
a significance of .035. Since both were less than .05, they were considered significant.
follows: listening to classical or jazz music compared with silence/none before reading
Part 1 (before reading variable) groups means A and B compared with the means
scores of group C showed one of three sessions had a positive test result after listening to
music before reading compared to silence. Groups A and B in Session 2 show an increase
of .11 to .12 compared with C’s non-significant -.01. The other two sessions’ means
posted negative differences of -.09 to -.25 (Session 1), and -.21 and -.12 (Session 3),
while the control group showed the same negative result on Session 1 (-20), and a non-
Table 9
Part 1 Aggregated Group Means, and Standard Deviations
Groups Pre 1 Post 1 Pre 2 Post 2 Pre 3 Post 3
Research Question 2
independent variables. The second research question explored was, does the instructional
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between independent variables of classical, jazz, and silence measured through pre and
post comprehension variables. One-way ANOVA was run for Groups A, B, and C and
displayed in Table 10 for Part 2. Post-test 4 was .032; therefore, only one of six sessions
showed significance.
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Second Directional Hypothesis
music during reading will increase reading comprehension scores compared to classical
music group scores. In Part 2 of the study, the group mean for Group B (jazz) was .56
versus Group A (classical) of .51 which shows that scores for jazz were higher, but not
Research Question 3
test results. The third research question explored was, does the instructional design
strategy of listening to classical music before reading significantly increase the difference
between pre and post reading comprehension compared to jazz music scores? Groups A
and B did not have a significant difference in the before-reading musical variables
The first directional hypothesis explored was, listening to non-lyrical jazz music
before reading will increase reading comprehension scores compared to the standardized
results were reviewed, however, lexile categories were solely reviewed by hypothesis.
Results sorted by Lexile categories do not show an increase between pre-test and post-
test scores in Part 1 of the study. Session Two shows the only increase in means scores
(11-12%); however, the other two tests show decreases from pre-test to post-test scores.
Null Hypothesis
The null hypothesis explored was, there will be no significant difference in the pre
silence/none. The differences in means between independent variable groups falls within
the published Standard Error, therefore, the null hypothesis was proved. The differences
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in pre and post-test scores fell within the range published by the QRI-5. The one-way
ANOVA run for Part 1 and Part 2 for all groups showed three significant differences out
Next, a more detailed analysis of the null hypothesis is followed by the questions
and hypotheses related to the before-reading (Part 1) study, then the during-reading (Part
Detailed Analysis
Null Hypothesis
was supported. Two pre-tests and one post-test showed significance out of 6 pre-tests
the independent variables. Part 1 test Group ABC means were .58, .57, and .51; Part 2
Means were: .51, .57, .and 55. Both parts of the study have mean differences that were
within Standard Error given by publisher of .14 for each Session 1-3, and Sessions 4-6 of
One-way ANOVA tests run on before reading and during reading results showed
two pre-tests and one post-test with significance of .05 or less. The increases and
decreases from pre to post reading test scores were within standard deviations; therefore,
variables.
hypotheses and data followed by questions and hypotheses related to during reading data.
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Before Reading
Research Question 1
To what extent does the instructional design strategy of listening to music before
reading increase the difference between independent variables of classical/ jazz, and
Part 1 Confidence Interval for Mean (lower bound, upper bound) was: 95% CI
(64.74, 73.33), (44.71, 56.45), (42.48, 53.32), (47.86, 60.17), (48.24, 62.25), and (41.87,
52.10). Minimum and maximum range as follows for Part 1 pre and post-tests: (25, 100),
(0, 100), (0, 100), (0, 100), (8, 100), and (10, 92). Significance ranges from 0-1. If p-
value (sig.) is less than .05, then it is considered significant. Post-test 2 was .042, and pre-
Leslie & Caldwell (2011) reported pre and post-test combined means (with
standard deviations in parenthesis) for “World War I” Parts 1 through 3 as .35 (.24), .39
(.26), .44 (.24) respectively. Standard Error of Measurement was .14 for each section of
The Mean for Sessions 1 to 3 (Part 1) were above the Quality Reading Inventory
5th edition (QRI-5) published test results by 2%-27%; the Standard Deviation (SD) was
within 1 to 6% of the QRI-5’s; the Standard Error (SE) is 8% to 10% lower than QRI-5’s;
effect size (Eta-squared) was not indicated by the QRI-5, but was calculated for pre-test
and post-test effect sizes for each group show a significant difference (see Table 12).
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Table 12
Part 1 Aggregated Group Means, and Standard Deviations
Groups Pre 1 Post 1 Pre 2 Post 2 Pre 3 Post 3
A .64 .55 .50 .61 .67 .46
B .74 .49 .49 .61 .60 .48
C .69 .49 .46 .45 .46 .47
Sum 2.07 1.53 1.45 1.68 1.73 1.40
Mean .69 .51 .48 .56 .58 .47
QRI-5 Mean .35 .39 .44
Mean d +.16 +.17 +.03
SD per test .05 .035 .021 .09 .11 .012
SD by test .085 .11 .12
QRI-5 .24 .26 .24
SD
SD d -.085 -.15 -.12
(Note: d=difference.)
In Table 12, research question 1 data results for the three groups were as follows:
Session 1 Group A means (SD) for pre and post-tests were .64 (.05), and .55 (.035);
Group B means were .74 (.05) and .49 (.035); and Group C means were .69 (.05) and .49
(.035) (see Table 13). Data shows a decrease between pre and post-test results ranging
Session 2 Group A means were .50 (.021) and .61 (.09); Group B means were .49
(.021) and .61 (.09); and Group C means were .46 (.021), and .45 (.09). The data shows
two of three positive gains between pre and post-test results of +.11 (A), +.12 (B), and
-.01 (C).
Session 3 Group A means were .67 (.11) and .46 (.012); Group B means were .60
(.11) and .48 (.012); and Group C means were .46 (.11), and .47 (.012). The data shows
two of three negative results of -.21 (A), -.12 (B), and +.01 (C).
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Third Directional Hypothesis (before reading)
Associated with Research Question One, the third directional hypothesis was as
follows: listening to classical or jazz music compared with silence/none before reading
The means between Groups AB and C for Part 1 study design were 57.33 (AB
Means) and 50.66 (C Means). Groups A and B outscored the control group on Session 2
of the before-reading music session. The control group had non-significant changes
(-.01) between Session 2 pre and post-tests. On Sessions 1 and 3, Groups AB differences
between pre and post-tests were negative, but still within the Standard Deviation of .24,
reading significantly increase the difference between pre and post reading comprehension
Part 1 Groups A and B Confidence Interval for Mean (lower bound, upper bound)
was: 95% CI (63.77, 75.39), (43.73, 59.69), (42.59, 56.36), (53.39, 68.56), (53.98,
72.02), and (40.15, 54.16). Minimum and maximum range as follows for Part 1 Groups A
and B pre and post-tests: (33, 100), (0, 95), (1, 100), (15, 100), (8, 100), and (10, 92).
Significance ranges from 0-1. If p-value (sig.) is less than .05, then it is considered
Group A and B mean results for Session 1 were 60 to 62 (see Table 12), Session 2
was even at 55 while Session 3 showed a slight mean difference 56 to 55 which means
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the differences were non-significant. In Part 1 of study, Group A (classical) mean was
and post means between Groups A and B in the before-reading musical variables
comprehension scores compared to the standardized reading scores. The lexile reading
scores were used as a comparison mechanism with pre and post-test result differences.
Table 13
Group B Part 1 Means Statistics by Cut Point Lexile Score (>1251)
S1 to 3 Lexiles N Mean SD SEM
>= 1251 9 .80 .18 .06
Pretest1B
< 1251 12 .70 .16 .05
>= 1251 9 .54 .22 .07
Posttest1B
< 1251 12 .45 .25 .07
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The means score differences between pre and post-tests for Part 1 of the study for Group
B participants (n = 9) with equal to or above Advanced lexile range (>= 1251) were:
Session 1 pre-test .80 (.18) and post-test .54 (.25) for a negative difference of -.26;
Session 2 pre-test .56 (.22), post-test .68 for a positive difference of +.12; and Session 3
pre-test .66 (.29), post-test .49 (.22) for a negative difference of -.17.
Group B participants with lexile scores less than 1251 (n = 12) results were:
Session 1 pre-test .70 (.16), post-test .45 (.25) for a negative difference of -.25; Session 2
pre-test .44 (.27), post-test .56 (.20) for a positive difference of +.12; Session 3 pre-test
scores for Group B Advanced Level (1251 or above) study participants, high lexiles were
not indicative of an increase between pre and post comprehension measures (see Table
13). Session One differences between pre and post-test results for all of Group B was
consistent at -.26 (>= 1251) and -.25 (>1251) while Session Two showed a positive gain
of +.12 for both groupings, and Session Three proved a -.17 (>=1251) and -.07 (>1251).
During Reading
Research Question 2
One-way ANOVA was run for Groups A, B, and C and displayed in Table 10 for
Part 2. Part 2 Confidence Interval for Mean (lower bound, upper bound): 95% CI (61.27,
71.96), (46.26, 55.87), (66.29, 74.78), (46.63, 55.90), (41.87, 51.55), and (34.45, 43.39).
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Minimum and maximum range as follows for Study Part 2: Pre-test 4- 8, 100, Post-test 4-
0, 90, Pre-test 5- 25, 100, Post-test 5- 0, 100, Pre-test 6- 0, 100, and Post-test 6- 0, 95.
Significance ranges from 0-1. If p-value (sig.) is less than .05, then it is considered
significant.
(for Sessions 4 to 6) reported as .20 (.15), .37 (.20) and .20 (.18) respectively (Leslie &
Caldwell, 2011, p. 481). Standard Error of Measurement was .12, .15, and .12.
Table 14
Part 2 Aggregated Group Means, and Standard Deviations
Category Pre 4 Post 4 Pre 5 Post 5 Pre 6 Post 6
Group A .69 .45 .64 .50 .41 .37
Group B .62 .60 .77 .51 .51 .38
Group C .69 .48 .70 .52 .46 .41
Sum 2.00 1.53 2.11 1.53 1.39 1.16
Mean .67 .51 .70 .51 .46 .39
QRI-5 Mean .20 .37 .20
Mean d +.31 +.14 +.19
SD per test .04 .08 .07 .01 .05 .02
SD by test .12 .08 .07
QRI-5 SD .15 .20 .18
(Note: d = difference, SD = standard deviation.)
In Table 14, Question 2 data results for the three groups were as follows: Session
4 Group A means for pre and post-tests were .69 (.04), and .45 (.08); Group B means
were 62 (.04) and .60 (.08); and Group C means were .69 (.04) and .48 (.08) (see Table
14). The data shows a decrease between pre and post-test results ranging from -.24 (A), -
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Session 5 Group A means were .64 (.07) and .50 (.01); Group B means were .77
(.07) and .51 (.01); and Group C means were .70 (.07), and .52 (.01). The data shows
negative gains between pre and post-test results of -.14 (A), -.26 (B), and -.18 (C).
Session 6 Group A means were .41 (.05) and .37 (.02); Group B means were .51
(.05) and .38 (.02); and Group C means were .46 (.05), and .41 (.02). The data shows
difference in post-test scores between Groups A and B in the during-reading sessions was
shown. In Part 2 of the study, the during-reading music group mean for Group B’s (jazz)
was .56 compared with the Group A’s (classical) mean of .51 which shows that the mean
for jazz was higher, but not significantly. The published Standard Error for Part 2
Chapter 4 Summary
Part 1 of the study was the before-reading music study comprised of Sessions 1, 2,
and 3. Part 2 of the study was the during-reading musical variable study comprised of
Sessions 4, 5, and 6. Three groups participated in three online classrooms. Group A was
assigned non-lyrical classical music, Group B was given non-lyrical jazz, and Group C
answer pre-test concept questions before listening to the assigned musical variable, then
read a short passage, and answer content comprehension questions. Part 1 lasted 7-10
days. Part 2 (during- reading design) required participants to answer pre-test concept
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questions, then read short text while listening to musical variable, and answer post-test
Sessions 1 and 3 of the before-reading study (Part 1), group means decreased
between pre and post-tests. Musical treatment for Groups A and B was between these
tests, before the reading text set and answering post-test questions. In Session 2 (Part 1),
the jazz and classical groups showed small means increases of .11 and .12 while the
control group showed a negative .01. Before-reading music potentially had a negative
the during-reading study (Part 2), the pre-test Group A and B means were higher than the
post-test means. Control Group C had the same decrease in means from pre to post-tests
in all sessions of Part 2. Since all three groups had similar negative post-test results,
scores.
Research Questions 1 and 3 results showed that in Part 1 of the study, post-test 2
for Groups A, B, and C had a significance of .042, and pre-test 3 had a significance of
.035. Since both were less than .05, they were considered significant (see Table 9). In
Part 2 of the study for Groups A, B, and C, post-test 4 was .032 which showed
significance since it was also less than .05 (see Table 10).
Of the hypotheses, the following null was proven: there will be no significant
difference in the pre and post comprehension measures between independent variables:
Pre-test questions for six published tests used from the QRI-5 were concept-based
while the post-test questions were content-based. Access to Internet search functions may
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have potentially skewed pre-test results (e.g., vocabulary look-up). Internet lock-out
procedure was not in place although the directions asked participants not to use the
Internet for looking up answers. Chapter 5 will further explore potential relationships
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CHAPTER 5. RESULTS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Introduction
The purpose of this study was to determine to what extent an instructional design
music design by Rauscher et. al., (1995) studying its effect on reading comprehension.
(during task) music design to comprise a study of instructional design strategies for
reading. Introduction of non-lyrical classical and jazz music in two different ways
summarizes and discusses results of the study through the lens of literature, study design,
known as Part 1. Data showed higher numbers on pre-tests than post-tests in Sessions 1
and 3 for Groups A and B, with an 11 to 12% means increase in Session 2 on post-test
means while the control group decreased 1%. In Part 1 of the study, post-test 2 for
Groups A, B, and C had a significance level of .042, and pre-test 3 had a significance
level of .035. Since both were less than .05, they were considered significant (see Table
9). Research questions 1, 3, and directional hypotheses 1 and 3 were based on Part 1 of
study.
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Research question 1: the effect size was calculated through Eta-squared measurement
from ANOVA divided between and within group data for Part 1. In terms of effect size,
differences ranged from 11% to 39%. Group’s effect sizes were calculated as follows:
Examining question 3 and the third directional hypothesis, all groups in Session 1
had a negative means difference: 9% (A), 25% (B), 20% (C) between pre and post-tests.
Session 2 had positive means difference of 11% (A), and 12% (B) while C had a negative
1%. Session 3 had a negative means difference of 21% (A), 12% (B), while C had a non-
significant positive means difference of 1% (C). Control group C overall had negative
overall had negative results. In Part 2 of the study for Groups A, B, and C, post-test 4 was
.032 which showed significance since it was less than .05 (see Table 11). Research
question 3 compared classical (A) and jazz (B) pre and post-test results which were
within the standard deviation for the tests, therefore, non-significant differences existed
between Groups A and B for Part 1. Third directional hypothesis of musical variables
positively impacting post-test results compared with silence was not supported by the
data because overall results showed a negative means difference for the musical variable
groups.
First directional hypothesis was for jazz Group (B) to significantly increase in
Part 1 sessions compared with lexile reading scores taken before study began. Although
the pre and post-test scores were negative overall, the advanced lexile jazz group (n = 9)
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did score at a higher level than lower level lexile groups by 10 to 12%, however, the post-
test scores were still negative means differences. Lexile levels were predictors of success
the study. Research question 2 and second directional hypothesis were based on Part 2.
Data collected was aggregated by group means, and three sessions showed negative
means difference between pre and post-reading tests for three groups. Differences were
within standard deviation, so question 2 was not proved by the data. Listening to music
while reading did not improve post-test scores for Groups A and B. Group C also showed
negative means difference on post-test scores. In Part 2 of the study for Groups A, B, and
C, post-test 4 was .032 which showed significance since it was less than .05 (see Table
11). Comparing Groups A and B results did not have any different results. Classical and
jazz during reading both produced negative post-test results in Part 2. Neither question 2
The null hypothesis reviewed Part 1 and Part 2 data means differences. The means
differences for both studies were within the QRI-5 standard error rates, so the null
hypothesis is supported by the data. . The one-way ANOVA run for Parts 1 and 2 for all
groups showed three significant differences out of twelve tests (see Tables 11 and 12).
In this two part, six session study, findings included participation and feedback.
Recruiting went well for this research study with 102 students of 120 in the science club
sign up; but follow-through and dropouts altered the outcomes. Five from each group (n
= 15) failed to complete even the first session of the study resulting in Session 1
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participation of 28 (A), 28 (B), and 31 (C). Over the next two sessions, those numbers fell
to 17 (A), 21 (B), and 31 (C), so the control group was the only one to remain consistent
during Sessions 2 and 3 while the other groups decreased by 11, and 7 (n = 18). These
participation results were of note because the verbal feedback revolved around dislike of
the music selections (Groups A and B). Teenagers made it clear that the music chosen
was distracting. Fifteen dropped out immediately while 18 more did not participate over
seven to ten days’ time. The literature revealed that audio distractions can help or hinder
focus during reading and text complexity determines ability to comprehend (Beaman,
2005). Unanticipated results of a negative means difference from pre to post-test results
in both the before and during reading results point to the reason and purpose of the study,
teens enjoy listening to music while reading or doing homework, but does music help
comprehension. The high scores on pre-tests which were clear of any musical distraction
could mean several things: pre-concept knowledge of the text, or Internet look-up
features used. Lexile or reading score levels should be reviewed to see if connections
exist.
Group B lexile levels were analyzed in an independent sample t-test against the
pre and post-test results. Higher lexile scores correlated to higher pre-test results, but
failed to demonstrate higher post-test scores. In retrospect, analyzing lexile levels in all
three groups would be helpful in better understanding correlations if any in test results
because there may be a causal relationship. Advanced (1251+) level readers may be
better equipped to focus against audio distractions than Basic Level readers. True audio
& Hinton, 2006; Rauscher et. al., 1995) indicated that successful focus and motivation
during tasks for learners may include listening to highly-structured non-repetitive music
to stimulate the brain’s short-term memory. Results for Groups A and B found that
reading comprehension was not improved by non-lyrical musical variables. Findings may
point towards personal choice, distraction (Pool et. al., 2000; Hallam, et. al., 2002), or
motivation (Dunn, 1987) as an overriding variable in teenage data results. Music proved
to be a real distraction and even an annoyance to students who dropped out. Their
feedback was vivid about the jazz, “I want to throw my computer against the wall to stop
that music. I can’t stand it.” From the research assistant’s memory, others complimented
the jazz selection as relaxing and kind of a cool rhythm, so those participants may have
been listening to the music instead of reading the text selections. Musical distraction may
have helped focus other participants against environmental issues (Pool et. al., 2000;
Hallam, et. al., 2002). A post-survey may have provided insight into perceptions of
participants who either enjoyed or disliked the experiences. It also may have provided
insights into like or dislike of classical and jazz music, a potential reason that post-test
Information from the literature review indicates that pre-task classical music
treatment does not improve spatial abilities (Dowd, 2007; McKelvie & Low, 2002;
Nantais & Schellenberg, 1999; Standing et. al., 2008; Thompson et. al., 2001; Wilson &
Brown, 1997). At least six sources documented replication attempts from studies
designed with a pre-task classical music element. Six studies with pre and post-tests did
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not show improvement based on spatial abilities. Reading is a different cognitive task
than spatial reasoning, but the outcomes were the same. Pre-task classical music did not
comprehension and compare pre and post-test score results with participants’ individual
lexile levels (reading level). Although the lexiles scores were collected, only Group B in
Part 2 of the study was scrutinized, based on the first directional hypothesis. Reading is a
complex skill reliant on working memory (Burton & Daneman, 2007); it is common for
novice readers to overload working memory in the process of decoding words (Hall,
2007).
Four concepts guided the study design. The first was a theoretical framework
based on structured non-repetitive music having an effect for a brief period of time (10 to
15 minutes). The original design predicted that because classical or jazz music increases
attention for a brief period of time, complex music (e.g., classical, jazz) would increase
reading comprehension (Jausˇovec & Habe, 2004; Rauscher et. al., 1995). Study results
disconfirm the assumptions of Rauscher’s et. al. (1995) original theoretical framework.
Research studies attempting to replicate the original Rauscher et. al. study had split
outcomes which can be interpreted in several ways, such as the following: the study
design was not closely followed as discussed in Chapter 2; musical selection used was
not non-lyrical classical of an upbeat tempo and tone; and participants may have reacted
to musical variables in slightly different ways causing a fifty-fifty split in study results. In
104
the end, perhaps spatial reasoning tasks were too dissimilar from reading comprehension
tasks to predict success or failure. The theory was tested on reading because the design
had been tested with fifty-fifty results posing the opportunity to apply the framework to a
The second concept for the study design was based on background music known
as during-task music. Background music creates a higher intrinsic cognitive load when
paired with difficult text (Clark et. al., 2006). In a different study, 10 to 11-year-olds had
music (Hallam et. al., 2002). While music perceived as arousing or aggressive had a
negative effect on 11 and 12-year olds’ math problem-solving speed and skills (Hallam
et. al., 2002). These studies involving Hallam et. al. indicated the type of music selected
may be a key to the outcome when using background music as an auditory element in the
learning environment. The background studies were many and varied with missing details
about exact musical selections, so it is challenging to determine if current the study had a
similar outcome. The current study had negative means differences between pre and post
comprehension tests which means findings would not support background music (during-
The third concept for consideration that aided in the study’s design was Clark and
Mayer’s (2008) cognitive load and coherence principle. Under the concept’s application,
Clark and Mayer (2008) made a case to exclude background music, sounds, graphics and
task music would produce less strain on working memory and cognitive load than
listening to music during-reading (Clark et. al., 2006). This study’s data showed before-
105
reading independent variables resulted in a positive gain in one of three sessions while
coherence principle was tested with during-reading music which strained working
memory resulting in more consistent negative scores when music was played. Findings
were a bit ambiguous on the pre-task version where partial positive gains were indicated
The fourth area studied was the delivery methodology of reading online text
which was addressed by Garland and Noyes (2004). Retrieval of knowledge varied
between paper and computerized text, and found that reading from a computer could
provide less accurate information and a slower reading rate than from a paper version.
One finding seemed to be that a computer (CRT) monitor interfered with mental
processes involved in reading (Garland & Noyes, 2004). Regardless of the potential
modernize the study. Whether Garland and Noyes’ assumption that a slower reading rate
and interference with mental processes occurred based on testing results could not be
The literature reviewed in Chapter 2 explored both sides of the pre-task study
design and background audio studies. Because positive and negative results were defined
within the literature reviews, findings were supported regardless of study results of before
and during musical variable concepts. Cognitive load theory and the coherence principle
were also well-defined scientifically. Concepts were not in doubt and well proven by the
current study. Instructional designers can overcome cognitive load issues by being aware
106
of concepts and cognizant of cognitive load theory when designing (Mayer & Moreno,
2003). Before selecting new materials or devising new assessment techniques, awareness
overload. Scaffolding information for learners was relevant for instructors and
instructional designers.
The fourth concept was about slower reading rates when reading online text. This
was not disputed in other literature; however, the study could neither prove nor disprove
the theory.
Pre-task music, background music, cognitive load theory, the coherence principle,
and slower reading rates caused by online text were concepts that guided development of
the current study. Working memory, long-term memory, and how the brain harnesses left
and right hemispheric functions underlies everything a person does when reading.
Proving or disproving scientific and psychology principles is not something this study
strived to reveal. Simply put, the study wanted to add music into an online reading
routine and gauge whether it had a positive or negative effect. Findings tied to these
framing concepts structured the study well. Although in Part 1 of the study two tests
showed significance, Part 2 only showed one. Negative means differences were the
results in both sections of the study which could mean interference took place. Sound
instructional design follows best practice which means that when instructional design
tests results show a negative impact on reading comprehension from listening to music
before or during-reading, best practice would dictate leaving music out of online design
for reading materials that require concentration. Reading rates have been shown to slow
with online text (Garland & Noyes, 2004). Study results here translated to most learners
107
being unable to concentrate or recall details from short-term memory after exposure to
musical variables especially when music was not personally chosen by the learner.
dopamine; and learning activities linked to enjoyable experiences made students’ brains
seek out those activities (Willis, 2007). Choices were not given in this study except to opt
out.
Limitations
reader, text, and situation. For reading done outside of school, home distractions such as
television, children and household duties limited comprehension (Armstrong & Chung,
2000; Pool et. al., 2000; Poopola, 2008; Simcoe & Samaha, 2007). An independent study
worked well for anonymous participation in a small high school setting; however, a
proctored computer lab may have given the study a more reliable structure that could
have enabled better participation rather than having to replace participants because they
forgot to participate. The lock-out procedure for removing the temptation of looking up
vocabulary online was another limitation of the study that could be overcome in a more
controlled lab setting. Setting the study in a small school had situational limitations as
well because of the verbal factor with teenagers who compared the music listened to in
each group and discussed the study in the hallways. Anonymity means less when the
participants hold semi-public discussions. The researcher as a teacher in the small school
had negatives and positives because the participants could not ask questions to problem-
solve or clarify because of the required anonymity to ensure valid and reliable data
108
scoring. Had the study been conducted in another public school where the researcher was
Negative means differences from pre to post-tests may have been a reaction to the
distraction of music, the possibility that students enjoyed listening to the music, or it may
have been the independent nature of the study (e.g. other distractions at home). Stress
may have played a factor since most reading assignments were not timed except on
standardized assessments, and they were timed for this study. The content of the Social
Studies texts could be an issue at the heart of the results as well. “World War I” may not
have sparked enthusiasm in all readers for Part 1 of the study. “Characteristics of
Viruses” may have been dry text; however, the science club was the participant pool, so it
seemed an appropriate choice. Revisiting an expert’s opinion about reading reminded one
knowledge of the topic, strategies the reader knows how to use, and even the reader’s
physical and emotional state and self-image” (Gill, 2008, p. 107). End results of the study
and what has been witnessed in many K-12 classrooms is that without self-motivation or
interest in the reading materials, learners may choose to skim read which translates to
missing many details. In a classroom situation, readers read questions and return to the
text to divine the answer. Online text is different from a textbook and requires learner
practice to get used to formatting being compressed from normal field of vision to online
text (Moreno & Mayer, 1999). Paper text may have produced different results.
Another limitation was the lack of below level readers included in the study.
Participants were not recruited based on lexile levels, but by membership in the school’s
science club. The researcher did not have any presupposition of reading levels based on
109
club membership. An interesting fact is that very few basic readers were enrolled in the
study. Potential participants with basic reading levels may have avoided enrolling in a
reading study because it would be uncomfortable; or below level readers may not be
members of the science club. The below level readers comprised only 15% of the
participant pool.
proceed cautiously when including musical variables especially when designing online
content. One of the concerns about music integration in learning or homework was
potential for distraction which has been studied often with mixed results (Armstrong &
Chung, 2000; Pool et. al., 2000; Poopola, 2008; Simcoe & Samaha, 2007). The findings
of this study did not support background music as conducive to positive reading
handheld devices for quizzes or tests should be carefully questioned based on study
findings. Types of text and the purpose for reading definitely have an impact and should
be carefully weighed in design considerations. For example, reading for enjoyment and
listening to music involve different concentration issues but use the same side of the brain
(right) (Ornstein, 1997; Sprenger, 1999; Williams, 1983). Quite simply put, music can
disrupt concentration (Hallam et. al., 2002). The program popular in the 1990s called
Accelerated Learning integrated music and relaxation into instructional training design.
Sessions set opening training exercises to background music selected by “what went over
best with the majority of the employees,” (Pattison, 2001, p. 117) to aid relaxation
through visualization techniques. Even allowing the employees’ choice of music led to a
110
participant falling asleep, rudeness, rowdiness, and non-participation resulting in future
Reading online text has been another conundrum for instructional designers
including the rise of handhelds (Song, 2007), the influx of Nook, Kindle, and tablets, and
the common knowledge that electronic books and alternatives to print have been on the
rise (Franklin & Ferguson 2005; Larson, 2009) with classical texts available digitally.
Translated to the design for classroom, experts indicated that learners must adjust fields
of vision and may read at slower rates using online texts (Garland & Noyes, 2004).
outcomes are parts of the designer’s responsibility in selecting the best possible delivery
method for today’s learners. Online text has been available through varied delivery
methods. Deciding when to use e-text becomes another instructional designer decision
A strong benefit of conducting this research was identifying ideas for future
research, and a number of ideas emerged based on the implementation of this study. One
possibility was to consider a proctored computer designed test in a lab setting with
instructions read aloud to ensure that participants followed the instructions and remove
lieu of independent study method could provide structure that the inactive participants
the initial session, and an additional 18 did not complete all three sessions of Part 1 of the
study.
111
Altering the study design to a combination of before-during-after reading using
musical variables throughout the process of pre-test, reading, and post-test would be more
realistic for participants who listen to music or television throughout the entire reading
comprehension process at home (Hallam, et. al. 2002). Instructions would be easier to
follow and results might be more uniform. If students use distractions to help them focus
their learning activities, a true experiment would be full immersion, and results should be
realistic.
Another delivery method would be entire language arts classes completing online
study simultaneously (e.g. early morning class, after lunch class, and late afternoon
class). These different times of day and physical conditions would be beneficial in
study in the fall would have been a better idea than in December, but excited students
Selective perception was defined as, “Our goals, expectations, and current
understandings color our perceptions. They serve as filters to the world and shape our
cognitive structures and responses. This selective nature of perception has implications
for instructional sequencing, motivation, and metacognitive training” (Wilson & Myers,
2000, p. 64). A sense of control over which musical variable was played during reading
fits in the definition of selective perception. The before-reading study had positive gains
for both musical variables in one of three sessions. What could be called an anomaly was
a takeaway from the data based on one of three sessions in the before-reading study
Gains of 11 to 12% in means occurred with musical variable groups while the control
group remained the same. The small improvement is inconclusive and was not replicated
112
within the study. Whatever made that session different is worth pursuing. Future research
could offer choices from the three types of audio (non-lyrical classical, non-lyrical jazz,
or silence), and three subgroups could be formed based on participants’ choice of non-
lyrical classical, non-lyrical jazz, or silence. A (possibly) more correct fit and a sense of
control over the audio may provide better post-test results. Testing non-lyrical versus
lyrical music is another study idea that delves further into right hemisphere functions.
The instructional design concern about using audio and text simultaneously might
provide another venue for study. Evaluating tablets with digital (e-books) texts designed
for read-alouds while learners can visually read the text would fall under the redundancy
lexile texts. It may give insight on how the brain processes audio and text rather than
Conclusion
A study based on high school students can be risky because given the choice to
participate or not, teenagers change their minds…often. The researcher gave daily details
about incomplete tests to the research assistant who was constantly reminding inactive
participants, and recruiting replacements throughout the first and second weeks of the
study. Of 102 enrolled, 69 completed the before-reading study, and 75 finished the
during-reading music variable study. Based on efforts put into independent participation,
reminders, and additional recruitment data results should have been 30 per group as
required for a proper ANOVA statistical analysis. Participants may have enjoyed
113
accurate work (Beaman, 2005), or participants may have hated the music which
provided data related to the question of whether music served as a distraction to reading
comprehension during reading. Recommending online text and tests becomes more
study. As the data suggests, music before-reading and during-reading did not positively
impact results in this case for the majority of the sessions. Silence before-reading did not
fare much better as it remained negative throughout data collection as did the during-
reading silence with only one session showing an insignificant 1% positive means
difference. The lack of positive results for three audio conditions in two different study
were complex as were the issues the study attempted to address. Study results showed
that one of three sessions showed positive reading comprehension results using musical
variables. The control group sat for five minutes of silence which served to clear minds
before reading, and results proved fewer comprehension deviations, (20% decrease in
scores, and plus or minus 1% on the next two) a fairly consistent result. Silence inside
instructional designers and the relevancy filter applied to recent trends seen by
books and handheld devices are becoming preferred delivery mechanisms for future
114
education, yet fundamental design holds the key to learning without distraction, cognitive
motivation cannot be overlooked so quickly, even with unanticipated results; one study
does not signal stopping the ongoing search for best practices or new designs to foster
might be a step towards meeting learners’ needs in the ever-evolving world of education
and training. The question still remains related to instructional design implications about
115
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APPENDIX A. HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL TEXT LIST
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APPENDIX B. SAMPLE QUESTIONS
Note: From Qualitative Reading Inventory-5 (p. 425, 427-8). By L. Leslie and J.S. Caldwell.
2011. Boston: Pearson. Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc.
4. Name one set of countries in Europe and the surrounding regions that grouped
6. Why do you think that Germany wanted to avoid fighting a war on two fronts?
7. How did the defeat of Russia on the eastern front help Germany?
9. What final event caused the United States to join the Allies?
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APPENDIX C. SAMPLE INSTRUCTIONS
Please follow the instructions posted each time you enter the Moodle course room. Week
One: access to first assignment is open from Sunday through Tuesday (midnight).
The assignment should take about 15 minutes to complete, so plan enough time to
complete at one computer sitting (e.g., during study hall, free time, at home on Internet-
accessible computer, cafeteria computer before, during or after school).
Please do not break the session apart into different section at different times. This is
extremely important for the research study.
1. Click on Quizzes section: Select and open World War —Part 1 Pre-test; take
this four question pre-reading concepts test.
2. Under week one, click on MP3 file titled Group A. Use headphones or ear buds,
and listen to this 5 minute audio selection before proceeding to the next step.
3. Open text file titled World War I—Part 1 found under Week One. It is a
clickable, downloadable PDF file. Download and open it using Acrobat Reader.
Read the text before going to step 4.
4. Open Quizzes section: select and open World War I—Part 1 Post-test; take this
twelve question post-reading test.
Thanks again for taking the time to do this study assignment. The next assignment will be
available Thursday through Saturday (midnight), Session 2, Week One.
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