a

dic t io n a r y
of
au s t r a l i a n
p ol i t ic s

robert corcoran
& jackie dickenson
A Dictionary of
Australian Politics
This page intentionally left blank
A Dictionary of
Australian Politics
Robert Corcoran and
Jackie Dickenson
First published in 2010

© Robert Corcoran and Jackie Dickenson 2010

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any
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10  9  8  7  6  5  4  3  2  1
INTRODUCTION
Two thousand years ago, Pericles, a leading statesman of Ancient Greece,
declared ‘You can ignore politics, but politics will not ignore you.’
This dictionary is designed to help those who want to prepare them-
selves for those moments when politics intrudes into their lives. This will
most likely be during an election (a regular event in a democracy like ours)
but it could also be because a particular policy or event (such as a war)
demands our attention.
Although it is intended to be appropriate for any home bookshelf, the
authors have compiled the dictionary with serious students of politics in
mind. But the term ‘students of politics’ has a broad meaning. Some are
engaged in formal studies, while others in overalls or wearing military uni-
forms are also true ‘students of politics’ because they realise its importance
and the need to keep abreast of public affairs. As we have seen recently, the
high calibre of politicians is vital for a healthy democracy. But even more
important is that the rest of us—the citizens—are engaged in the issues
and are well informed. The dictionary aims to help foster a better under-
standing of the uniquely Australian form of democratic government, and
its place in Australian culture.
Our system is unique: an eminently sensible combination of the repre-
sentative democracy of the lower house of the British houses of parliament
with the elected upper house of the United States of America. And our
political culture is also one of a kind: characterised by practices, processes
and political language that have developed over time through the prism
of the broader Australian society. As the reader will see, this has resulted
in an Australian political language that is sometimes irreverent but always
colourful, economic and, as you would expect, highly expressive.
Setting the scope for a book such as this presents problems for authors
and for potential users because of the extensive range of politics and its
complexity in contemporary society. The range is, therefore, broad. While
we focus mainly on Australia today, we acknowledge that no nation is
completely independent of the rest of the world. We also recognise that
reference to history can sometimes help to explain current events.
The problem of dealing with the complexity of today’s political culture
vi Introduction

has encouraged us to employ an unusual format. Each term is explained

or defined briefly, which may be adequate for the reader’s immediate need.
The term is then explained in greater depth, with cross-references to other,
relevant terms. The terms listed range from words with popular currency
to the more technical and obscure.
Controversial matters or organisations have not been avoided. The aim
has been to deal with these impartially but explicitly. It is likely that read-
ers with firm views will sometimes disagree with our definitions or even
condemn our choices. Writers of robust books dealing with politics must
accept any resulting criticism as an occupational hazard.
A
ABC
See Australian Broadcasting Corporation

Aborigines
The name used for many years for the Indigenous people of Australia who
were previously the sole inhabitants of the country
The Aboriginal people were cruelly mistreated by some of the early settlers
and many were killed or had their land, and consequently their traditional
means of survival, taken from them. Despite a growing concern for their
rights and welfare, especially since the 1960s, improvements have been
slow. The term ‘Aboriginal’—as a noun to replace ‘Aborigine’ and also an
adjective, with the initial letter capitalised in both—is recommended in
the Australian government Style Manual.
[Indigenous Australians, land rights]

absentee vote
A vote cast on election day outside the voter’s own electorate
Absentee votes are available for voters who are away from their own elec-
torates on election day. To obtain absentee votes, applicants must state to
the poll clerk that they will not be in their own electorates during voting
hours, but need not explain why.
[poll clerk, postal vote, pre-poll voting]

absolute majority
More than half the total votes
This can also mean the number of votes (or the percentage) by which the
votes received by the winning candidate exceed all the other votes polled.
When there are more than two candidates, the candidate who receives
more than 50 per cent of the first preference votes will be declared elected
without the need for distributing preferences.
[plurality, preferential voting]
2 ACCC

ACCC
See Australian Competition and Consumer Commission

Access Economics
A business-oriented think tank focusing on economics
Founded in 1988, Access Economics has offices in Canberra and Mel-
bourne. It is a proprietary company staffed by qualified economists, and
operates as an economic consultant to business and government. It takes
an active part in public policy debates and the media often publicise its
comments.
[think tank]

Accord (the Prices and Income Accord)

An agreement made in 1983 between the Australian Labor Party and the
Australian Council of Trade Unions
The Accord was a new development in industrial relations aimed at coop-
eration between the trade union movement and the anticipated Labor
government. The Accord had a major effect on industrial relations through
the 1980s and into the 1990s. The Accord ended with the election of a Lib-
eral government in 1996.
[industrial relations]

accountability of ministers
The requirement that ministers account to parliament for their decisions
This obligation is based on the principle of the supremacy of parliament,
which is a basic element of the Westminster system and is part of the Aus-
tralian structure of government. Parliament, in turn, is answerable to the
people.
[ministerial code of conduct, ministerial responsibility, West-
minster system]

ACOSS
See Australian Council of Social Services

act of parliament
A law created by the procedures and decisions of parliament
Acts of parliament make up statute law and, in Australia, are enacted by
federal, state and territory parliaments. Parliamentary procedures are
designed to give opportunities for consideration of proposed legislation
both in broad and detailed terms. Amendments can be made during the
parliamentary process. In a bicameral system legislation must be approved
by a majority vote in both houses.
[bicameral system, statute law]
 ACTU 3

ACTU
See Australian Council of Trade Unions

addendum
An addition, or proposed addition, to a motion
An addendum is similar to an amendment but is purely an addition, with-
out any alteration to the original words of the motion.
[motion]

adjournment (of debate)

Postponement of discussion of a bill or other business
Discussion on a particular matter in parliament is seldom continued
through to its conclusion without interruption. Any of several circum-
stances may make an adjournment necessary, such as insufficient time, the
need to deal with other business, or to give MPs time to study the details of
a bill. Standing orders require that debate on a bill must be adjourned after
the minister’s second reading speech.
[first reading, second reading, standing orders]

adjournment (of the house)

A temporary suspension of parliamentary proceedings
This occurs whenever a house of parliament temporarily ceases operation
as, for example, at the end of a sitting day. The term also applies to those
periods (usually of two weeks) within a sitting period when there are no
sitting days.
[sitting day, sittings (of parliament)]

adjournment debate
A special debate at the end of each sitting day of a house of parliament
An adjournment debate provides backbenchers with an opportunity to
speak on topics of their own choosing. It is similar to a grievance debate in
many ways, including a tight restriction on the length of speeches.
[grievance debate, sitting day]

Administrative Appeals Tribunal (AAT)

An official body that deals with complaints against actions of federal gov-
ernment departments
The decisions of the tribunal can be legally enforced but can be challenged
by an appeal to the Federal Court. The tribunal has the power to deal with
a wide range of matters affecting organisations and the general public,
such as taxation and social services. There are similar state government
tribunals.
4 adult franchise (or suffrage)

adult franchise (or suffrage)

The legal right of all adult citizens to vote
The term is often used to indicate that women as well as men are entitled
to vote. The word ‘suffrage’ refers particularly to the right to vote and is the
basis of the name adopted by the suffragettes, early campaigners for votes
for women.
[franchise, property vote, suffragettes]

adversarial politics
A political system in which confrontation and argument is accepted as the
norm
Politics is mostly of this type in the three tiers of Australian government,
although this is sometimes denied, especially at the local government level.
It arises partly from custom and partly from the party system.

affirmative action
Policy and practice to provide greater opportunities for women
Campaigns and legislation have sought to reduce the injustice of discrimi-
nation against women. The term ‘affirmative action’ applies particularly to
opportunities in employment.
[equal opportunity, women’s lib(eration)]

affluenza
Term given to the dissatisfaction with life felt by many people despite their
relative affluence
The term, implying a disease, emerged in a US television documentary in
2002 and was soon taken up in Australia.
[quality of life]

alliance
An agreement between two or more nations to improve the effectiveness
of their military defences
Alliances usually include agreement to come to the aid of an ally who is
attacked. They often entail cooperation between the defence forces of each
nation in defence planning and in training exercises. The ANZUS Treaty is
an example of an alliance in which Australia is a partner.
[ANZUS Treaty]

AMA
See Australian Medical Association

ambassador
A diplomat of senior rank, usually in charge of an embassy
 amendment 5

The customs of diplomacy include rules relating to rank and titles, com-
parable to military conventions. An ambassador is usually a nation’s most
senior diplomat in a foreign country. A high commissioner has the same
rank as an ambassador.
[diplomacy, embassy, high commissioner]

amendment
In politics, a change to a bill, an act of parliament, or the Constitution
Amendments to existing acts of parliament may be printed separately and
in studying an act it may be necessary to check whether any amendments
have been made since the printing of the copy being used.
[act of parliament, bill]

American alliance
An imprecise term for the relationship between Australia and the United
States since World War II
The term can be given various interpretations but the military relationship
is a major component.
[ANZUS Treaty]

Amnesty International Australia

Part of the worldwide organisation Amnesty International, with branches
in all Australian states
Amnesty International has a consultative status with the United Nations
and promotes human rights, including the right to life, to freedom of
speech, to food, to water, to decent working conditions, to housing and
education. It supports acceptance and observance of the Universal Dec­
laration of Human Rights.
[United Nations, Universal Declaration of Human Rights]

anarchy
The usual meaning is chaos resulting from the absence of effective
government
A less common meaning of anarchy is the belief that there should be mini-
mal formal government.

another place
A term sometimes used in parliamentary debate when referring to the
other house
This peculiar tradition has been inherited from the British parliament,
where the practice arose from the hostility between the House of Com-
mons and the House of Lords.
6 anti-communism

anti-communism
The belief that communism is undesirable or evil
The ‘Cold War’, mainly between the USA and the Soviet Union, was impor-
tant in international politics from the 1940s until the 1980s. In Australian
politics, the conservative parties and the Democratic Labor Party used
alleged ALP support of communism as a campaign tactic.
[Democratic Labor Party]

anti-political political thought

Criticism of elected political institutions to gain political advantage
The term applies to political tactics in Australia during the 1930s depres-
sion, when some conservative politicians sought to benefit from right-wing,
extremist criticism of democracy by arguing for authoritarian government
rather than party politics.

antisemitism
Intolerance or persecution of Jews
The term is derived from the word ‘Semite’, which is sometimes used as
a synonym for Jew, although this is not its only meaning. Oppression or
discrimination against Jews has occurred in various countries over many
centuries, and a tragic example was the persecution and slaughter of mil-
lions of Jews during World War II.

Anzac Day
A public holiday to honour Australians who served in the armed forces in
the wars in which Australia has been involved
The term is an acronym for ‘Australian and New Zealand Army Corps’
and the date, 25 April, was chosen to commemorate the landing of Allied
forces, including Australian and New Zealand troops, on Gallipoli in 1915,
during World War I.

ANZUS Treaty
A treaty between Australia, New Zealand and the USA to aid one another
against aggression in the Pacific region
The full name is the Australia, New Zealand, United States Security Treaty.
Devised in 1951 when memories of World War II and the war in the Pacific
were still vivid, it is seen as a guarantee of protection by the USA.
[American alliance]

apathy
In the political sense, a lack of interest in public affairs
World history has shown that apathy of citizens can contribute to serious
political problems, even the demise of democratic systems of government.
Although it has become fashionable to scorn or ignore politics, continued
 APEC 7

interest and some participation in politics is essential for effective demo-

cratic government.
[civil rights and responsibilities]

APEC
See Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation

appropriation
Authorisation by parliament for government expenditure
Public money cannot be spent unless approved by parliament, although
the purposes are not necessarily specified in great detail in the appropri­
ation bill.
[Appropriation Bills]

appropriation bills
Proposals submitted to parliament to authorise government expenditure
Together with taxation bills they are sometimes called money bills and
the Constitution requires that they be introduced in the House of Rep-
resentatives. The Constitution also prohibits the Senate from amending
money bills although the Senate may request the House of Representa-
tives to make amendments to them. The Senate has the power to reject
appropriation bills but traditionally does not do so. It was exceptional and
controversial when the Senate did so in 1975.
[money bills]

arbitration
For many years a major component of the Australian system of deter­
mining wage rates and conditions of employment
Official arbitration began with the establishment of the Arbitration Court
in 1904. The Arbitration Commission succeeded the court in 1956, and
the Industrial Relations Commission took over in 1989. Arbitration judge-
ments could be legally enforced, although not directly by the commission.
The system was radically changed in 2006 by the Howard government’s
Work Choices legislation.
[enterprise bargaining, Industrial Relations Commission, Work
Choices]

aristocracy
In Ancient Greece this meant ‘rule by the best’ but it has come to mean an
hereditary upper class
In countries where the continued existence of such a class is still recog-
nised, membership of the aristocracy is determined by birth and aristocrats
frequently have titles such as ‘duke’ or ‘lord’. Aristocrats are not necessarily
rich or powerful but are regarded deferentially by many, but not all, of the
other citizens.
8 arms of government

arms of government
The legislature, the executive and the judiciary make up the three ‘arms of
government’
The legislature is a term used for the parliament, especially in its capacity
as the maker of laws. The executive is the administrative arm of govern-
ment and includes the ministers and their departments. The judiciary is
the court structure which, under the Westminster system, is substantially
independent of parliament.
[executive, judiciary, legislature, Westminster system]

ASEAN
See Association of South-East Asian Nations

Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)

A forum for nations in the Asia-Pacific region, with the aim of enhancing
trade and economic prospects
APEC comprises 21 member nations, including Australia and New Zealand.
Powerful member nations include the USA, China, Russia, Canada, Mex-
ico and Chile. APEC activities include meetings of heads of governments
and senior ministers to consider economic matters such as increased trade,
tariffs, technical standards, administrative difficulties and investment.
[Association of South-East Asian Nations]

ASIO
See Australian Security Intelligence Organisation

ASIS
See Australian Secret Intelligence Service

aspirationals
A term for those hoping to improve their living standards and social
standing
This is a neologism used by both sides of politics to appeal to the lower
middle classes. It is linked to ‘Howard’s battlers’ and Mark Latham’s phrase
‘Climbing the ladder of opportunity’, both used in the federal election
campaign of 2004.
[battler]

assimilation
The idea that Indigenous Australians and migrants should abandon their
own social and cultural practices, and adopt the norms of the majority
Widely accepted through much of the twentieth century, assimilation
policies were responsible for the taking of Indigenous children from their
parents. Multiculturalism has largely replaced earlier attitudes towards
 Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN) 9

Reproduced courtesy of Peter Nicholson of the Australian www.nicholsoncartoons.com.au

migrants, but opinions about fair treatment of Indigenous Australians

remain mixed and controversial.
[multiculturalism, stolen generations]

Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN)

An organisation with the aim of promoting economic and social develop-
ment and political stability in the region
Founded in 1967 with five members, by 2008 the number had grown to
ten: Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myan-
mar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam. Australia is not
a member but is one of several ‘dialogue partners’ entitled to be directly
informed about ASEAN meetings.
[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]

asylum seeker
A person who has arrived in a foreign country asking to be recognised as
a refugee
The term is used to describe someone who is seeking protection from per-
secution under the 1951 UN Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees
but whose application for refugee status has not yet been approved. The
plight of asylum seekers in Australia has been much debated, especially
during the years of the Howard government because of its policy of man-
datory detention for those seeking asylum.
[boat people]

attack dog
A parliamentarian who is given the job of vigorously taking on members
of a rival party
10 attorney-general

Western Australian MP Wilson ‘Iron Bar’ Tuckey was, for many years, the
Coalition’s principal attack dog. Others have taken up the role for specific
projects such as former Senator Santo Santoro, who attacked the ABC,
alleging it supported the Labor Party.

attorney-general
The minister with responsibility for legal matters
The attorney-general advises all the other ministers on legal matters, and
has the responsibility for laws relating to the legal profession and the
administration of justice.

auditor-general
A federal or state officer with the responsibility of auditing the accounts of
departments and other official bodies
The auditor-general reports to parliament rather than to a minister and,
consequently, is in an independent position to criticise or make sugges-
tions about the financial performance of the government bodies.
[public accounts committee]

Australasia
Australia, New Zealand and certain islands of the South Pacific Ocean
‘Australasia’ has been widely accepted as meaning, simply, Australia and
New Zealand. Many New Zealanders dislike the term as it seems to belittle
their independent country. The term is being replaced by ‘Australia and
New Zealand’.

Australia Act(s) 1986

Acts of parliament passed in Australia and in the United Kingdom to end
the power of the British Parliament to legislate for Australia
In both countries the name of the legislation is the ‘Australia Act’. Until the
passing of these Acts, British legislation could still affect Australian states
and, in theory, the United Kingdom government could still recommend
the appointment of state governors. Since 1986 the state premiers can
of­ficially make the recommendations, and state legislation is independent
of that of the United Kingdom.
[state(s), Statute of Westminster]

Australia Council for the Arts

A semi-government body with the aim and responsibility of encouraging
the arts
Usually referred to as the Australia Council, it was established as a statu-
tory authority in 1975 and has greater powers than its predecessor, the
Australian Arts Council, which had only an advisory role. The Australia
 Australia Day 11

Council distributes substantial funds provided by the government to assist

cultural activities, such as opera, drama, music and writing.

Australia Day
A public holiday held on 26 January each year to commemorate the arrival
of the First Fleet in Australia
Captain Arthur Phillip, commander of the First Fleet of convict ships from
Great Britain, arrived at Sydney Cove on this day in 1788. Some Indigenous
Australians commemorate the day as Invasion Day, and there is sporadic
debate about moving Australia Day to celebrate a less divisive event.

Australia First movement

A short-lived 1940s political movement, with a mixture of beliefs,
in­cluding some sympathy for the fascist nations
Australia First was anti-communist, anti-British, pro-Australian, anti-
Semitic, and friendly towards Germany, Italy and Japan. Its leading members
included the writer Percy ‘Inky’ Stephensen, who edited the newsletter The
Publicist, and Adela Pankhurst Walsh (daughter of the famous suffragette).
She had discarded her early leftist views and turned to the extreme right.
Compromised by links with Japan, Australia First was suppressed in 1942,
with some members, including Stephensen, being interned.

Australia Institute
A think tank that emphasises the importance of ethics in private and pub-
lic decision-making
An independent political research organisation founded in 1994 and based
in Canberra. It advocates a government framework in which private mar-
kets will operate ethically and effectively. It is funded by philanthropic
trusts, memberships and commissioned research.
[ethics, think tank]

Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC)

A semi-government body that provides radio and television services
throughout Australia
Established as a commission in 1932, the ABC was restructured as a cor-
poration in 1983. It is a statutory authority that is largely independent
but depends on the government for most of its funds. It has also provided
an overseas broadcasting service. Despite criticism of bias from some
quarters, the ABC is widely valued as an independent source of news and
comment, and an alternative to the privately owned and controlled com-
mercial broadcasting services.
[mass media, statutory authority]
12 Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS)

Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS)

An agency set up by the Commonwealth government to compile statistics
on matters of public interest
The ABS deals with demographic, social and economic statistics and pro-
vides information that is valuable for many activities, including planning
by government and non-government bodies and individuals. Information
is available to anyone interested, although a fee may be charged.

Australian Capital Territory electoral system

A multi-member electorate, proportional representation and preferential
voting system
Adopted in 1992, the Hare-Clark system replaced the modified d’Hondt
system, which had been used in both the 1989 and 1992 elections, but was
found to be difficult to administer and was unpopular. In accordance with
new legislation, the ACT was divided into three electorates, two of them
with five members and one with seven.
[Australian Capital Territory parliament, d’Hondt voting sys-
tem, Hare-Clark system, multi-member electorate]

Australian Capital Territory parliament

A unicameral (single-house) parliament whose powers are defined by a
Commonwealth act of parliament
A 1988 Commonwealth act of parliament gave the ACT a degree of
self-government but with less power than a state. There is no governor
or administrator and the head of the government has the title of chief
minister.
[Australian Capital Territory electoral system, territories]

Australian Chamber of Commerce and Industry (ACCI)

The peak body representing Australian business and employers
Based in Canberra, the ACCI takes a leading role in representing business
interests. It was formed in 1992 with the merging of the Confederation of
Australian Industry and the Associated Chambers of Commerce.

Australian Christian Lobby (ACL)

A political lobby group that promotes conservative Christian attitudes
The ACL vigorously opposes same-sex marriage and also expresses opin-
ions on matters that do not have direct connection with religious doctrine.
Critics of the ACL emphasise that its manager, Jim Wallace, and a small
board dominate the organisation, while ordinary members appear to have
little power within the group.
 Australian Communications and Media Authority (ACMA) 13

Australian Communications and Media Authority (ACMA)

ACMA is a government agency with the power to regulate broadcasting,
the Internet and telecommunications
The main responsibility of ACMA is to ensure that the co­mmunication
industry operates in the best interests of the community, including
respect for accepted community standards. It promotes self-regulation
but has legal power to enforce its decisions on matters such as advertising
standards.
[mass media]

Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC)

A statutory authority with the responsibilities of protecting consumers
and ensuring fair competition
The ACCC took over from the Prices Surveillance Authority and the Trade
Practices Commission in 1996. The commission considers proposed
mergers and dangers of collusion between traders and is responsible for
compliance with certain sections of the Trade Practices Act and the Prices
Surveillance Act. It takes a special interest in industries in which there are
very few competitors.
[Choice, oligopoly, price control]

Australian Conciliation and Arbitration Commission

The major industrial arbitration authority that operated from 1956 to
1988
This commission followed the Commonwealth Arbitration Court in 1956
and, in 1988, was superseded by the Australian Industrial Relations Com-
mission. In 2006 the Australian Fair Pay Commission took over most of the
Industrial Relations Commission’s powers under Work Choices legislation.
[Australian Fair Pay Commission, Australian Industrial Rela-
tions Commission, industrial relations]

Australian Conservation Foundation

An important umbrella organisation promoting conservation
This is a voluntary group established in the early 1960s. The foundation
has acted as a lobby group on many different conservation and environ-
mental matters and emphasises the dangers of climate change.
[climate change, conservation]

Australian Consumers Association

See Choice (the new name of the organisation)

Australian Council of Social Services (ACOSS)

A non-government Australia-wide body concerned with social welfare
14 Australian Council of Trade Unions (ACTU)

ACOSS conducts research into social welfare matters and its representatives
are frequently quoted in the mass media. It is an umbrella organisation
whose members are associations involved in particular aspects of social
welfare.
[social services]

Australian Council of Trade Unions (ACTU)

The leading Australian trade union organisation, usually referred to as the
ACTU
Founded in 1927, it is a peak organisation whose members are individual
trade unions. The ACTU has considerable industrial and political influ-
ence, and has taken a leading role in major industrial disputes and cases
before the Industrial Relations Commission.
[Australian Industrial Relations Commission, industrial
re­lations, trade union]

Australian Democrats
A minor political party that split off from the Liberal Party
Established in 1977 by Don Chipp, an ex-Liberal minister, its early
members included remnants of the Australia Party and of the Liberal
Movement. By the mid-1990s it was a restraint on some of the more con-
servative pro­posals of the Howard government through its power in the
Senate. It gradually declined in popularity and won no Senate seats in the
2007 federal election.
[Australia Party, balance of power, Liberal Movement]

Australian Electoral Commission

The commission is the senior body in charge of organising federal elections
Established by an act of parliament in 1984, it has greater independence
than its predecessor, the Australian Electoral Office, which had been under
the control of a minister. The commission has the responsibility for the
redistribution of electorate boundaries, the organisation and conduct of
House of Representatives and Senate elections, the conduct of referen-
dums and the maintenance of electoral rolls.
[electoral office, electoral roll]

Australian Fabian Society

See Fabian Society

Australian Fair Pay Commission (AFPC)

An official body with power to conduct reviews and adjust rates of pay
Established in 2006, it took over some of the responsibilities of the Aus-
tralian Industrial Relations Commission. The AFPC was part of sweeping
changes to industrial relations legislation made by the Howard government.
[Australian Industrial Relations Commission, industrial relations]
 Australian Industrial Relations Commission 15

Australian Industrial Relations Commission

An independent tribunal with the responsibility of dealing with industrial
disputes, awards, unlawful and unfair dismissals
Established in 1989, it took over from the Conciliation and Arbitration
Commission, which had operated from 1956. Its earliest predecessor, the
Arbitration Court, was established in 1904. The Australian Fair Pay Com-
mission took over some of its responsibilities in 2006.
[arbitration, Australian Fair Pay Commission, industrial
relations]

Australian Labor Party (ALP)

A major party whose fundamental position in the political spectrum
is left of centre, while its policies on topical issues can be influenced by
pragmatism
The party developed from political groups formed by trade unions in
the 1890s when unions decided that they needed political representation.
Despite its trade union origins, Labor Party members come from all sec-
tions of the community. Since Federation, the Australian Labor Party has
alternated with more conservative parties and coalitions as the federal
government and has implemented major policies, such as universal health
care. It has also been in power in state parliaments frequently, sometimes
for extended periods. Factions and internal dissension have periodically
weakened the ALP. Three major splits, followed by long periods with-
out electoral success, have occurred at intervals over its 100-plus years of
existence.
[labour movement, political spectrum]

Australian legend
A term for the myth of the Australian national character, which was based
on the perceived or idealised characteristics of the men of the Australian
bush
The bush legend asserted that Australians were pragmatic, sceptical,
anti-intellectual and anti-authoritarian. In the late 1800s the legend was
propagated by writers such as Henry Lawson and ‘Banjo’ Paterson and by
the emerging labour movement, consisting of the unions and the Labor
Party. Professor Russel Ward published his famous work, The Australian
Legend, in 1958.

Australian Loan Council

A body that regulates borrowing by federal, state and territory governments
The Loan Council consists of the treasurers of each government with the
federal treasurer as chairman. It was established in 1927 and usually meets
once a year. Between meetings its members maintain contact and decision-
making by correspondence.
[Council of Australian Governments meetings]
16 Australian Medical Association (AMA)

Australian Medical Association (AMA)

The AMA is the largest and best known organisation representing mem-
bers of the medical profession
The stated aims of the association include concern for the interests of it
members and high standards in all aspects of medicine. It is sometimes
politically conservative and it opposed Medibank in the 1970s and Medi-
care in the 1980s. Following the establishment of other, smaller associations
representing members of the medical profession since the 1960s the AMA’s
influence has declined, but it remains the most influential.
[Doctors Reform Society, Medicare, Private Doctors of Australia]

Australian Republican Movement (ARM)

An organisation that advocates that Australia should become an inde-
pendent republic
Formally launched in 1991, the organisation maintains that it is inappro-
priate to have another country’s monarch as Australia’s head of state. The
ARM, then headed by Malcolm Turnbull, played a leading part in the 1999
referendum on the issue. Supporters of a republic believe the referendum
was defeated because the wording of the proposal narrowly defined a type
of republic that was unacceptable to many who wanted a change from the
monarchy.
[Australians for a Constitutional Monarchy, head of state,
republicanism]

Australian Secret Intelligence Service (ASIS)

An official Australian intelligence organisation that operates in overseas
countries
ASIS was established secretly in the early 1950s to gather information in
foreign countries pertinent to Australia’s security. Similar to the British
Secret Intelligence Service (MI6) and the American CIA, though small
in comparison, its existence was unknown to most Australians until the
1970s.
[intelligence]

Australian Security Intelligence Organisation (ASIO)

An official Australian intelligence organisation that operates within
Australia
Established in 1949 by the Chifley Labor government as a defence against
espionage and subversion within Australia, ASIO has similar responsi-
bilities to those of the British Security Service (MI5). Some Australians,
especially Labor Party supporters, have regarded its activities with sus­
picion, suspecting that ASIO was being used to influence the internal
politics of Australia.
[intelligence]
 Australian Settlement 17

Australian Settlement
A term used by political commentators to describe the characteristics
of Australian society and politics that had developed by the time of
Federation
The term implies that the character of colonised Australia had stabilised
by that time. Elements of the so-called settlement included the White Aus-
tralia policy, trade protection, arbitration over wages and conditions, the
beginnings of a welfare state and reliance on British military power for
defence. Critics argue that this interpretation is simplistic and, for exam-
ple, omits mention of women’s rights and fails to appreciate the place of
Indigenous Australians in modern Australia.

Australians for a Constitutional Monarchy

An organisation advocating the continuation of Australia as a consti­
tutional monarchy
Founded in 1992 to resist the campaign to make Australia a republic,
prominent signatories to the organisation’s charter included Dame Leonie
Kramer and the Hon. Michael Kirby. Supporters of the organisation assert
that the Constitution needs no change.
[Australian Republican Movement]

Australian Socialist Party (ASP)

A Marxist organisation that hosted the first meeting of the Communist
Party of Australia in October 1920
The ASP joined the Communist International in 1919, then moved to unify
the diverse socialist and communist groups active in Australia. It published
the newspaper International Socialist in Australia until 1921.
[Communist Party of Australia]

Australian Workplace Agreement (AWA)

A written agreement between an employer and an employee that sets out
the terms and conditions of employment
Introduced as part of the Howard government’s Work Choices indus-
trial relations legislation in 1996, an AWA replaced any existing award or
workplace agreement that would otherwise apply to the employee. In 2008
the Rudd government prohibited any new AWAs, although existing ones
continued.
[enterprise bargaining]

Australia Party
A small political party operating in the 1970s
Established by businessmen Gordon Barton in 1969, most of its mem-
bers were disaffected Liberals who were regarded as social progressives
and disagreed with Liberal Party policy on the Vietnam War. Together
18 autarky

with others, Australian Party members helped to establish the Australian

Democrats in 1977.
[Australian Democrats]

autarky
Self-sufficiency within a nation
With complete autarky, all materials, products and services would be pro-
vided from within the country and there would be no imports.
[protection, tariffs]

authoritarianism
Government by a small group with total power
An authoritarian government rules without restriction and demands com-
plete obedience, while the people have no democratic rights.
[autocracy]

autocracy
Government by a single all-powerful ruler, such as a dictator
In an autocracy the ruler wields absolute power without the people having
any legal right to influence government.
[political theory, responsible government]

autonomy
Self-rule or political independence of a country or state
The term is sometimes applied to a political entity that does not have com-
plete self-government but is part of a larger group, such as a state within a
federation. The states in Australia are examples.
[federalism]
B
baby bonus
A lump sum payment of $5000 to parents after the birth of each child, first
introduced in 2007
Falling birth rates in Australia prompted the Howard government to offer
the payment and it was paid irrespective of the parents’ financial circum-
stances. The Rudd government introduced an income test, excluding
families if the chief income earner received more than $150 000 a year, and
changed to fortnightly payments believing that, overall, this would be a
more effective method of assisting families.

baby boomers
The generation born after World War II—from about 1946 to the mid
1960s
The population in Australia increased quickly during this period. With
job security taken for granted many turned to idealistic causes, such as
en­vironmental concerns, which had political implications. Some members
of later generations blame the baby boomers for various social and politi-
cal problems.
[Generation X, Generation Y]

backbencher
A member of parliament who is neither a minister nor a shadow minister
Backbenchers have the obvious duties of attendance and contributing to
debates in parliament. They also have to participate in committee meet-
ings. In their electorates they assist local constituents and community
organisations. In the parliament, backbenchers sit behind the so-called
front bench seats occupied by ministers and shadow ministers.
[committee system, constituent, front bench]
20 balance of payments

balance of payments
A statement of transactions between Australia and other countries over a
specified period of time
This calculation takes into account the values of exports and imports,
investments, interest payments, borrowing and lending. There are two
parts: current account and capital account. Public statements and news
about balance of payments usually refer to the current account data.
[economy (of a nation)]

balance of power
Control of enough votes by a minority of members of parliament to deter-
mine the outcome of debates in parliament
A balance of power situation can only occur when no party (or coalition of
parties) has a majority in parliament. This is more likely in a house elected
on a proportional representation basis, which gives candidates from small
parties a greater chance of being elected. Examples are the Senate and the
Tasmanian House of Assembly.
[proportional representation, two-party system]

ballot
The process of voting at an election
The term is used in a variety of ways and is frequently used simply to mean
an election.
[election, poll]

ballot paper
The printed form on which electors mark their votes
The same term ‘ballot paper’ is applied before and after the voter has written
on it. Ballot papers are carefully counted and checked to avoid malpractice
but, to safeguard the secrecy of the ballot, they are not numbered.
[scrutiny, secret ballot]

banana republic
A derisory reference to any country that fails to successfully manage its
economic affairs
Some smaller tropical countries have been regarded, fairly or otherwise,
as being in this category, and this is the origin of the expression. It gained
prominence in Australia following the comment in 1986 of the then treas-
urer, Paul Keating, that Australia could become a ‘banana republic’ unless
certain economic strategies were adopted.
[economy (of a nation)]
 barbecue stopper 21

Reproduced courtesy of Cathy Wilcox

barbecue stopper
The introduction into conversation of a matter of major topical interest,
especially a controversial one
The term was first used by Prime Minister John Howard in 2001 and again
at an electorate dinner in 2002 when he said: 
‘And nothing is more impor-
tant than the debate that goes on in the community, I call it a barbecue
stopper, about the balance between work and family.’
 Other party leaders
adopted the phrase. As opposition leader in 2007, Kevin Rudd applied it to
the problem of homeownership; and Greens leader, Bob Brown, associated
it with climate change.

basic wage
The minimum legal wage in Australia from 1907 to 1967
Introduced in the ‘Harvester’ award of the Arbitration Court in 1907, the
basic wage was calculated on the basis of the minimum needs of an aver-
age family. It remained a significant element in the setting of all wage rates
until 1967, when the total wage concept was adopted.
[arbitration, Harvester judgement, total wage]

battler
Traditionally, a person with few social or financial advantages who works
doggedly, usually with little reward
22 BCA

More recently, there has been an attempt to modify its meaning. When
John Howard was prime minister he applied it to anyone aspiring to higher
financial and social status, including those already comfortable. This led to
the derisive term ‘Howard’s battlers’.
[aspirationals, dog-whistle politics]

BCA
See Business Council of Australia

bear pit
A journalistic term for the cut and thrust of political life, especially on the
floor of parliament
The term is derived from the sometimes rude and ugly behaviour dis-
played in parliament. It is also a symptom of the denigration of politics by
emphasis on its faults.

bellwether seat
Electorates that are regarded as indicators of the overall outcome of an
election
These are seats where the major parties are closely matched. Eden-Monaro
in New South Wales is a typical example. The term is derived from the old
practice of the leading sheep of a flock wearing a bell round its neck.
[psephology]

bicameral system
A system in which there are two houses of parliament
Both houses must approve bills before they can become law, with an
exception in Australian politics. Under certain circumstances (defined in
the Constitution), a joint sitting of both houses of the Federal parliament
may resolve a deadlock. All Australian parliaments, except Queensland, the
Northern Territory and the ACT parliaments, have two houses.
[deadlock (between two houses), joint sitting]

big end of town

An Australian term for big business when corporations present a unified
opinion
The phrase does not refer to a locality, although it conjures up impres-
sions of large offices on the top floors of city buildings. The term is useful
in reports and discussions, and indirectly acknowledges the influence of
corporate leaders.
[Business Council of Australia, Main Street, Wall Street]

bill
A proposed act of parliament
 Bill of Rights 23

Most bills are introduced into parliament by the government, although

there are opportunities for private members to introduce bills. They may
be introduced in either house excepting money bills, which the Sen-
ate cannot originate. In a bicameral system, both houses must approve
bills. Technical experts usually write government bills, but the ideas come
from the government, or have its support. The procedure for dealing with
bills has several stages, important ones being the second reading and the
‘consideration in detail’ stage, which give opportunities for debate and
amendment.
[amendment, consideration in detail stage (of a bill), private
members’ bills, second reading]

Bill of Rights
A document guaranteeing basic human rights, usually part of a nation’s
constitution
These rights, sometimes called civil liberties, include freedoms of speech,
assembly, religion, and several more. The Australian Constitution does not
include a Bill of Rights, and whether or not one is needed is a matter of
debate.
[civil liberties, Universal Declaration of Human Rights]

black armband view of history

A term used in the debate over the history of Australian colonisation and
development
Coined by eminent historian Geoffrey Blainey, the term has been used by
the conservative side in the History Wars or Culture Wars to counter the
view that colonisation had tragic consequences for Indigenous Australians,
and that this should be acknowledged to assist reconciliation.
[assimilation, Culture Wars, History Wars, stolen generations]

black ban
Concerted action, sometimes by several trade unions, to obstruct a par-
ticular project or a company’s operation
The aim of a black ban may be to apply pressure on a company that is
regarded as unfair to its workers, or to prevent the commencement of a
project that is seen as undesirable for conservation or other reasons. For
such a ban to be effective the trade union or group directly concerned usu-
ally needs to convince other trade unions to participate.
[industrial dispute]

bleeding heart liberal

Derisive term which the more hard-hearted apply to those they consider to
be too sympathetic to people in trouble or suffering disadvantage
24 blind trust (investments for an MP)

In this context ‘liberal’ has the traditional meaning of social concern,

rather than the Australian meaning of politically conservative. The term is
derived from the phrase ‘my heart bleeds for them’.
[liberalism, small-l Liberals]

blind trust (investments for an MP)

A trust that makes investments on behalf of a member of parliament with-
out the MP knowing the nature of the investments
This procedure is adopted as a guard against possible conflicts of interest
that might influence the voting by members of parliament if they knew the
details of their investments.

blind trust (political party funding)

An organisation associated with political parties, set up to disguise the
original source of donations
Large donations to political parties have been recognised as potentially
dangerous, and legislation requires that they be made public. Blind trusts
circumvent the spirit of the legislation by acting as intermediaries between
the undisclosed donors and the political party. Critics describe such
manoeuvres as ‘laundering’ the money.
[public funding (election campaigns), slush fund]

blue-collar union
An unofficial term indicating that most of the members of a union are
manual workers
This term has come into prominence since the extension of unionism to
many non-manual and professional occupations, whose unions are some-
times called white-collar unions.
[trade union, white-collar union]

blue-ribbon seat
A parliamentary seat that is very safe for a particular party
The term is usually applied to safe Liberal electorates because of the asso-
ciation of the colour blue with the conservative side of politics.
[political spectrum, safe seat]

blue-rinse set
A mildly derogatory term for elderly middle-class women, especially those
who meet socially with others of similar characteristics
The expression comes from the practice of tinting their greying hair. This
is one of the sections of the community seen by some political tacticians as
having influence and, therefore, their reactions must be considered when
planning policies and election campaigns.
[chardonnay socialist, doctors’ wives]
 boat people 25

boat people
People who leave their countries and travel in small boats to seek refuge
elsewhere
Small numbers of boat people from South-East Asia came directly to
A­ustralia in the 1970s and 1980s. Others sailed to other countries as
boat people and came to Australia later as legal immigrants. Those who
come without permission are allowed to remain as permanent residents
if of­ficially accepted as refugees. Australia has been criticised for holding
boat people in custody for a long time before a decision about their fate
is finalised.
[asylum seeker, detention centres, Pacific Solution, refugee]

branch stacking
Organised enrolment in a political party branch of new members who
would not otherwise have joined
Branch stacking occurs in all parties and is usually done to increase a fac-
tion’s strength at party conferences, to improve the chances of a particular
candidate for preselection or to alter the degree of support for a particular
policy. Branch stacking is sometimes organised by groups that have little
interest in the party other than to promote a particular policy.
[faction, preselection]

budget
A statement of estimated government income and expenditure for the
next financial year
Budgets give an indication of a government’s economic policy, especially
on revenue and expenditure. The treasurers in federal and state parlia-
ments present budgets, usually once a year, although ‘mini-budgets’ are
sometimes announced at other times of the year if it becomes necessary to
substantially amend the original budget. Budgets are part of the system of
control over expenditure by government departments as each must keep
within its allocation of funds.
[estimates, treasurer]

budget debate
The parliamentary debate that follows the treasurer’s presentation of the
budget
This is an important debate in which many MPs take part. The budget and
associated documents deal with all departments and do so in some detail.
The matters that can be legitimately discussed extend over a wide area and
the debate may continue through several weeks.

bureaucracy
The administrative structure of any large organisation, but especially of
government authorities
26 Business Council of Australia (BCA)

The term is often applied in a derogatory sense, implying over-regulation,

red tape and delay. Bureaucracy can also mean the form of government
that operates when the nominal government is weak or indecisive and, in
practice, officials govern the country.
[delegated legislation, red tape]

Business Council of Australia (BCA)

An important organisation founded in 1983 to represent business interests
The chief executives of 100 of the largest companies in Australia are its
members. It is an active lobbying group and makes submissions to the
Industrial Relations Commission. Statements by its representatives are
given wide publicity in the media.
[big end of town, industrial relations]

by-election
An election held between general elections, for a single parliamentary seat
A by-election is held to fill a vacancy resulting from the death or resig­
nation of a member of parliament between general elections, but not if a
general election is imminent. A Senate vacancy is filled without an elec-
tion but in accordance with a procedure, specified in Section 15 of the
Constitution, which requires the new senator to be of the same party as
the previous senator. If the government has a comfortable majority in
parliament the outcome of a by-election is not likely to have any major
consequences, although by-elections do attract attention as tests of the
government’s popularity.
[casual vacancy]
C
cabinet
A group of senior ministers or, in some governments, all the ministers as
a body
Cabinet makes decisions for government action and its timing, usually on
the recommendation of the minister responsible for the matter under con-
sideration but also having regard for the attitude of the party caucus. In
some cases a small informal ‘inner cabinet’ may be formed. The proceed-
ings of cabinet meetings are confidential and once a decision is made it is
usual for all ministers to support it.
[junior minister, kitchen cabinet]

campaign
Organised activity of political parties and candidates to obtain votes in an
election
The term usually refers to the time between the announcement of the elec-
tion and election day. Campaigns include party leaders’ policy speeches,
attempts to gain media coverage and advertising. Marginal electorates
receive special attention, such as visits by party leaders. An election cam-
paign also includes local activities, including the distribution of leaflets to
mailboxes and house-to-house canvassing, known as ‘doorknocking’. Pub-
lic meetings in local halls, once an important and colourful part of election
campaigns, have become rare. Part of the cost of election campaigns can
be recouped from government funds, in proportion to the percentage of
votes received.
[blind trust (political party funding), doorknocking, public
funding (election campaigns)]

Canberra Press Gallery

The journalists and support staff who report the workings of the Federal
parliament
28 candidate

The name comes from the areas overlooking chambers of the Senate and
the House of Representatives that are reserved for reporters. The term is
also used for the professional association that represents the journalists
who report news from the parliament.

candidate
A person who nominates for election, especially for a seat in parliament
Most parliamentary candidates contest elections on behalf of a political
party. The first step for the prospective candidate is to win selection by the
political party and become its official candidate, and this is usually difficult
if the party has a good chance of winning the particular seat. Candidates
who stand without party support are known as ‘independents’ and few are
successful.
[independent member of parliament, preselection]

capital gains tax

A tax levied on the increase in the value of assets
Introduced in Australia in 1985, capital gains tax is paid when selling an
asset and is based on the increased value since its purchase. Conditional
allowance for inflation and other complex rules are involved. The taxpay-
er’s home is excluded from the tax.

capitalism
A political, economic and social system based on a high degree of private
ownership
In theory, pure capitalism may be regarded as a system in which the means
of production, distribution and exchange are completely under private
ownership and control. In practice, even in countries that are recognised as
thoroughly capitalist, there is a mixture of government and private owner-
ship and some government regulation. Supporters of capitalism contend
that it maximises production, and provides goods and services at mini-
mum prices. Critics maintain that it has little concern for the welfare of
workers and can lead to damaging ‘booms and busts’. The term ‘capitalism’
has been largely replaced by ‘private enterprise’ and the ‘market system’.
[market system, political theory]

capital punishment
Legally sanctioned execution of persons convicted of capital offences
Also called the ‘death penalty’, capital punishment was a widely applied
penalty for some crimes, especially murder, until the twentieth century.
It is still practised in many countries, including parts of the USA, China,
Indonesia and Singapore, but was abolished federally in Australia in 1973.
The last state to abolish the death penalty was New South Wales. This was
in 1955, although no execution had taken place there since 1940.
 carbon trading 29

carbon trading
Also known as emissions trading, it is a program to reduce atmospheric
pollution in accordance with Kyoto Protocol principles
A carbon trading scheme aims to give some flexibility to industry while
reducing carbon emissions by offering economic incentives. A regulatory
body decides the appropriate amount of a pollutant that a company may
emit and issues an equivalent number of credits. If the company wishes to
emit more, it is permitted to do so if it can buy credits from other compa-
nies that have them to spare.
[Kyoto Protocol]

caretaker government
A temporary government commissioned by the governor-general or a
state governor, usually for a short period, until a stable government can
be formed
Caretaker governments are established during a time of uncertainty when
it is not clear whether any party or coalition of parties is capable of forming
a stable government. Caretaker governments carry on the routine business
of government, but they are expected to refrain from making important
policy decisions.
[deadlock (lack of a majority)]

casting vote
The vote of a presiding officer when the voting would otherwise be tied
The rules relating to casting votes vary. For example, the Speaker of the
House of Representatives does not normally vote, but does have a casting
vote. The President of the Senate is permitted to vote in divisions, but does
not have a casting vote.
[division (voting), presiding officer]

casual vacancy
A vacancy occurring in a parliamentary seat between general elections
A casual vacancy occurs after the death or resignation of a member of par-
liament between general elections and, in lower houses, generally results in
a by-election. A casual Senate vacancy is filled by a procedure, specified in
Section 15 of the Constitution, which ensures that the new senator is from
the same party as the former one.
[by-election]

Catholic Social Studies Movement

See Movement, the

caucus
The members of parliament belonging to one party as a group; also their
official meetings
30 censure motion

The term applies to any political party. Meetings are held frequently dur-
ing parliamentary sessions. They are nominally secret, but caucus activities
and decisions are frequently leaked to the media. Caucuses have had, up
until recently, a big influence on the choice of ministers and shadow min-
isters, especially in the ALP.
[leaks]

censure motion
A formal attempt in parliament to register disapproval of the government,
a minister or a member of parliament
Censure motions are mostly used as a debating tactic over alleged improper
behaviour or mistakes by the government. They can also be aimed at indi-
vidual members of parliament. Voting is almost always on party lines. If a
censure motion against the government is carried in the lower house, the
government is expected to resign. Under these circumstances a censure
motion is similar to a no-confidence motion.
[no-confidence motion]

census
A statistical survey of the people in a nation
In Australia a census is usually held every five years and gathers data on
the numbers and ages of the population together with other information.
The Australian Bureau of Statistics is responsible for conducting each cen-
sus and making the information available to the public, but a fee may be
charged in some instances. The results are presented in a form that does
not disclose information about individual persons.
[Australian Bureau of Statistics]

centralism
The belief that more of the powers exercised by the states should be trans-
ferred to the Commonwealth
Abolition of the states would result in complete centralism in Aus-
tralia. While retaining separate states and territories, some continuing
problems might be eased by transferring carefully selected powers and
responsibilities to the Commonwealth, for example, education and
health.
[states’ rights, unitary system]

Centre for Independent Studies (CIS)

A well-known and well-resourced think tank located in Sydney promoting
a free society and the market system with minimal government regulation
or participation in economic activity
Founded in 1976 by Greg Lindsay, the CIS had modest beginnings but has
grown to possess sufficient support and financial resources to employ a
 Centre Left (faction) 31

large staff. It is self-styled as ‘the leading independent public policy think

tank within Australasia’ and has an offshoot in New Zealand.
[market system, think tank]

Centre Left (faction)

A minor faction within the Australian Labor Party
Formed in 1984, the Centre Left concentrated mainly on policy and
decision-­making and was influential in the Hawke and Keating govern-
ments. Its significance has gradually declined.
[factions—Australian Labor Party]

Centre Unity (faction)

A strong faction within the Australian Labor Party in New South Wales,
with considerable influence in federal politics
It is also referred to as the New South Wales Right. Although widely
regarded as belonging to the right wing of the ALP, its members main-
tain that Centre Unity members differ widely in their opinions on political
policy. In the Federal parliament its members usually join forces with like-
minded MPs from other states, such as the Labor Unity faction members
from Victoria.
[factions—Australian Labor Party]

chamber
A hall in a parliament house in which members of parliament officially
meet and engage in debate
In a bicameral parliament the upper house and the lower house have sep­
arate chambers.
[bicameral system]

chardonnay socialist
A sarcastic label for a person who expresses left-wing views while enjoying
a comfortable lifestyle
This is a derogatory term, similar to calling Liberal supporters ‘bloated
capitalists’. It first appeared in the 1980s, when chardonnay became popu-
lar in Australia. A similar British term is ‘champagne socialist’.
[blue-rinse set, doctors’ wives]

chief electoral officer

The senior person in charge of parliamentary elections
The responsibilities of this officer are not confined to election day, and
include the compilation of electoral rolls and keeping them up to date.
Commonwealth electoral officers and state electoral officers cooperate
closely.
[Australian Electoral Commission]
32 chief minister

chief minister
The head of government in each of the Australian mainland territories
The Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory each has a
chief minister whose position is similar to that of a state premier.
[premier, territories]

CHOGM
See Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting

Choice
A non-profit body that tests products, advises consumers, supports their
rights and publishes Choice magazine
Founded in 1959, it was originally named the Australian Consumers Asso-
ciation. It has achieved considerable public recognition and its research is
often published in the mass media. Its influence has been credited as being
a factor in the establishment of government ministries devoted to con-
sumer protection. The magazine Choice is published eleven times a year
and carries no advertising. It describes and compares products and ser­
vices, and recommends ‘best buys’.
[Australian Competition and Consumer Commission, oligopoly,
price control]

citizenship
Full political membership of a nation, with the rights and duties of a citizen
Australian citizenship may be acquired by birth or by naturalisation. Citi-
zens have the right to vote and stand for election except those with dual
citizenship, who cannot stand for election. Some rights and responsibilities
of citizens are legally defined, but Australia has no formal Bill of Rights. Con-
sequently some rights exist because of tradition and contemporary values.
[Bill of Rights, civil liberties, dual citizenship]

citizenship test
The Australian citizenship test is intended to promote the successful inte-
gration of migrants into the Australian community
Introduced by the Howard government in 2007, the test was designed to
encourage an understanding of Australia’s values, history and sport. The
choice of questions was criticised for over-emphasising popular and sport-
ing culture. The Rudd government revised the test in 2008 with greater
focus on Australia’s democratic processes.
[immigration, mores]

civic and community organisations

These work for the benefit of the community and usually avoid party poli-
tics, although their representatives sometimes express views on political
matters related to their organisations
 civic participation 33

These organisations include: charitable bodies such as the Brotherhood

of St Laurence, the St Vincent de Paul Society; organisations that assist
people with special needs; sports clubs and cultural organisations such as
amateur theatrical and art groups; advisory bodies such as a Community
Advice Bureau; and youth organisations such as Scouts and Guides. They
rely partly on government assistance as well as support from the general
public. At times they indirectly participate in politics by lobbying for gov-
ernment assistance or action in their areas of concern.
[lobby, voluntary association]

civic participation
Active engagement in civic, political or community affairs by seeking
information and making a positive contribution
Voting is a minimal form of political involvement, but for democracy to
be effective it is also necessary for citizens to understand political events
and to value their rights. Engagement in civic affairs includes conver­
sation, letters to newspapers and politicians, and membership of political
parties. Participation in community groups, such as school committees
or volunteer fire brigades, is also part of the responsibilities of people
who are able to make these kinds of contributions for the wellbeing of
the community.
[apathy, citizenship, civil rights and responsibilities]

civics
The study of the rights and the responsibilities of citizens
As a subject of study civics has been interpreted in different ways,
in­cluding its extension to the study of a country’s political, legal and
community systems, and personal matters such as health and social
behaviour.

civil liberties
The basic rights of people in a free society
Civil liberties, sometimes called human rights, include freedom of speech,
freedom of assembly and freedom of religion. The Universal Declaration
of Human Rights declares many other freedoms. In Australia there is no
official document guaranteeing civil liberties and, in the absence of a Bill
of Rights, civil liberties depend upon tradition and continuing public
awareness.
[Bill of Rights, Universal Declaration of Human Rights]

civil rights and responsibilities

Members of a community are entitled to a range of benefits and also have
the responsibility of contributing to the wellbeing of their community
Civil rights include personal rights and freedoms, the opportunity to use
established industry and services and, through the democratic system, the
34 classes

right to influence government. Responsibilities of citizens include taking

an interest in the government and its services. Civic rights and also civic
responsibilities are not only those that are defined by law, such as payment
of taxes, but include many that are traditional and depend on a sense of
community and fair play.
[civic participation, civil liberties]

classes
Groups within a community identified by various criteria such as influ-
ence, wealth, social status, education or occupation
Traditional English terms, sometimes used in Australia, include ‘upper
class’, ‘middle class’ and ‘working class’. Many others exist, such as ‘ruling
class’, ‘lower class’, ‘white-collar workers’ and ‘blue-collar workers’. Aus-
tralia is regarded as being less class-conscious than many other countries,
but class-consciousness sometimes emerges, for example, in political argu-
ment. In Australia, movement from one class to another is not uncommon,
and social mobility is aided by the absence of major differences in accents
and an aversion to subservience.
[egalitarianism, Establishment, meritocracy, squattocracy]

clause
A distinct part of a bill, usually identified by a number
Dividing a bill into clauses assists the efficiency of debate in parliament.
Clauses become sections after a bill becomes an act.
[bill, section (of an act of parliament)]

clerk (of parliament)

The most senior official of the staff of a house of parliament
The clerk has an active role in parliamentary sittings and needs a good
knowledge of the rules and procedures of the house of parliament. The
responsibilities of the clerk also include administration and the clerical
work associated with parliament.
[protocol (ceremonial), standing orders]

climate change
A significant change in the normal weather pattern
The accepted characteristics of a weather pattern in a particular area—or
worldwide—are not precise and are usually based on long-term records
and other scientific evidence. Despite some argument, scientific opinion
favours the belief that industrial activity in recent centuries has caused a
significant climate change.
[global warming, greenhouse effect]
 closure 35

Reproduced courtesy of Simon Kneebone

closure
The abrupt curtailment of parliamentary debate, often called the ‘gag’
This occurs when a motion for the immediate closure of debate is carried.
(The wording of such a motion is ‘that the question be now put’.) The pro­
cedure was introduced to prevent excessively long debates. It can save time
but is open to the criticism that it can be used to prevent adequate discussion
on contentious legislation. It should be distinguished from the guillotine.
[filibuster, guillotine]

coalition
A combination of political parties in parliament, while each party retains
its separate identity
In federal politics, the Liberal Party and the National Party consistently
join together in coalition whether as the government or the opposition.
Conservative coalitions also occur in state politics. Partners in a coa­
lition must make compromises on policy and in the choice of ministers or
shadow ministers.

Coalition, the
The combination of the Liberal Party and the National Party in govern-
ment and in opposition is often referred to as ‘the Coalition’
Such an arrangement is reached to provide a workable non-Labor govern-
ment or opposition. In a federal parliamentary coalition, the Liberal Party
is dominant and the leader is a Liberal, while the Nationals supply the
deputy leader.
[Liberal Party (of Australia), National Party]
36 Cold War

Cold War
The armed but non-violent confrontation between anti-communist ‘West-
ern’ nations and the Soviet Union and its satellites, such as East Germany,
Poland and the Baltic states, absorbed after World War II
The Cold War continued for about forty years, starting immediately after
World War II and ending with the collapse of the Soviet Union in the late
1980s. A frightening feature of the Cold War was the possession of nuclear
armaments by both sides and the possibility of their sudden use, with ter-
rible consequences. This was called ‘the balance of terror’.
[anti-communism]

collectivism
The theory and its implementation based on the assumption that the
wellbeing of a group should take priority over that of its individual
members
Supporters of collectivism argue that it provides maximum benefits for
sharing between all members of the group. Collectivism is often contrasted
with ‘individualism’, which advocates the opposite priorities. A third belief
is that a compromise between the two would be preferable.
[individualism]

colony
A settlement in another country, governed by the country from which the
settlers came
In Australia, the areas now known as states were British colonies until
Federation, although they had gradually gained a substantial degree of
self-government during the nineteenth century.
[Federation, state(s)]

commerce
The distribution, sale or exchange of goods and services, especially on a
large scale
Commerce probably began with the bartering of goods. The development
of money and written records gradually made trading more convenient
and efficient. Recent inventions such as the means of rapid communi­
cation and computers provide great benefits for commerce but also
increase the danger of manipulation and fraud.
[free trade, protection]

commission
The responsibility and authority to carry out defined tasks
In the political sense, parliament can commission individuals or organis­
ations to undertake specified duties. Examples include royal commissions,
which are set up to investigate matters of public concern, and other
 Committee for Economic Development in Australia (CEDA) 37

commissions with continuing duties such as the Australian Electoral

Commission.
[royal commission]

Committee for Economic Development in Australia (CEDA)

A long-established independent organisation promoting research for
national economic development
Founded in 1960 by Sir Douglas Copland, a leading economist, CEDA is a
not-for-profit organisation without political or other partisan leanings. It
seeks to bring together a wide range of people, including representatives of
business and trade unions, academics, journalists and others to share ideas
and to cooperate in fostering development.

committee system
The use of committees composed of MPs to assist in the work of parliament
Parliamentary committees undertake a variety of work related to mat-
ters of policy and legislation, and to the procedures and operation of
parliament. In addition to their prescribed tasks, committees provide an
opportunity of utilising the abilities of backbenchers. There are several
different types of committees, including the main committee, joint com-
mittees, select committees, single-house committees, standing committees
and statutory committees. The main committee sits separately in its own
meeting room and its major role is to consider in detail those bills—usu-
ally non-controversial—that have been referred to it.
[consideration in detail stage (of a bill), joint committee, main
committee, select committee, standing committee, statutory
committee]

common law
Law based on custom, precedent and court judgements
Common law is distinct from statute law, which is made by the parliamen-
tary process. Common law gradually changes as new court judgements
follow trends in community attitudes.
[law, statute law]

Commonwealth, the
An association of nations, including Australia, most of which were once
part of the British Empire
The Commonwealth began as the British Commonwealth of Nations but
changed to the Commonwealth of Nations and then the Commonwealth.
It is a loosely organised group of about 50 nations, its membership occa-
sionally changing with the admission of new members and the expulsion
or resignation of others. Among its principal aims are respect for human
rights and peace among nations. It has some international influence,
although no formal power. Diplomats representing a country which is a
38 Commonwealth Grants Commission

member of the Commonwealth in a country that is also a member are

known as commissioners or high commissioners, depending on rank.
[Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting, high commission]

Commonwealth Grants Commission

An independent statutory body with the responsibility of advising the
Commonwealth government on making financial grants to the states
Created by an act of parliament in 1933, the Commonwealth Grants Com-
mission assesses claims by states for grants (as permitted under Section 96
of the Constitution) and makes recommendations to the Commonwealth.
The aim of the grants procedure is to cope with the needs that are beyond
the financial resources of the states, including the special needs of the
smaller ones.
[Australian Loan Council, premiers’ conferences]

Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM)

A meeting of the leaders of the countries, including Australia, which belong
to the group known as the Commonwealth
The meetings are held at two-yearly intervals. They have no legal standing
but have international influence and are also regarded as useful in main-
taining contacts and understanding between member nations.
[Commonwealth, the]

Commonwealth of Australia
The official title of the Australian nation
Adopted at the time of Federation in 1900, the term ‘Commonwealth’
was enshrined in the Constitution. In more recent years, the word ‘Aus-
tralian’ has replaced ‘Commonwealth’ in some official names, such as the
Australian Taxation Office. The government may be called the Federal
government, the Commonwealth government, or the Australian govern-
ment (the same applies to parliament, which may be called the Federal
parliament, etc.) The best choice may depend on the context but ‘Com-
monwealth’ has been favoured in official documents.
[Constitution of Australia, Federation]

Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research

Organisation (CSIRO)
The most significant government research organisation in Australia
In its present form the CSIRO dates from 1949. Its predecessor, the Council
for Scientific and Industrial Research, was founded in 1926 and replaced
the Institute of Science and Industry. The work of the CSIRO ranges over
a wide field but is mainly directed to the needs of industry, including pri-
mary industry.
[research and development]
 communism 39

communism
A political ideology proposing a classless society and minimal private
ownership
There is much uncertainty and argument over the meaning of ‘commu-
nism’. Broadly based on the writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels,
it advocates public ownership of property and the means of production.
It is regarded as the most extreme form of socialism. The political and
social systems that operated for several decades after World War II in the
Soviet Union and in China were considered to be examples of commu-
nism, although it has been also argued that they were not true expressions
of communist ideology.
[ideology, Marxism]

Communist Party of Australia (CPA)

The original Communist Party in Australia, established in 1920
The party grew in strength during the years of the Great Depression of the
1930s but did not win parliamentary seats, although it gained considerable
influence in the trade union movement. In 1944 a Communist candidate,
Fred Paterson, won the Queensland state seat of Bowen, becoming the only
communist to win a parliamentary seat in Australia. After the 1960s the
Communist Party declined and split into separate groups. In 1996 a group
known as the Socialist Party of Australia renamed itself the Communist
Party of Australia but failed to gain significant support.
[communism, depression (economic), Socialist Party of Australia]

communitarianism
A prominent interpretation of the term (among a number of others) is
that it deals with individual rights in relation to those of the community
Definitions of communitarianism are so disparate or vague that the term is
of little help unless the meaning adopted within a discussion is made clear.
But it does raise the problem of the degree to which rights and preferences of
the individual should be modified to benefit the welfare of the community.
[civil rights and responsibilities, society]

community
A group of people with interests in common, usually living in the same
area
A characteristic of a community is that its members depend on one
another. Sizes range from the inhabitants of a small village to the people of
an entire country. The term is also applied to groups of people who delib-
erately live separately from the rest of the people in an area. Communities
of monks or artists are examples.
[citizenship, civics, society]
40 comparative politics and comparative government

comparative politics and comparative government

Studies of similarities and differences of various theories of politics and
government, and their practical outcomes
Comparative studies can cover examples from the whole of recorded
history, as well as recent and current theories and practices. Study of
comparative politics is of special value in Australia as the structure, tra-
ditions and practices of Australian politics and government are largely
based on those of other countries, especially the United Kingdom and
the USA. Successes and failures of policies in those countries can be a
guide for Australia.
[democracy, politics]

compulsory unionism
A misleading term applied to compulsory student fees charged to ensure
the delivery of student services on Australian campuses
Compulsory payment of these fees was replaced by voluntary student
unionism (VSU), which the Howard government introduced in 2005
for ideological reasons. The fees cover a wide range of campus services,
including health services, counselling, employment, child care and welfare
services, and it is argued that these services were greatly reduced after the
introduction of VSU.
[voluntary student unionism]

compulsory voting
The legal requirement that people must vote if they are registered to do so
In Australia, compulsory voting applies to parliamentary elections and ref-
erendums, and those eligible must take the steps necessary to be included
in the electoral roll. A major benefit is that it encourages wide debate on
policies rather than concentration on bringing known party supporters
out to vote. In Australia it was applied to federal elections in 1924 and has
been widely accepted and approved.
[electoral roll]

conflict of interests
A circumstance that occurs when a member of parliament or a minister
has financial or personal interests that are affected by parliamentary or
ministerial decisions
To reduce the problem, the rules of some parliaments require MPs to
declare publicly their financial interests and those of their spouses and
children. Ministers usually resign from any company directorships. A
conflict of interests is regarded as applying to financial matters and not
to ideological beliefs and, consequently, a member of parliament could
properly be influenced by concerns regarding ethical or other ideological
beliefs. Another type of conflict of interests (or loyalties) occurs when
the perceived attitude of a majority of an MP’s constituents differs on a
 confrontation 41

particular issue from that of the party to which the member also owes
loyalty.
[blind trust (investments for an MP), ideology, pecuniary
interest]

confrontation
Aggressive, uncooperative behaviour and a traditional element in Aus­
tralian politics
Confrontation is prominent in politics and is demonstrated during elec-
tions, parliamentary tactics and debate. It is consistent with the division
of parliament into government and opposition. It occurs in other fields,
including the ‘adversarial’ legal system and in industrial affairs, although
in the latter there have been intermittent and sometimes successful efforts
to achieve conciliation.
[Accord, attack dog, consensus]

conscience vote
A parliamentary vote in which members of a political party are not con-
strained to vote in accordance with a party decision
Political parties usually require their members to vote as a bloc. This rule
is sometimes relaxed, especially when ethical or religious convictions may
make it difficult for some members to follow a party decision.
[conflict of interests, cross the floor, party discipline]

conscription
Compulsory enlistment for military service
Policies on conscription have played an important part in Australian
politics, particularly during World War I and the Vietnam War. The con-
servative parties have traditionally supported conscription but the Labor
Party has usually opposed it; however, it supported conscription during
World War II when Australia was directly threatened.
[defence]

consensus
Agreement achieved by discussion and compromise
In politics, consensus is the theory and practice of obtaining acceptance
in advance of political action, usually by compromise between the various
groups involved including the government. Consensus contrasts sharply
with confrontation.
[confrontation]

conservation
Protection and preservation of the natural environment and resources
42 conservatism

This has become an important issue and all political parties give it atten-
tion, although there are wide differences in attitudes towards conservation
in general and in particular cases. With almost universal acceptance that
significant climate change could become disastrous, conservation has
become a major problem facing governments. The term is also applied to
the preservation of some natural assets and historic structures.
[climate change, environmentalism, national parks, National
Trusts]

conservatism
In politics, favouring retention of long-established attitudes, institutions
and power structures
In most countries the term is applied to right-wing political ideology and
parties. Party names can be confusing and the Liberal Party of Australia
is similar to the British Conservative Party, rather than the British Liberal
Democrats. The National Party is also conservative but with particular
concern for country interests. In the USA ‘liberal’ is applied to left-wing
political attitudes.
[neoconservatism, political spectrum, political theory]

consideration in detail stage (of a bill)

A stage in parliamentary debate when a bill is discussed clause by clause
This can take place in the main chamber of the house or at a meeting of
the main committee in a committee room. Bills referred to the main com-
mittee for this stage in their progress are expected to be less contentious
than those retained for debate in the main chamber. It replaces what was
formerly known as the ‘committee stage’ before the reorganisation of the
committee system in 1994.
[committee system, main committee, second reading, third
reading]

constituency
An electorate; also the people within an electorate
The term is less frequently used in Australia than in the United Kingdom,
but the related word ‘constituent’ is well known and often used in Australia.
[electorate]

constituent
A resident within an electorate, especially in relation to the local member
of parliament
Members of parliament use the term when they refer to local residents in
official letters, especially when making representations or requests on their
behalf.
 Constitution of Australia 43

Constitution of Australia
The document that specifies the powers and duties of the Commonwealth
parliament, and the relationship of the monarch to Australia
The Australian Constitution was included in a British act of parlia-
ment, which was passed in 1900 and authorised the establishment of the
Commonwealth of Australia in 1901. It defines the powers of the Com-
monwealth parliament and of the Queen and the governor-general. The
substantial powers given to the governor-general have seldom been used.
In practice, and largely in accordance with Westminster conventions, it
has been the ministry, with the approval of parliament, that has governed
Australia. The independence of Australia was enhanced and clarified by
the Statute of Westminster passed in the United Kingdom in 1931 and the
Australia Act(s) of 1986.
The Constitution lists the matters on which the Commonwealth parlia-
ment has power to legislate but defines them very briefly, which has been
a continuing source of argument and litigation. It states how elections are
to be held and how parliament is to operate; it also defines the relationship
between the Commonwealth and the states. Amendment of the Consti­
tution is possible only by a process that includes approval by a referendum.
History has shown that amendment is very difficult if one of the major
parties is opposed to the change.
[Australia Act(s) 1986, Commonwealth of Australia, con-
stitutional reform, Federation, reserve powers, Statute of
Westminster, Washminster system, Westminster system]

constitutional monarchy
The form of government of a country which has a monarch as its head of
state whose limited powers are defined by a constitution
The Australian Constitution defines the role of the Queen (or the Queen’s
representative, the governor-general) in the Commonwealth parliament
and the executive council. In practice, the parliament has the real power
under almost all circumstances and the roles of the monarch and the
governor-­general are usually confined to formal or ceremonial ones.
[Australia Act(s) 1986, Constitution of Australia, Executive
Council]

constitutional reform
Change to the Australian Constitution
The Constitution has frequently been criticised as being out of date or
inappropriate. In particular, amendment of the constitutional powers of
the monarch has been advocated, while an opposing argument is that
the Constitution has served Australia well for many years and needs no
amendment.
[Constitution of Australia]
44 consumer price index (CPI)

consumer price index (CPI)

An official statistical figure that gives a measure of retail price changes
The CPI is prepared by the Australian Bureau of Statistics and is based on
prices of a selected list of goods and services collected at different places
throughout Australia. The list is not a comprehensive one but the items
are chosen to make up a fair sample of goods and services purchased by
an average family. The consumer price index has been used for a variety of
planning and decision-making purposes, including variations in wage and
pension rates.
[Australian Bureau of Statistics, wage indexation]

consumption tax
A form of indirect taxation or sales tax
Consumption tax is charged as a percentage of the retail price of goods and
services. The term has a similar meaning to a goods and services tax or a
value-added tax.
[goods and services tax, sales tax]

contempt of parliament
Behaviour that impedes the work or effectiveness of a house of parliament
Parliament itself decides on cases of alleged contempt and has the power
to sentence offenders. The rules relating to ‘contempt of parliament’ and
‘parliamentary privilege’ have the aim of enhancing the effectiveness of
parliament and ensuring that members of parliament may speak freely.
They are based on British parliamentary traditions, but the Common-
wealth parliament has the power to make its own rules.
[parliamentary privilege]

core promise
Important item of election policy
The term is used in response to criticism of broken election promises that
cannot be denied. It is asserted that the important ones—the core prom-
ises—have or will be kept, and that the broken ones are not significant.
[non-core promise, spin]

corporatism
A system in which special interest groups have substantial influence over a
nation’s political policies and decisions
Historically the term was applied to Mussolini’s Italy of the 1920s and
1930s when an unelected corporation representing agrarian, economic,
industrial and professional interests exerted great political influence. In
Australia, an example (although limited to one area of policy) was the
Prices and Income Accord negotiated by Prime Minister Hawke. More
recently, the term has been applied (notably by writer and economist
 Council of Australian Governments (COAG) meetings 45

J.K. Galbraith) to the political power exercised in many countries by the

leaders of large corporations.
[democracy, political theory]

Council of Australian Governments (COAG) meetings

Meetings of the heads of Australian federal, state and territory govern-
ments, and the president of the Australian Local Government Association
COAG meetings began in 1992 to discuss matters that need inter-­
government agreement and are held whenever necessary, on average,
about three times per year. The meetings deal with a wide range of sub-
jects, including economic matters.
[Australian Loan Council]

Council on the Ageing (COTA)

An organisation that promotes the wellbeing of older people
Established in 1951, there are COTA organisations with large member-
ships in every state and the two territories, which gives them political
significance. COTA receives assistance from governments and provides a
wide range of services and opportunities for the elderly.
[National Seniors Australia]

Councils for Civil Liberties

Separate bodies formed in various states to support the retention and
enhancement of civil liberties
The concerns of these groups centre on personal freedoms such as free-
dom of speech, and the rights and liberties of individuals. A particular aim
is the development of a legally binding Bill of Rights in Australia.
[Bill of Rights, civil liberties]

count, the
The process of counting the votes in an election
This includes the counting of first preference votes and, if necessary, the
distribution of second and other preferences. Scrutineers are entitled to
watch the counting process and to challenge the validity of voting papers
they believe may be informal or incorrectly sorted.
[informal vote, preferential voting, scrutineers]

Country-Liberal Party
The principal conservative party in the Northern Territory
The party operates only in the Northern Territory, where it was formed in
1974 by the merging of the Country Party and the Liberal Party.
[Northern Territory parliament]
46 Country Party

Country Party
The former name of the National Party
The Country Party, whose full name was the Australian Country Party,
adopted the name in 1920 and it remained unchanged until 1975. It then
became the National Country Party and the name was altered again in
1982 to the National Party.
[Country-Liberal Party, Liberal National Party, National Party]

Country Women’s Association (CWA)

An organisation that aims to improve the lives of women and children liv-
ing in rural and regional Australia
Founded in 1922, the CWA has approximately 25 000 members in 1500
branches throughout Australia. With premises in many country towns, it
provides a wide range of services. It is officially non-sectarian and non-
political but makes submissions to governments, and its attitudes on social
matters have been conservative.

CPI
See consumer price index

credit crunch
A sudden reduction in the availability of credit
Banks and other lenders tighten their conditions for obtaining loans and
the economy slows down. This may be appropriate under the circum-
stances, or it can cause a slump in activity and high unemployment.
[economy (of a nation)]

credit rating
The credit worthiness of an individual, business or country
The credit rating is based on the estimated ability of the person or entity
to repay a loan. Credit ratings of nations are assessed by agencies such as
Standard & Poor’s and Moody’s.

Crikey
An independent and influential electronic news magazine
Founded by shareholder-activist Stephen Mayne, crikey.com.au pro-
vides news coverage of business and politics which can be more candid
than that from the traditional mass media. Through its website and
email to sub­scribers Crikey breaks stories and sometimes causes political
embarrassment.

cross benches
The seats in a parliamentary chamber used by independents and MPs
belonging to minor parties
 cross the floor 47

Government members occupy the seats to the right of the presiding officer,
known as the treasury benches, and opposition MPs occupy those to the
left. Independents or minor parties use the seats in between those used
by the government and the opposition. They are said to occupy the ‘cross
benches’.

cross the floor

A popular term employed when a member of parliament votes against
their own party
When a vote is taken in the form of a division, supporters of the motion
move to one side of the chamber and opponents to the other. Hence a dis-
sident party member must cross the floor to join members on the other
side.
[division (voting)]

Culture Wars
Conflicts between progressive and conservative political and social views
Derived from the USA, the term implies that differing cultural values are
at the root of some political disagreements. Active participants are known
as ‘cultural warriors’. Commentators have used the term in Australia, and
the issues involved include multiculturalism, the teaching of history, the
treatment of refugees and Aboriginal reconciliation.
[History Wars]

customs duty
Tax on imports or exports
In accordance with the Australian Constitution, only the Commonwealth
can collect customs duty. The rates of duty on imports have varied over
time and according to the type of goods, with the main aim of protecting
Australian industry. An international movement towards free trade, which
gained strength in the latter part of the twentieth century, has resulted in a
gradual reduction in customs duty in Australia and other countries.
[excise, free trade, protection]

cynicism (political)
The attitude that politics and politicians are contemptible and should be
ignored
Cynics, by definition, believe the worst. They laugh at jokes lampooning
politics and suggest that it should be disregarded. Politics is imperfect and
needs improvement, but cynicism is destructive rather than helpful.
[apathy, donkey vote, scepticism (political)]
D
deadlock (between two houses)
Conflict between the upper and lower houses of parliament that impedes
the passage of legislation
This can happen when no party has a majority in both houses as the upper
house can refuse to pass money bills that authorise government expendi-
ture. Traditionally, upper houses do not use this tactic, but this convention
has occasionally been broken. In the Federal parliament, a deadlock may
result in a double dissolution followed by elections for both the Senate and
the House of Representatives.
[appropriation bills, double dissolution, joint sitting]

deadlock (lack of a majority)

The situation when no party (or coalition) has a majority in the lower
house, sometimes called a hung parliament
This occurs when numbers in the main opposing parties are nearly equal
and there are enough independent or minor party MPs to affect the result
of a vote in parliament. The deadlock may be resolved by the government
party making an arrangement with a minor party or with one or more
individual MPs to vote with it in parliament. If no other solution is found,
a new election will be necessary.
[party system]

death duties
A form of taxation paid on the value of estates of deceased persons
Levied for many years by federal and state governments, death duties were
discontinued in the 1970s. Many other countries continue to levy death
duties.

debate
Speeches by MPs in parliament, especially when presenting views for or
against a motion
 decentralisation 49

The term refers to formal discussion of a motion, and is sometimes used to

mean any speeches or statements made in parliament.

decentralisation
The development of new centres for industry and housing at a distance
from large cities
Several difficulties arise from continued growth of cities, but there are
advantages for industries, and also for people seeking work. Governments
sometimes adopt positive plans for encouraging decentralised develop-
ment. It is costly in the early stages but can be financially beneficial in the
long run, as well as providing a good living environment.
[environmentalism, quality of life]

declaration of the poll

The formal statement of the result of a parliamentary or municipal election
This is an official public event. The returning officer reads the voting fig-
ures and announces the successful candidate. It is traditional for winning
and losing candidates, with friends and supporters, to attend the declar­
ation and make short speeches.
[poll, returning officer]

defence
Protection of a country from military invasion
The Australian Constitution gives the responsibility for defence to the
Commonwealth. The most obvious form of defence is the maintenance
of military forces and equipment together with the capacity to quickly
strengthen these forces. Possible danger needs to be monitored and agen-
cies such as the Australian Secret Intelligence Service (ASIS) seek to
discover possible threats. Small countries such as Australia try to make
alliances with strong and friendly nations, and maintain good relations
with countries that might otherwise become potential enemies.
[American alliance, ANZUS Treaty, Australian Secret Intelli-
gence Service, forward defence]

delegate
A person chosen to represent an organisation or group
Delegates are appointed to take part in meetings or conferences at which
it would be inconvenient or impractical for a large number of members to
attend. A national conference of a political party is an example.

delegated legislation
Law made by an executive authority, such as government ministers, with-
out detailed legislation
50 democracy

Also called secondary legislation, this has been criticised because it does
not have the approval of parliament. Nevertheless, it would be impractical
for every detailed regulation to be individually approved by parliament.
[regulations]

democracy
Government by the people themselves; in practice, government by elected
representatives
Democracy is founded on a belief in social equality that every person
should have an equal say in choosing the government of a community
or country. When safeguards to protect human rights, including those of
minorities, are built into the political system, it may be called a ‘liberal
democracy’. Democracy is founded on the assumption that the people
have the will to govern themselves, that they will be interested and well
informed, and that they will cherish their rights and freedom.
[apathy, liberal democracy, representative democracy, respon­
sible government]

democracy (Australian)
The Australian political system, although subject to some criticisms, is
widely regarded as a true democracy
It evolved from the autocratic rule of colonial governors, through grad-
ual extension of voting rights and increasing independence, to universal
franchise and self-government. Australia now meets most of the criteria
for a democracy, such as civil liberties and voting rights. Criticisms are
made of the Australian system, particularly in respect to the principle of
representative government. One is that the Constitution does not give the
elected parliament final power, as its decisions can be over-ridden by the
monarch or the governor-general. Another criticism relates to the voting
system and power of the Senate. Although there are universal voting rights,
democracy is flawed because senators represent widely different numbers
of electors and the Senate can veto decisions of the more democratically
elected House of Representatives. Another concern contrasts the principle
of freedom of speech with the difficulty or cost of gaining access to the
modern forms of mass communication.
[Constitution of Australia, one vote–one value]

democracy (differing forms)

Many nations with widely differing political systems claim, justly or other-
wise, to be democracies
These differing forms of government include those that are widely acknowl-
edged as true democracies, such as those of the United Kingdom, countries
of Western Europe, the United States, Australia and New Zealand. There
are also nations in which the citizens vote for their parliamentary repre-
sentatives but have little or no chance of changing the government. The
 Democratic Labor Party (DLP) 51

term ‘guided democracy’ is sometimes applied to these political systems

and, in some cases, they are defended on the grounds of being essential
in countries with recently acquired self-government. Other nations may
claim the title ‘democratic’, although in practice they are firmly controlled
by strong individual rulers or small groups. The criteria to assess the valid-
ity of claims of democracy include: voting rights; freedom of assembly;
freedom of speech, including access to the mass media; the right to form
political parties and contest elections; and a legitimate democracy should
also espouse a political system that gives an opportunity to change the
structure of government when that is the will of the people.
[civil liberties, democracy, political theory]

Democratic Labor Party (DLP)

A minor party that significantly influenced Australian politics from the
1950s to the 1970s
Formed after the Labor ‘Split’ of 1955, the DLP had a close relationship
with the Movement, a secretive organisation founded and led by B.A. San-
tamaria and later called the National Civic Council. The party was strongly
anti-communist and drew the bulk of its support from the Catholic com-
munity. The DLP diverted what had been a predominantly Labor vote to
the Liberal and Country parties by the allocation of its preference votes
from 1955 to 1972. After the election of the Whitlam Labor government in
1972, the DLP declined rapidly and was disbanded in 1978. The name was
revived later but the new party received little support.
[Labor ‘Split’]

democratic socialist
An international term applied to some but not all left-leaning political
parties and their supporters
It has a range of meanings and is seldom used in Australia. In overseas
countries it usually means a party with strong socialist aims, coupled with
a belief in a democratic political system.
[social democracy, socialism]

demographic change
Change in the characteristics of the population in a particular area
There is a range of causes for demographic change. One is the spread of
a city causing farmland on its outskirts to become suburban residential
areas. Others include development or closure of industries, or changes in
socio-economic status of residents, such as happens when a slum suburb,
close to a city’s centre, becomes an area of expensive flats or town houses.
[socio-economic status]
52 demography

demography
The statistical study of the distribution and characteristics of the human
population
Demography is concerned with the numbers of people in defined areas
and changes to those numbers. It also deals with a range of social charac-
teristics, such as age, health, education, occupation, income and housing.
Demography is useful for planning for future needs such as schools and
other services. The information is also useful in predicting and analysing
voting trends.
[decentralisation, socio-economic status]

demonstrations
Organised public displays to draw attention to the opinions of those taking
part—often on political topics
These often take the form of a march in a city street ending in a gathering
to hear speeches. Demonstrations have been legally permitted in Australia,
with some exceptions, and it is usual for police and the demonstration
organisers to cooperate to avoid trouble and minimise inconvenience to
the general public. Nevertheless, some demonstrations result in damage
and injury.
[civil liberties, freedom of assembly]

department
An administrative structure within the Public Service
The term applies to both federal and state governments. Each department
is responsible to a minister who may be in charge of one large department
or a number of smaller ones. A senior public servant manages each depart-
ment and works closely with the minister.
[ministry (minister’s responsibility), Public Service]

deposit
In politics, a sum of money lodged with the returning officer by a candi-
date in an election
Deposits are returned to all candidates who receive more than a specified
percentage, typically about 4 per cent, of the total vote. The risk of losing
the deposit is likely to discourage frivolous nominations.
[nomination for election]

depression (economic)
Period of economic stagnation with severe unemployment
The characteristics of a depression, in addition to high unemployment,
are moribund industries, closed factories and low share prices. The causes
of depressions, remedies and avoidance are subject to wide differences of
opinion. The depression of the 1930s was the worst that occurred in the
 deputation 53

twentieth century and is sometimes referred to as the Great Depression. A

milder form of the same problem is called a recession.
[economy (of a nation), recession]

deputation
A group of people organised to put a point of view to a minister or to a
member of parliament
These usually consist of a small group, representing a much larger number
of people. The aim of deputations is to explain their opinions or needs, or
to exert pressure to obtain a favourable result.
[civic participation, lobby, pressure group]

deregulation
Removal of government regulation or controls on certain sections of the
economy
The term applies particularly to economic matters. In the later decades
of the twentieth century governments in Australia and elsewhere imple-
mented substantial deregulation but the worldwide economic upheaval
beginning in 2008 resulted in governments in many countries resuming a
greater economic role.
[economics, market system, political economy]

détente
The diplomatic relationship between two nations, when a difficulty has
been eased but not completely overcome
It has been described as ‘co-existence’, and can result in positive diplomatic
communication and agreements (such as a reduction in armaments),
although the nations involved may still be suspicious of the other’s
intentions.
[diplomacy, foreign policy]

detention centres
Institutions in which aliens who are suspected of being in Australia unlaw-
fully are confined until a decision is made on whether they may stay or be
deported
The centres are often in remote areas and have been denounced for alleg-
edly breaching human rights. Their use has been defended as necessary
under Australian migration laws. Some asylum seekers have been detained
for years in harsh environments and later been found to be genuine refu-
gees. Children have also been confined in the centres but this practice was
discontinued in 2008.
[boat people]

developing world
The industrially underdeveloped countries of the world
54 d’Hondt voting system

This is an imprecise term that is applied to countries—many of them

former colonies of European nations—that have very poor living stand-
ards. It has gradually superseded the expression Third World, although the
meaning of that term differed in some respects from that of developing
world.

d’Hondt voting system

One of a number of voting systems designed to achieve proportional rep-
resentation in a parliament
The d’Hondt system has been used in many European countries and else-
where around the world. In a modified form, it was used in the Australian
Capital Territory elections of 1989 and 1992, with the whole of the ACT
as a single electorate. It was not popular and was replaced by a Hare-Clark
system.
[Australian Capital Territory electoral system, Hare-Clark
system]

dictatorship
See autocracy

diplomacy
Personal and group conduct that will foster political agreement, and mini-
mise ill feeling when agreement is not achieved
This type of diplomacy is rare in parliamentary and public political debate
in Australia because of the confrontational or adversarial tradition in the
political and legal systems that were the models for Australia.
[confrontation, consensus]

diplomacy (international)
The practical management of relations between countries
Diplomats, such as ambassadors and consuls, do not create the foreign
policy of their countries but attempt to present and explain it so that good
relations between their own and other nations will be maintained.
[foreign policy]

direct action
In the political sense, public demonstrations or even disorder, as con-
trasted with conventional discussion and lobbying
Direct action may be used in an attempt to achieve a prompt settlement
of a dispute, or to gain publicity for a point of view, especially when more
restrained efforts seem to have been ignored.
[demonstrations, pressure group]

direct democracy
Political activity in which citizens personally make decisions
 dirt file 55

Direct democracy contrasts with representative democracy, in which

elected representatives make decisions for citizens. Forms of direct democ-
racy include referendums and town meetings.
[representative democracy]

dirt file
Potentially damaging information about political opponents collected and
filed away for the purpose of discrediting them
The term has been used widely in the past decade as such tactics have been
increasingly employed to gain competitive advantage. Those who use dirt
files run the risk of damaging their own reputations, as stooping to such
conduct is likely to be judged as unsavoury by fair-minded voters.

dirt unit
Staff allegedly employed by some politicians with the main aim of seeking
out information to discredit political opponents
The term came into prominence during the 2004 federal election when
the Howard government was accused of running a dirt unit to discredit
opposition leader Mark Latham, an accusation that was vigorously
denied.
[dirt file]

dirty tricks campaign

Unfair or untrue allegations or innuendoes used to discredit political
opponents
The term can be an accurate comment, but can also be used in an attempt
to deflect warranted criticism by blandly asserting that the criticism is no
more than a dirty tricks campaign.
[dirt file, political football]

disallowance
Refusal of the governor-general or a state governor to give assent to a bill;
or annulment of legislation by the monarch
The governor-general has the power, under Section 58 of the Constitution,
to refuse to assent to a bill or to suggest amendments. However, it is tra-
ditional that the governor-general accepts the advice of ministers. Under
Section 59 of the Constitution the monarch may disallow any legislation
within one year from the governor-general’s assent.
[reserve powers, royal assent]

disarmament
Reduction in the military strength of a nation
The term covers small or large reductions or rejection of possible use of
certain types of armaments, for example, nuclear weapons. Disarmament
56 discretionary powers

can be agreed upon by two nations that are potential enemies or may be
adopted by a nation on its own for a number of reasons, such as the belief
that risk of warfare has diminished.
[defence, diplomacy]

discretionary powers
See reserve powers

discrimination (within a community)

Unfair treatment of people for various reasons, including race, religion,
gender, age and disability
Unfairness can occur in many contexts: in employment and promotion
opportunities, in pay rates, in education and in voting rights. Discrimi­
nation was increasingly condemned in Australia in the second half of the
twentieth century and anti-discrimination laws were passed in federal
and state parliaments. Various official bodies such as the Human Rights
Commission were established to promote human rights and to investigate
complaints of discrimination.
[civil liberties, Universal Declaration of Human Rights]

dissolution
The formal ending of a term of a house of parliament, to be followed by
an election
The governor-general has the responsibility of dissolving Federal par-
liament and governors dissolve state parliaments. Traditionally the
governor-general, or the governor, dissolves parliament on the advice of
the government leader (the prime minister or premier), which means
that the government can choose the timing of the election that follows.
This tradition has not always been followed, a dramatic example being the
do­uble dissolution of the Federal parliament in 1975.
[double dissolution, term (of parliament)]

distributism
A political philosophy advocating widely distributed ownership. The
founding and operation of cooperatives is a practical example
Dormant for many years, distributism has had some continuing influence.
Its principles were actively promoted in the early years of the twentieth
century, mostly by Catholic laymen in England, notably Hilaire Belloc
and G. K. Chesterton. They condemned the harsh effects of capitalism but
feared socialism, which they regarded as the enemy of religion.

division (electoral)
An official term for a House of Representatives electorate
The word is seldom used in this sense in ordinary conversation, but is
printed in official documents and on electoral maps.
 division (voting) 57

division (voting)
A vote in parliament when the votes for and against a motion are precisely
counted and recorded
When a division is required, bells or buzzers are sounded throughout Par-
liament House to warn MPs that a vote is about to be taken. Inside the
chamber, the members divide into two separate groups to indicate their
votes. The names of those voting for and against the motion are recorded
and published in Hansard.
[Hansard, on the voices, Ring the bells!]

division of powers
The allocation of powers to the Commonwealth and state governments
In Australia, the Constitution (in Section 52) identifies matters over
which the Commonwealth has exclusive powers. It also lists (mainly in
S­ection  51) matters over which both the Commonwealth and the states
have power to legislate. If there is a conflict, the Commonwealth law will
take precedence. The states continue to have sole powers over any mat-
ters not mentioned in the Constitution and these are known as residual
powers. The division of powers has been a subject of continuing contro-
versy. In most cases conservative parties have favoured greater powers for
the states while the Australian Labor Party has advocated greater federal
powers.
[exclusive powers, residual powers, states’ rights]

DLP
See Democratic Labor Party

Doctors Reform Society (DRS)

An association advocating quality healthcare for all without regard to their
social or economic position
Formed in 1973, its members are medical practitioners and medical stu-
dents. In 1974 it supported the original national health scheme Medibank
(later renamed Medicare), which was opposed by the AMA. The DRS
emphasises the importance of prevention and primary care to improve
health outcomes. The society publishes The New Doctor.
[Australian Medical Association, Medicare, Private Doctors of
Australia]

doctors’ wives
A neologism for upper middle-class women who hold small-l liberal views
or criticise Liberal policies
The term is used to disparage those who belong to a social group that
might be expected to be politically conservative but express views that are
contrary to some Liberal policies.
[blue-rinse set, chardonnay socialists]
58 dog-eat-dog individualism

dog-eat-dog individualism
Excessive self-interest of some politicians and over-antagonistic tactics
Such excesses can bring politics into disrepute. An example is the criticism
of one another by rivals within the same party competing for a particular
office. At a party-political level, a ‘dog-eat-dog’ attitude can inhibit useful
cooperation between rival parties.

dog-whistle politics
Political statements that appear innocuous to most people but have special
meanings for the targeted groups
Analogous to dog whistles, which are pitched so that humans cannot hear
them but dogs can, the term applies to phrases cunningly chosen to appeal
to particular groups without antagonising mainstream listeners. Examples
include ‘un-Australian behaviour’, ‘not one of us’, ‘nanny state’ and ‘the
black armband view of history’.
[motherhood statement, spin]

domino theory
The fear expressed in the 1950s and 1960s that communism could conquer
Asian countries one after the other
The term originated in the USA and was used in Australia, particularly in
the 1960s, to support participation in the Vietnam War. Pro-war posters
suggested that a communist victory in Vietnam would result in the fall of
neighbouring countries to communism, one by one, like dominoes, and
eventually threaten Australia. History has disproved the theory.
[anti-communism]

donations, political
Money given by individuals, businesses or organisations to support the
activities of political parties
Political donations are controversial because of concerns that donors
receive unfair advantage from the political parties they support. Alle­
gations of improper assistance to property developers in New South
Wales and the Howard government’s relaxation of the laws requiring dis­
closure of political donations have led to increased criticism. Proposals
for improvement include reducing the minimum figure at which dona-
tions must be made public and the banning of overseas donations.
[slush fund]
 donkey vote 59

donkey vote
Extra votes received by a candidate simply through being the first on the
ballot paper
A small percentage of voters fill in their ballot papers from top to bottom
without regard to the merit or political stance of the candidates. This gives
a slight advantage to the candidate whose name is at the top.
[cynicism (political), Robson rotation, scepticism (political)]

doorknocking
Electioneering by door-to-door canvassing
This is a jargon term for an old-fashioned but still practised form of
political campaigning. MPs sometimes participate and this helps them
keep in touch with the ‘grass roots’. Doorknocking is not only regarded as
a means of winning votes but also helps in assessing public attitudes and
identifying party supporters who may be encouraged to become party
members.
[campaign, grass roots]

doorstop conference
A doorstop interview when more than one member of parliament or min-
ister is present to speak to reporters
These are also known as ‘joint doorstop interviews’ as they deal with topics
that concern more than one ministry.

doorstop interview
Media briefings at entrances to Parliament House or other buildings by
ministers, shadow ministers and sometimes by backbenchers
The ministers and others gather nearby and ‘arrive’ in turn to speak to the
reporters. The interviews are designed to appear ‘off the cuff ’, but are usu-
ally carefully arranged and may be timed to suit the news broadcasts on
radio and television.

Dorothy Dixer
A prearranged question put to a minister during Question Time
These questions give ministers the opportunity to announce good news
or make statements. The name comes from that of a United States news­
paper columnist who published answers to questions that were presented
as coming from readers, but were actually written by the journalist
herself.
[Question Time]
60 double dissolution

Reproduced courtesy of Peter Nicholson of the Australian www.nicholsoncartoons.com.au

double dissolution
The simultaneous dissolution of both houses of Federal parliament
A double dissolution is followed by elections for all seats of the Senate and
the House of Representatives. In other elections only half of the Senate
seats become vacant. A double dissolution can occur if the Senate twice
fails to pass proposed government legislation and other conditions speci-
fied in Section 57 of the Constitution are met. The governor-general has
the formal power to dissolve parliament, but traditionally does so only on
the advice of the prime minister. A dramatic exception was the double dis-
solution of 1975.
[dissolution, Senate elections]

doves
People and groups who favour negotiation and conciliation for the settle-
ment of disputes, especially in foreign affairs
‘Doves’ take a very different stance from ‘hawks’, who favour the threat or
use of force to resolve disputes. These terms became popular at the time
of the Vietnam War, but they have since been applied to views on a wide
range of political and social questions.
 Dries (faction) 61

Dries (faction)
Right-wing factional members of the Liberal Party in Australia and
adopted from its use in the Conservative Party in the United Kingdom
British Prime Minister Thatcher contemptuously called her factional
opponents ‘Wets’ and consequently her faction became ‘Dries’. In Aus-
tralia, the Dries of the Liberal Party have favoured the free market and
cutbacks in social services.
[faction, factions—conservative parties]

Droop quota
The number of votes needed for a candidate’s election under certain forms
of proportional representation
The Hare-Clark system which incorporates the Droop quota is an exam-
ple. It has been adopted for Senate elections and elections in Tasmania and
the Australian Capital Territory. To calculate the quota, divide the total
number of votes by one more than the number of seats, then add one vote.
For example, with three seats to be filled and a total of 160 votes, the quota
would be 41.
[Hare-Clark system, proportional representation, quota]

dual citizenship
Retention of citizenship of an immigrant’s former country after becoming
a naturalised Australian citizen
A possible political consequence is that dual citizenship may legally debar
a person from becoming a member of the Federal parliament.
[citizenship]

duchess, to
A disparaging figure of speech applied to tactics allegedly used to encour-
age defections from the Labor Party
The expression is used by Labor Party supporters to suggest that highly
placed or wealthy conservatives attempt to play on the vanity or ambition
of some Labor politicians to encourage them to change their political alle-
giance. For example, critics of Prime Minister Billy Hughes asserted that
he and his family were lavishly praised and feted during two long stays in
England in 1916 and 1918 and cite him as an early victim of ‘duchessing’.
He left the Labor Party and continued for many years as a prominent con-
servative member of parliament.
[Nationalist Party, rat]

due process
Standard procedures that should be followed by government bodies when
reaching decisions
62 Dying with Dignity

The term is important in government dealings with private companies or

persons, as decisions need to be free from favouritism and impropriety. A
drawback is that it may cause delays and hinder effective action.
[red tape, rule of law]

Dying with Dignity

Australian organisations that favour the legal right to choose euthanasia
are usually identified by names that include the phrase ‘Dying with Dignity’
Separate groups identify their location in their name, such as Dying with
Dignity, New South Wales. Members believe that terminally ill people suf-
fering extreme pain and distress should have the legal right to choose the
manner and timing of their own death. These organisations also counsel
people with end-of-life issues. Politically, Dying with Dignity organis­
ations promote legal reform to give greater freedom of choice but they
have faced strong, organised resistance.
[conscience vote, Endeavour Forum, euthanasia, Lyons Forum]
E
economics
The theory and practice of analysing and dealing with the production,
distribution and consumption of goods and services, with emphasis on
financial management and planning
Economics embraces large-scale activities (macroeconomics) and small-
scale ones (microeconomics). It is sometimes described as a science,
although some distinguished economists disagree with this definition and
assert that political philosophy plays a large part in practice. Economic
theories differ widely and change with time and circumstances. This is
demonstrated by the fluctuating popularities of Keynesianism and the
‘market system’ during the twentieth century.
[Keynesianism, macroeconomics, market system, microeconomics,
quality of life]

economic system
The operation of a combination of laws and accepted economic beliefs and
their effect on commerce and industry, working conditions and pay, and
the distribution of wealth and services
The economic system in any one country is usually the outcome of long-
established customs and power structures, modified by changing local and
international factors, and economic theories. The degree to which the gov-
ernment should be involved in regulating the economy is a major matter
of contention between competing economic and political theories.
[commerce, depression (economic), economics, recession, Reserve
Bank of Australia, trickle-down effect]

economic welfare
Aspects of social welfare that are directly related to money
Economic welfare is an important factor in maintaining the quality of life
of certain citizens. It is concerned with all aspects of income and expendi-
ture, including security of employment, rates of pay, taxation, prices,
64 economy (of a nation)

security in times of illness, superannuation and pensions. Economic wel-

fare is also concerned with the availability and the cost of services such as
health and education.
[political economy, quality of life, security (social), welfare
state]

economy (of a nation)

The production and consumption of goods and services within a country
together with overseas trade
The economy and its various components are usually measured and
judged in terms directly or indirectly related to finance. The economy is
usually regarded as the major factor in measuring the standard of a nation,
although it is only one of several factors that contribute to the welfare or
the difficulties of a community.
[economics]

economy of scale
Reduction in the cost of production and services as a result of large-scale
activities in industry, including primary industry
The mass production of motor vehicles and large-scale wheat growing and
harvesting are typical examples. There can be negative consequences, such
as sudden, large-scale unemployment, the loss of a range of trade skills and
the boredom of repetitive unskilled work.
[microeconomic reform]

egalitarianism
The doctrine of equality of all people
Egalitarianism implies equal political, social and economic rights, but there
are wide differences of opinion about its practical objectives and possible
consequences. A substantial degree of egalitarianism, including the right
to work and to education, is included in the United Nations’ Universal
Declaration of Human Rights.
[classes, democracy, meritocracy, Universal Declaration of
Human Rights]

election
Choosing one or more of a number of candidates by voting
In the case of the Federal parliament, there are elections for a single mem-
ber in each seat in the House of Representatives. Elections for the Senate
are multi-member elections, and various concepts such as proportional
representation have been tried with the aim of fairly giving effect to voters’
wishes.
[electoral systems, multi-member electorate, preferential vot-
ing, proportional representation, voting systems]
 election day 65

election day
The day on which voting takes place in an election for public office
The governor-general (or governor) has the formal responsibility of deter-
mining the date of most parliamentary elections although, in practice, the
government or its leader usually makes the decision.
[election, public office]

election policy
Party policy prepared and announced for a particular election
The party leader usually presents the election policy, at least in general
terms, in a speech early in the campaign. It might be different from a
party’s long-term policy, at least in emphasis and priorities. The election
policy will tend to focus on matters of topical interest and, perhaps, be
modified according to what is perceived to be the mood of the electors.
[platform, policy, pragmatism]

elector
A person entitled to vote at a particular election
Australians possess universal franchise. In other words, all citizens above
a specified age have the right to vote, provided their names are listed on
the electoral roll. Laws affecting the eligibility of immigrants to vote are
complicated and vary according to the type of election.
[right to vote, adult franchise]

electoral office
The government premises where staff of the Electoral Commission com-
pile electoral rolls and organise elections
There is usually one electoral office in each federal electorate and these
offices are open throughout the year to deal with new enrolments or
enrolment changes. An electoral office is quite different from an electorate
office, although many people confuse the two as the names are so similar.
[Australian Electoral Commission, electorate office]

electoral roll
An official list of persons entitled to vote
These lists show the name and address of each elector. They are used at
elections to check the claim of each person seeking a vote. As part of the
compulsory voting system, every eligible person is required to enrol and to
notify the electoral authorities of any change of address.
[compulsory voting, enrolment]

electoral systems
In politics, these systems provide the means for the democratic choice of mem-
bers of parliament; elections within a political party can also be important
66 electorate

An election system includes the defining of boundaries of electorates; the

enrolment of voters; arrangements for voting; the storage and counting of
the votes; and, finally, the declaration of each winning candidate. In Aus-
tralia the preferential voting method is used.
[count, informal vote, postal vote, preferential voting, pre-poll
voting, voting systems]

electorate
A voting district represented by one or more members of parliament
These are called single-member electorates if represented by one MP, and
multi-member electorates if represented by more than one. The Sen-
ate provides the best known example of multi-member electorates, each
state being an electorate represented by twelve senators. The ACT and the
Northern Territory are each represented by two.
Except in Tasmania, state lower house electorates are single-member
electorates, as are those in the Northern Territory. MPs in the Tasmanian
House of Assembly are elected by proportional representation from multi-
member electorates, as are those in the Australian Capital Territory.
Boundaries of electorates are altered from time to time, as a result of
shifts in population or changes in electoral laws.
[Australian Electoral Commission, gerrymander, malapportion-
ment, multi-member electorate]

electorate office
The office used by members of parliament in their respective seats
In addition to being a useful facility for the member of parliament, an
electorate office is also intended for the benefit of local residents. It can be
considered as a convenient extension of parliament where people can per-
sonally raise problems and express opinions. An electorate office is quite
different from an electoral office, although there is understandable con­
fusion between the two.
[electoral office, electorate]

elites
A vague term but usually applied to groups possessing one or more of
sp­ecial attributes such as power, professional position or wealth
Elites have characteristics similar to those of superior castes or classes.
They are sometimes criticised for trying to maintain their position by
making entry into their group difficult.
[classes, Establishment, old boy network]

embargo
A ban on trade, or a temporary restraint on publication of an official
statement
 embassy 67

An embargo on trade may be used to put pressure on a country to change

its policy or conduct, or it may be a ban on export of particular items, for
example, Australian native birds. An embargo on a government statement
is sometimes modified so the document, such as the Budget statement,
can be studied in advance. This arrangement gives journalists more time
to prepare a report, while the author of the statement retains the right to
make the first public announcement.
[lock-up, sanctions]

embassy
The most senior diplomatic mission to a foreign country, and also its
of­ficial premises
The diplomat in charge of an embassy is called an ambassador and a high
commission has the same diplomatic rank. The term ‘high commissioner’
applies when both nations involved are members of the Commonwealth
(formerly the Commonwealth of Nations).
[ambassador, Commonwealth, high commission]

Emily’s List Australia

An Australia-wide political network supporting Labor women candidates
for parliament
Founded in 1996 to help achieve a fairer proportion of women in parlia-
ment and in government ministries, this network’s policy includes issues
relating to child care, equal pay and pro-choice. It takes its name from a
similar organisation in the USA.
[Women’s Electoral Lobby]

emissions trading
See carbon trading

Endeavour Forum
A women’s organisation critical of feminism and opposed to abortion and
euthanasia
Founded in the 1970s as Women Who Want to be Women, it was renamed
Endeavour Forum in 1986. Its policies are consistent with conservative
Catholic ethical attitudes and it is active as a political pressure group.
[Lyons Forum, pressure group]

endorsement (of a candidate)

The decision by a political party that a particular person will be its candi-
date in an election
This is the final step of the preselection process of choosing a candidate.
In some cases it is more than a formality as there may be a dispute over
the preselection process or the suitability of a proposed candidate. In such
cases official endorsement by the ruling body of the party will resolve any
68 enrolment

uncertainty. Endorsement also indicates the official party candidate in an

election when more than one claims to represent that party.
[preselection]

enrolment
The process of officially listing on an electoral roll those eligible to vote
In Australia, not only is voting compulsory, but also those eligible to vote
must take the action necessary to be enrolled and also to notify the elec-
toral authorities of any change of address. These things can be done by
filling in a simple form available at post offices and electoral offices.
[electoral office, electoral roll]

enterprise bargaining
A system of fixing pay and conditions of employment
Enterprise bargaining was initiated by the Keating Labor government. It
consists of direct negotiation between employers and employees, either
individually or represented by trade unions. Enterprise Bargaining Agree-
ments (EBAs) are registered with the Industrial Relations Commission.
[industrial relations, Industrial Relations Commission]

environmental impact statement (EIS)

A document reporting on the environmental consequences of a project
Commonwealth and state legislation require these statements for some
projects as evidence to help in the approval process.

environmentalism
A movement promoting greater concern for the quality of the environment
Environmentalism has become involved in politics in many countries and
colloquially called ‘green’ parties have won parliamentary seats in Australia
and in Europe. Environmentalists promote public interest in the subject
and act as pressure groups.
[conservation, greenies, Greens]

equal opportunity
The absence of discrimination against particular individuals or categories
of people in seeking employment and promotion
With equal opportunity, factors that are not directly relevant to an appli-
cant’s suitability for a position would be disregarded. These include gender,
age, race, religion and ethnic origin. The ideal of equal opportunity in
education implies that admission to educational institutions at all levels
should be available according to the inherent ability of potential students.
[affirmative action, women’s lib(eration)]
 equal pay 69

equal pay
Payment based on the duties performed by the worker
The principle is usually associated with equal pay for men and women,
as women have been traditionally paid less than men for performing the
same work. It has only been since the 1970s that the principle of equal pay
has been widely accepted in Australia.

essential services
The services people depend upon for normal living in moderate comfort
and security
There are different interpretations but high on the list would be health
services, education, national defence, police, communications and water
supply. Many others would also be included in a country of Australian
living standards. The term is sometimes used in connection with indus-
trial disputes and it is widely considered that high-level essential services
should be exempt from interruption.
[industrial dispute]

Establishment, the
A loosely connected group of people and organisations within a com­
munity possessing influence or wealth or both
The term may also be applied to entrenched authoritative groups within
government, commercial, military and religious organisations. In what-
ever area of activity, the Establishment is usually resistant to change and
often politically conservative.
[classes, old boy network]

estimates
Statements to parliament of proposed government expenditure
Estimates are given to parliament in broad terms when the yearly budget
is presented. Later, they are reviewed and debated in more detail. Because
of unforeseen circumstances, amended estimates are presented in between
the yearly ones.
[budget, budget debate]

ethics
A code of moral behaviour of an individual or the prescribed code of a
group, such as a professional body
Ethics can have political consequences. Party colleagues and electors
expect an MP to support party policy and decisions. But an MP’s personal
or religious code of ethics may conflict with a party decision. These dif-
ficulties are sometimes reduced by the declaration by a political party of a
‘conscience vote’ and MPs are freed to vote as they personally prefer.
[conscience vote]
70 ethnic affairs

ethnic affairs
Attitudes, policies and laws concerned with the rights and wellbeing of
ethnic groups in Australia
Federal and state governments have formed ministries with special
responsibilities for ethnic affairs. Programs have been established to
assist immigrants and to contend with prejudice and to encourage
multiculturalism.
[immigration, multiculturalism, racism]

Eureka flag
A blue flag with a stylised Southern Cross, famous as the flag flown by
rebel goldminers at the Eureka Stockade uprising in 1854
The miners were protesting against the high cost of mining licences. Their
armed challenge to authority at Ballarat in Victoria was defeated by mil-
itary force, with 22 miners and six soldiers killed. The flag has become
famous and has been flown on various occasions by protesters against
authority. Unionists have frequently flown the Eureka flag from crane
cables on building sites.
[Australian Settlement, fair go]

European Union (EU)

An association of most European nations that aims at adopting common
policies and a degree of common citizenship, while respecting the indi-
vidual identities of its member states
Established in 1957 as the European Economic Community (EEC), often
called the ‘Common Market’, with a membership of six, it gradually
increased to 27 members. Following the signing of the Maastricht Treaty in
1992 it became the European Union (EU), and a European parliament was
created with a supporting administrative body. The EU’s range of concerns
has gradually extended beyond economic matters. It provides a degree of
common citizenship and aims at a common defence policy, as well as the
abolition of internal frontiers.

euthanasia
The deliberate but painless killing of a person who clearly desires to die
because of intractable pain from an incurable disease
Euthanasia is also termed mercy killing, but its opponents describe it as
‘murder’ under any circumstances. It is a divisive issue in the community
and in politics, and causes differences of opinion within various politi-
cal parties. Proposed legislation on euthanasia may sometimes be put to a
‘conscience vote’.
[conscience vote, Dying with Dignity, Endeavour Forum]
 Evatt Foundation 71

Evatt Foundation
A Labor-inclined think tank named in honour of a former federal ALP
leader, Dr H.V. Evatt
Established in 1979 and based in Sydney, the foundation’s stated aims
include the promotion of social justice and human rights. It engages in
research, conducts forums and seminars, and publishes the Evatt Papers.
It has influence through its publications, public statements and regular
emails, but receives less media attention than rival think tanks.
[political theory, think tank]

excise
A tax on selected goods produced within a country for the home market
Traditionally, excise has been levied on goods considered to be used for
self-indulgent purposes. Tobacco products and alcoholic drinks are typi-
cal examples. It provides substantial revenue. Imported goods of the same
type are also taxed but tax on imports is called ‘customs duty’. The Com-
monwealth government has the sole power to levy customs duty and excise
under Section 86 of the Australian Constitution.
[customs duty, taxation]

exclusive powers
Powers that can be exercised only by the Commonwealth parliament
The Australian Constitution lists matters on which the Commonwealth
has exclusive power to legislate, such as the power to impose customs and
excise duty.
[division of powers]

executive (arm of government)

The group of people who administer the law, and who constitute one of
the three arms of government; the other arms are the legislature and the
judiciary
The term executive can have different meanings, depending on the context.
A realistic interpretation of the federal executive is that it consists of the
prime minister and the ministry, operating in an administrative role rather
than a legislative one. Although the Constitution states that the executive
power is ‘vested in the Queen and is exercisable by the Governor-General’,
in practice the governor-general seldom, if ever, makes executive govern-
ment decisions.
[arms of government, separation of powers]

Executive Council
A body established by the Constitution to advise the governor-general; in
practice, its duties are merely formal ones
72 exhaustive ballot

The Executive Council is made up of the governor-general and the minis-

ters. A quorum for a meeting requires the presence of the governor-general
and two ministers. The Constitution states that the governor-general
chooses members of the Executive Council, but in reality the ruling polit-
ical party chooses them. New laws and regulations must be given royal
assent by being signed by the governor-general-in-council but, in reality,
the decisions have already been made by the parliament.
[governor-general-in-council, royal assent]

exhaustive ballot
A voting method that consists of a series of elimination ballots
The system can be used whether a single position or more are vacant. In a
series of ballots, candidates receiving the least number of votes are elimi-
nated one by one until the number of candidates is reduced to the number
of vacancies. The exhaustive ballot is based on the same principle as pref-
erential voting, although the procedure is different. It avoids the possibility
of the election of a candidate who is preferred by only a minority of the
electors, as can happen in a first-past-the-post election. This form of elec-
tion would be too cumbersome when there are a large number of voters
but is useful when the number of voters is small.
[first-past-the-post system, preferential voting]

exit poll
Questioning of voters on the way they have voted as they leave the polling
place and recording the results
Exit polling is an unofficial procedure aimed at forecasting the election
result before figures from the official count become available. Results of
some exit polls may be made public before voting has been completed and
this is sometimes criticised because the exit polls may induce later voters
to change their voting intentions.
[public opinion polls]
F
Fabian Society
A long-established left-of-centre think tank devoted to discussion and
publication of ideas on political topics
The Australian Fabian Society was established in 1947 and was modelled
on the original Fabian Society, which was founded in England in 1884.
George Bernard Shaw was an early member. The society is active in vari-
ous states in Australia and focuses on research and discussion rather than
political campaigning. It arranges meetings and forums and publishes
booklets on political and social questions.
[political theory, think tank]

faction
An organised group within a larger organisation, especially within a politi-
cal party
Such groups have existed in major parties for many years but since the
1950s they have become more organised and better known to the general
public. Factions can influence party policy and support their own mem-
bers to become parliamentary candidates, ministers and party leaders.
They have the harmful effects of causing dissension, branch stacking and
reducing the influence and enthusiasm of genuine rank-and-file members.
[branch stacking, rank and file]

factions—Australian Labor Party

Factions have existed in the ALP for many years, although there has been a
degree of secrecy about them
Because of name changes and sub-factions the major ALP groups in the
various states have been called simply the Right and the Left. Smaller
factions have included the Independents and Centre Left but their influ-
ence has gradually weakened. Labor factions were once characterised by
their ideological values, but policy has become less important and fac-
tional power within the party and personal ambitions have become more
74 factions—conservative parties

significant. Historically, factions have caused major problems for the ALP,
such as the long period of electoral failure after the Split of 1955 in which
the secretive faction, the Movement, was heavily involved.
[Labor ‘Split’]

factions—conservative parties
Factions have been powerful within the Coalition or conservative parties
since Federation, although given less publicity than those in the ALP
With a range of ideologies, these groups have adopted policies ranging from
traditional British-style liberalism through to the conservatism of the New
Right. Personalities and leadership struggles have also been significant. Names
applied to factions include Dries, Wets, New Right and small-l Liberals. The
latter, who accepted economic Keynesianism, dominated for many years after
World War II but lost control by the 1990s. Sub-groups and leadership strug-
gles became more significant after the Coalition lost government in 2007.
[Dries, Institute of Public Affairs, National Union (faction),
small-l Liberals]

fair go
A popular, informal Australian term for justice, with emphasis on concern
for people or groups who are mistreated or receive less than they deserve
The meaning of the term is so widely understood that it is frequently
used in politics to draw attention to a perceived injustice and the need for
change. In opinion polls Australians place a ‘fair go’ at the top of their list
of values. A shout of ‘Fair go!’ is sometimes a reaction to a dangerous or
offensive act of a companion.
[social justice]

fair trade (social movement)

A movement that adopts a market-based approach to give a better deal to
producers in developing countries
The movement advocates the payment of fair prices by developed coun-
tries for a variety of goods produced by developing countries, together
with the promotion of sustainability and better pay for the workers. In
Australia, the organisations advocating this concept and its acceptance in
practice include Oxfam Australia and the Fair Trade Association of Aus-
tralia and New Zealand (FTAANZ).
[sweated labour]

family assistance payments

Social security payments to eligible families with children
Direct financial assistance to families with children began with the intro-
duction of child endowment in the 1940s and it continued until superseded
by the Family Allowance in 1976. This was replaced by the Family Tax Ben-
efit (FTB) in 2000. The diversity of assistance has gradually increased and,
 Family Court of Australia 75

together with several others, includes the baby bonus, child care payments,
child care tax rebates and family tax benefits.
[social services, welfare state]

Family Court of Australia

A federal court that deals exclusively with marriage breakdowns and asso-
ciated problems
The Family Court was established as a result of the Family Law Act of 1975,
which made major changes to divorce laws. The court’s powers include
decisions on divorce, the custody of children and financial and property
settlement. The Family Court also provides counselling for problems aris-
ing from separation and divorce.
[Family Law Act]

Family First Party

A minor political party, socially conservative and claiming to be mainly
concerned about families
Founded in South Australia before the 2002 state elections, the party’s
first elected representative, Dr Andrew Evans, was a former Assemblies
of God pastor, although the party has since played down its links to the
Christian Right. Family First contested its first federal election in 2004
when Steve Fielding was elected to the Senate despite receiving only a very
small percentage of first preference votes. The party’s policies are socially
conservative and it opposes abortion, gay adoption and euthanasia, and
favours increased censorship.
[euthanasia, family values]

Family Law Act

Legislation dealing with marriage breakdowns and divorce
The Family Law Act was passed in 1975 and made a major change to
divorce law. Marriage breakdown became the sole ground for divorce, in
contrast to the previous law that focused mainly on so-called guilt by a
marriage partner. The act created a special federal court called the Family
Court to deal with divorce and to provide counselling.
[Family Court of Australia]

family values
A term used to support the attitude that the traditional nuclear family is
the core unit of a society
The political use of the vague term ‘family values’ is an example of dog-
whistle politics. It exploits concerns over the social changes of the past fifty
years, which have seen shifts in the interpretation of the word ‘family’, and
increased acceptance of varied sexual preferences.
[dog-whistle politics]
76 fascism

fascism
An extreme right-wing political ideology that favours authoritarian gov-
ernment led by a dictator; it rejects democratic principles and includes
suppression of opposition by force
Characteristics of fascism also include intense nationalism, antisemitism
and racism. The term is derived from the Italian Fascist Party of the 1920s
and 1930s led by the dictator Mussolini, but has been applied to similar
political movements including those in Germany under Hitler and Spain
under Franco. Fascism has received little support in Australia although
small, extremist right-wing groups, such as the New Guard and the League
of Rights, adopted some of its ideology.
[League of Rights, New Guard]

feather duster
A term derived from the saying ‘Rooster today, feather duster tomorrow’,
which implies a rapid fall from importance to insignificance
It came into prominence in mid-2003 when Labor’s federal leader, Mark
Latham, dubbed some of his colleagues ‘the roosters’ for their support of
Kim Beazley’s failed challenge for the Labor leadership in 2003.

federal
A term indicating a Commonwealth governmental area of responsibility
rather than one that is administered by the states
The uniting of the colonies (now states) was termed Federation and the
Commonwealth government is frequently referred to as the Federal gov-
ernment. The word is also used in some official names, such as the Federal
Court of Australia. In some circumstances any one of Federal, Common-
wealth or Australian may be used.
[Commonwealth, Federation]

Federal Court of Australia

A court established by the Commonwealth parliament in 1976, mainly to
take over some of the work of the High Court
The Federal Court operates in every state and territory. It has two div­
isions: the General Division deals with a variety of commercial cases and
the Industrial Division deals with legal interpretations affecting industrial
relations. The Federal Court also hears appeals against judgements in cer-
tain cases from other courts.
[High Court]

federal intervention (ALP)

See intervention (ALP)
 federalism 77

federalism
A central government sharing power with separate governments in regions
of the country
In Australia the central government is referred to as the Commonwealth
or Federal government and the others as state and territory governments.
The territories are the Australia Capital Territory and the Northern Ter-
ritory. In a federal system the division of powers between the central and
the other governments is of great importance and in Australia the powers
of the Commonwealth are listed in the Constitution. The wording of the
Constitution has not been sufficient to prevent argument, and the division
of powers between the states and the Commonwealth has been the subject
of argument and of litigation in the High Court.
[division of powers]

Federation
The establishment of the Commonwealth of Australia, with the agreement
of the then colonies, which became the six states
Federation resulted from many years of effort by its advocates including,
among several others, Henry Parkes and Edmund Barton and, finally, from
favourable referendums in the various colonies. The Commonwealth of
Australia was established by an act of the British parliament of 9 July 1900,
an act that included the Australian Constitution. It came into operation
on 1 January 1901.
[Constitution of Australia, federalism, state(s), states’ rights]

fellow traveller
A term suggesting support of a movement or political party, although not
as an official member
Now of historic interest, the expression was mainly used about people
alleged to be collaborating with or sympathetic towards communists,
especially during the 1950s and 1960s.
[anti-communism]

feminism
Belief in the capability of women and their equal right with men to oppor-
tunities, justice and respect
Feminism is an affirmation of women’s rights and a reaction to male chau-
vinism. It is a movement that stimulated the formation of feminist groups
such as the Women’s Electoral Lobby. Early in the twentieth century, with
similar ideals, the suffragettes successfully campaigned to obtain votes for
women.
[affirmative action, Women’s Lib(eration)]
78 Fightback

Fightback
The name of a periodical publication that advocates production of goods
in Australia by Australian-owned companies
Fightback began in 1999 and publishes eight issues a year. It has support
from some Australian food companies and independent retailers and is
opposed to the importation and sale of food products from overseas when
similar ones are available from Australia growers and manufacturers. It is
also critical of supermarket companies and their connection with petrol
discount pricing.
[oligopoly, restrictive trade practices]

filibuster
A long speech in parliament made with the deliberate intention of wasting
time and delaying legislation
If the government has a majority in a house of parliament a filibuster can
be countered by applying the ‘gag’ (closure), which results in an immedi-
ate vote, or by setting a time limit on the debate. The latter is called the
‘guillotine’.
[closure, guillotine]

first-past-the-post system
A simple voting system in which the candidate who receives the highest
number of votes is elected
Under this system a candidate may win despite receiving fewer than half the
total votes. The number of votes received by the winning candidate under
the first-past-the-post system is sometimes called a ‘plurality’. It contrasts
with the preferential system used in Australian parliamentary elections.
[electoral systems]

first reading
The first formal parliamentary procedure in dealing with a bill
The bill is introduced into the house by the minister and its full title is read
by the clerk (of parliament). Copies are made available to members before
it is debated at the second reading stage.
[bill, clerk (of parliament), second reading]

first speech
The first speech made in parliament by a newly elected member; also called
an inaugural speech, previously referred to as a maiden speech
In these speeches most MPs concentrate on their own special interests
and on places and people within their electorates. Other MPs refrain from
interjecting and, in the same spirit, the new member does not make pro-
vocative statements.
[interjection]
 fiscal 79

fiscal
An economic term, indicating government financial matters
Fiscal policies and activities deal with taxation and other forms of govern-
ment income, and with government expenditure.
[budget]

fixed term
A defined maximum length of time for a parliament
In the Australian parliament maximum lengths are fixed for the House of
Representatives (three years) and also for the lower houses in the states,
but no minimum terms are set.
[term (of parliament)]

focus groups
Moderated discussions between groups of voters conducted by political
researchers to gauge voter opinions
The focus group technique is a form of qualitative research and is used to
complement quantitative opinion polling. Developed in the USA to test
the impact of propaganda during World War II, focus groups are used by
marketers to test new products and advertising. Increased media scrutiny
has encouraged political parties to test the images of their candidates and
policies in the same way prior to elections. Supporters of the technique
argue that interactive research provides deeper insight into responses than
other forms of research. Critics counter that voters tend to ‘perform’ in
such groups and that the necessarily small number of participants cannot
represent the range of views of the entire population.
[public opinion polls]

foreign aid
Assistance, mostly financial, by more wealthy countries to poorer ones
The soundness of the principle of foreign aid has been widely accepted
since World War II and has been supported by the United Nations, which
has set a target of 0.7 per cent of GNP from developed nations. Although
less than the UN’s target, Australia’s contribution is substantial and most
of it is received by Papua New Guinea. Almost all of the member states of
the UN, including Australia, have pledged to work towards the Millen-
nium Development Goals.
[Millennium Development Goals, United Nations]

foreign investment
Investment in Australia from overseas countries
Foreign investment is usually welcomed in Australia as it is considered
helpful in increasing economic growth and employment. It can have
80 foreign policy

bad effects, however, especially on employment, if the takeover company

transfers its activities overseas.

foreign policy
The underlying principles that influence decisions of a government in its
relationship with other nations
Foreign policy includes defence, trade, economics, science, immigration,
culture and travel. Historically, national security and military matters have
been considered the most important in foreign policy, but more recently
there has been a growing emphasis on economic matters and trade.
[diplomacy (international)]

forgotten people
A term applied by politicians to various groups of people in the hope of
attracting their attention or support
An historic example was a public speech by Robert Menzies in 1942 when
he referred to the middle class as the ‘forgotten people’ and defined them
as ‘salary earners, shopkeepers, skilled artisans, professional men and
women, farmers, and so on’. The underlying tactic is similar to the more
recent use of terms such as ‘Howard’s battlers’ and ‘aspirationals’.
[aspirationals, battlers, dog-whistle politics]

forum
An opportunity for discussion and possible agreement on matters of com-
mon interest
These can vary widely from parliaments and corporation conferences to
local tennis clubs or kindergarten meetings. A forum need not be a face-
to-face meeting at all but simply an opportunity for discussion, such as
the letters columns of newspapers or talk-back radio or the use of the
Internet.

forward defence
The strategy of preventing invasion by some form of defence located at a
distance from the home country
Some powerful nations station troops and equipment in friendly countries
nearer to a potential enemy. Powerful military bases can also be established
on strategically placed islands or areas of land that have been acquired or
leased. Alliances and diplomatic agreements can also be forms of forward
defence.
[defence, diplomacy (international), foreign policy]

fourth estate
A semi-jocular metaphor, emphasising the power of the mass media
 franchise 81

The wording of the term suggests that the media ranks with the three arms
of government, namely, the legislature, the executive and the judiciary.
The term ‘fourth estate’ was originally derived from the English expression
‘estates of the realm’, namely, the lords temporal (members of the House
of Lords, except the bishops), the lords spiritual (bishops) and the House
of Commons. These three were considered to be the most important and
powerful groups in the country.
[arms of government, mass media]

franchise
In politics, franchise refers to the right to vote
[adult franchise (or suffrage)]

freedom of assembly
The right of people to meet together in groups
This freedom is recognised as one of the basic civil liberties in a free society.
People choose to meet for all sorts of reasons, such as political, religious,
recreational and cultural purposes. In Australia there is no constitutional
guarantee of this freedom, although it is widely believed to exist as a tra-
ditional right.
[civil liberties, Universal Declaration of Human Rights]

freedom of information
The legal right to peruse government documents
Legislation granting this right is a comparatively recent development in
Australia, beginning in the 1970s. Not all documents can be inspected,
and among the exceptions are cabinet documents and others classified as
affecting national security.
[cabinet, open government]

freedom of speech
The freedom to express thoughts and opinions is a basic civil right in a
free society
Australia and many other countries claim to allow freedom of speech.
However, in most countries including Australia there are some legal
limitations. These include the laws against defamation, blasphemy and
obscenity, contempt of court and sedition. Although these laws are not
always rigorously enforced, in the matter of defamation the possibility of
costly legal consequences is a powerful restraint on those without substan-
tial financial resources.
[civil liberties, Universal Declaration of Human Rights]

free enterprise
A form of capitalism involving minimum government control of private
business and industry
82 free trade

The term is sometimes used in a political sense to identify an attitude that

may be loosely equated to the free market ideology.
[capitalism]

free trade
The absence of any government restriction or financial deterrents on trade
with other countries
Completely free trade would mean the absence of tariffs or restrictions
and no government subsidies or assistance for exports. Since overseas set-
tlement in Australia began there has been debate between the advocates of
free trade and of protection, and in the years soon after Federation trade
policy was the chief subject of contention between the major political
parties.
[Fusion Party, level playing field, protection, tariffs]

Free Traders (political party)

A major Australian party that was significant in the development of Aus-
tralian politics
This was a conservative party with free trade as a major policy. In 1909 it
merged with its political opponent (also conservative), the Protectionist
Party, to form the Fusion Party. The merger was a reaction to the growing
strength of the Australian Labor Party.
[Fusion Party, Protectionists]

Friends of the ABC (FABC)

A community organisation that supports the Australian Broadcasting
Corporation
Formed in 1976, Friends of the ABC has branches in all states and ter-
ritories. It supports the Australian Broadcasting Corporation as an
independent source of news, information and entertainment and an alter-
native to commercial broadcasting. The FABC campaigns for a politically
impartial ABC board and adequate funding, without advertising.
[Australian Broadcasting Corporation, mass media]

fringe benefits tax

A tax on the value of special benefits provided by employers to selected
employees
Fringe benefits have included provision of cars, payment of school fees,
entertainment, low-cost loans and other benefits. They were equivalent to
an addition to the employee’s salary but were untaxed before fringe ben-
efits tax was introduced in 1986. Payment of untaxed fringe benefits in lieu
of higher salaries had previously resulted in a distortion of the tax system
and reduced government revenue.
[tax avoidance]
 front bench 83

front bench
A term for the government ministers as a group and, similarly, the oppo­
sition shadow ministers
The expression comes from the seating arrangements in the parliamen-
tary chamber where ministers and shadow ministers sit in the front seats
facing one another across a large table.
[ministry (as a group), shadow ministry]

full employment
The opportunity for those able to work to get a job
The definition of full employment has been modified to recognise the
reality that a small percentage of workers will be temporarily unemployed
while looking for appropriate work, plus those who are unsuited to the
available employment despite no overall shortage of jobs. Unemployment
rates between 1 per cent and 3 per cent have been suggested as consistent
with the term ‘full employment’.
[depression (economic), recession]

Fusion Party
The major conservative party from 1909 to 1917; also called the Common-
wealth Liberal Party
The Fusion Party was formed through the amalgamation of two con­
servative parties worried over the growing strength of the Australian Labor
Party. They were the Protectionists, led by Alfred Deakin, and George
Reid’s Free Traders. They had previously been bitter opponents. Deakin
later became prime minister in a Fusion Party government. The Fusion
(or Liberal) Party continued until 1917 when it was incorporated into the
Nationalist Party led by Prime Minister W.M. Hughes.
[Free Traders (political party), Protectionists]
G
G-7/G-8 countries
An international body with a membership of economically advanced
nations
The G-7 includes the USA, Japan, Germany, the UK, France, Italy and
Canada. When Russia takes part in meetings the group is known as the
G-8. It prepares reports and makes public comments on subjects beyond
economics, such as social and educational matters. Founded in 1975, the
G-7 played a leading role for more than 30 years in matters related to trade
and economics until superseded by the G-20 group.
[G-20 countries, Organisation for Economic Cooperation and
Development]

G-20 countries
An international group focusing on economics with similar concerns to
those of the G-7/G-8 groups but with a larger membership
All the G-8 countries belong to the G-20 together with large developing
nations, including China and India, and several smaller ones in vari-
ous stages of development. Australia is a member. The G-20 has become
acknowledged as the foremost international body in the field of eco-
nomic discussion, research and advice, taking over the leading role from
the G-7/G8.
[G-7/G-8 countries]

gag
See closure

GATT/WTO
A continuing forum, of which Australia is a member, for improving inter-
national trade
GATT began with about twenty nations in 1947 as the General Agreement
on Tariffs and Trade GATT) and became the World Trade Organisation
 GDP 85

(WTO) in 1995. By 2008 the number of members had reached 153. GATT
aims to minimise trade restrictions and has achieved significant results.
But nations have not always honoured the spirit of GATT/WTO and this
has caused problems for Australia, especially in selling agricultural prod-
ucts overseas.
[forum, free trade, level playing field]

GDP
See gross domestic product

Generation X
The generation born in the 1960s and 1970s
Generation X has been characterised as selfish and cynical while calmly
accepting change and working hard to gain advancement.
[baby boomers, Generation Y]

Generation Y
Those born in the 1980s and 1990s
Regarded as confident and ambitious, Generation Y is reputed to be will-
ing to change jobs repeatedly and borrow substantially for purchases and
investment, apparently without fear of difficulties that may result from
changed economic circumstances.
[baby boomers, Generation X]

general election
An election in which all the seats in a house of parliament are declared
vacant
A general election provides an opportunity for the voters to re-elect the
government or to change to the opposition party. A change of govern-
ment can occur between general elections but this seldom happens. In the
Federal parliament, Senate and lower house elections are often held simul-
taneously but, on most occasions, only half the Senate seats come up for
election. Exceptions occur after a double dissolution, when all Senate seats
become vacant.
[by-election, double dissolution, half-Senate election, simul­
taneous elections]

gerrymander
The deliberate manipulation of electoral boundaries to favour a particular
party
Careful shaping of an electorate can exclude some districts and include
others for the benefit of a particular party. Over a larger area, boun­daries
may be devised so that the favoured party will win many seats by small
margins while the other party will win seats by very large margins, thus
‘wasting’ many votes. Gerrymandering should not be confused with
86 global financial crisis

malapportionment—a different type of unfair electoral manipulation.

Australia is fortunate in having an independent Electoral Commission,
which is a safeguard against unfair manipulation of electoral boundaries.
[malapportionment, one vote–one value]

global financial crisis

The financial upheaval of 2009 beginning in the United States and leading
to a major worldwide recession
Opinions about the causes and remedies vary, but most blame has been
directed at injudicious borrowing and lending aimed at making quick
profits from financial manipulation. The remedy adopted by most coun-
tries has been to provide government financial support to large enterprises
facing disaster. This action was aimed at avoiding catastrophic levels of
unemployment and company collapses.
[economics, Keynesianism, market system]

globalisation
Substantial reduction in restrictions on trading and the movement of
capital between countries, together with exchanges of ideas, expertise and
culture
Countries have traded with each other since ancient times, but from the
sixteenth century the concept and practice of shared ownership enabled
the construction of larger sea-going vessels and this greatly increased the
volume and extent of trading. At about the same time, the growth of mech-
anised printing disseminated information and ideas. In the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries, wars and colonisation by the technically advanced
nations of Europe also spread ideas and technology to less-developed
countries. Over the last century, globalisation grew rapidly as a result of
great increase in the speed and efficiency of communications.
[World Economic Forum, World Trade Organisation]

global warming
The increase in the average temperature of the air and oceans, especially
since the beginning of the twentieth century
This increase is roughly three-quarters of one Celsius degree. Most, but not
all, scientific bodies interested in the subject believe this climate change
has been caused by anthropogenic greenhouse gases produced by activity,
including industries burning coal and oil and some types of agriculture,
particularly cattle grazing.
[climate change, greenhouse effect]

GNP
See gross national income
 goods and services tax (GST) 87

goods and services tax (GST)

A tax levied as a percentage of the retail price and fully paid by the final
purchaser
The tax applies to most goods and the provision of services. It was intro-
duced in 2000 by the Howard government and retained by the Rudd Labor
government. It is levied at each step or process from raw materials to final
sale. Intermediate sellers add the tax to their selling price, but can reclaim
the tax that they have paid. Thus the consumer (the last buyer) pays the
total tax, although processors or intermediate sellers have been part of the
procedure of tax collection.
[taxation]

government
In a democracy it is the exercise of authority over a nation or community
by representatives of the people
In Australia there are three tiers of government. The first is the Common-
wealth government, whose powers are defined by the Constitution. The
second consists of the various state and territory governments, and the
third is local, or municipal, government. The governments of the ACT and
the Northern Territory have powers defined by Commonwealth acts of
parliament. The political party in power is called the government, and the
term is also applied to the ministry and sometimes to all the members of
parliament on the government side.
[local government, territories]

governor
The representative of the monarch in each state of Australia
A governor’s duties are mainly formal or ceremonial and they have tra-
ditionally, but not always, accepted the advice of the government. An
exception was the dismissal of the NSW premier Jack Lang in 1932.

governor-general
As the representative of the monarch, the governor-general acts as Aus-
tralia’s head of state
In accordance with the Constitution, the governor-general is formally
appointed by the Queen but, in practice, is chosen by the Federal govern-
ment. In addition to ceremonial duties, the governor-general has power
to dissolve parliament and to grant double dissolutions, although these
actions are normally taken only on the advice of the prime minister. The
double dissolution of the Whitlam government in 1975 was a famous (or
infamous) exception.
[head of government, head of state]

governor-general-in-council
The governor-general, acting as president of the Executive Council
88 governor-in-council

The approval of the governor-general-in-council is required before a bill,

already passed by parliament, can become law. In practice, this is a for-
mality and the governor-general usually meets with no more than two
ministers to give formal assent to bills.
[Executive Council]

governor-in-council
A state governor acting as president of a State Executive Council

Grants Commission
See Commonwealth Grants Commission

grass roots
A political metaphor for ordinary people and their attitudes
To return to its grass roots is a suggestion that a political party should re-
establish contact and understanding with ordinary people.
[doorknocking, electorate office]

Great Depression
The international economic depression of the 1930s, which affected Aus-
tralia severely
The rural sector had been in difficulties throughout the 1920s, but
the Depression in Australia is historically recognised as beginning in
1930, some months after the Wall Street crash of October 1929. Offi-
cial A­ustralian unemployment rates rose to about 30 per cent but this
statistical figure was an understatement of the real rate. Unemployment
gradually lessened but was still about 10 per cent when World War II
began in 1939.
[depression, recession]

greenhouse effect
The effect on the earth’s climate of the emission of gases from large-scale
combustion
These emissions come from the burning of fuel for transport, power gen-
eration and from primary and secondary industry. They cause a slight
change in the composition of the atmosphere. This reduces the heat dis-
charged from the earth as infrared radiation but the heat received from
the sun is unchanged so average temperatures rise slightly. Most countries,
including Australia, accept the need to reduce greenhouse gases.
[climate change, global warming]

greenies
Colloquial term for enthusiastic conservationists, sometimes used
disparagingly
 Greens, The 89

The term is applied particularly to those conservationists who are

concerned over forests and wilderness areas. Some people reserve the
term for those they consider to be unduly intense in their support of
conservation.
[conservation, environmentalism, tree huggers]

Greens, The
An Australian political party focusing mainly on conservation
The Greens party has taken part in federal elections since 1993, emphasis-
ing conservation but also presenting policies on other important topics.
It has won parliamentary seats in the Senate, in state parliaments and in
the ACT and influences the major parties because of the importance of its
preference votes. Proportional representation has helped The Greens as it
gives smaller parties a better chance of success.
[conservation, proportional representation]

grey power
A term for the influence of the retired and elderly
Grey power strength is increasing as the proportion of older people in the
population rises—a fact that is likely to be noted by political parties and
influence their policies.

grievance debate
A period in a parliamentary session during which members speak on top-
ics of their own choosing
Grievance debates are scheduled for late afternoon on Mondays in the Fed-
eral parliament. They are also part of state parliamentary procedure. As
many MPs wish to participate speeches are restricted in length, usually to
ten minutes. Members use the opportunity to deal with matters for which
they have special enthusiasm, or to engage in parish pumping.
[adjournment debate, parish pumping]

gross domestic product (GDP)

The value, in money terms, of the goods and services produced in a coun-
try; it is given in both current prices and ‘real’ terms, which allows for
changes in money values
The GDP does not allow for depreciation and this is the reason for the
inclusion of the word ‘gross’. The calculation of the GDP covers activity
over a fixed period (usually one year) and is done for economic purposes,
including the assessment of economic growth. Several factors make the
calculation difficult and inaccurate, one being the existence of undisclosed
trade which is not recorded in official statistics. Although useful in assess-
ing a country’s economic performance, the GDP is not a comprehensive
indicator of living standards as it does not identify the types of goods and
services included, nor their distribution among the people. Furthermore,
90 gross national income (GNI)

the GDP fails to take into account unpaid but valuable activity that adds to
the quality of life but is not measured in money terms.
[economy (of a nation), quality of life]

gross national income (GNI)

A statistical calculation of a country’s total income over a defined period,
previously called the gross national product
The GNI consists of the gross domestic product together with the net effect
of income entering and leaving the country. It is a factor in the assessment
of a country’s overall economic performance.
[gross domestic product]

group
As a political term group is used as an alternative or euphemistic word for
faction
[faction]

GST
See goods and services tax

guillotine
A limitation on the time made available for debate in parliament on a par-
ticular subject
This occurs when parliament declares a bill urgent. A time limit is set, and
each speaker is restricted to a fixed length of speaking time. ‘Guillotine’
should not be confused with ‘closure’ (colloquially called ‘the gag’), which
brings debate to an immediate end.
[closure]
H
half-Senate election
In most general elections, only half the Senate seats are vacant
House of Representatives elections and Senate elections are usually held
simultaneously. Senators from the states are elected for a term of six years,
so only half of the senators from each state are elected at any one time.
Senators for the mainland territories (the ACT and the Northern Territory)
are elected for three-year terms. An election following a double dissolution
is an exception as all Senate positions become vacant. Only 8.3 per cent of
the votes are needed for a candidate to be elected—and this gives smaller
parties a better chance of winning a Senate seat.
[double dissolution, Senate elections]

Hansard
The printed record of parliamentary debates and proceedings
The title comes from the name of the English publishers, the Hansard fam-
ily, who produced reports of House of Commons debates in the eighteenth
and nineteenth centuries. The name has been retained and printed records
are now almost word-for-word accounts of parliamentary speeches. Han-
sard is also available on the Internet.

Hansonism
See Pauline Hanson’s One Nation Party

Hare-Clark system
A combination of preferential voting with proportional representation
from multi-member electorates
Also known as the ‘single transferable vote system’, it was first used in the
Tasmanian House of Assembly elections in 1909 and has been adopted in
other Australian elections, including the Senate. A voter marks only one
ballot paper but indicates an order of preference for all the candidates.
This is the ‘single transferable vote’. As counting proceeds the candidates
92 Harvester judgement

are elected when they reach a ‘quota’ of votes. This is known as the Droop
quota and takes into account the number of places to be filled and the
number of votes that have been cast.
[Australian Capital Territory electoral system, Droop quota,
single transferable vote system, Tasmanian electoral system]

Harvester judgement
An historic decision of the Arbitration Court that laid the foundation for
orderly wage fixing in Australia
The Harvester judgement of 1907 was given that name because the
employer involved, H.V. Mackay, manufactured a famous agricultural
machine, the Sunshine Harvester. The president of the Commonwealth
Court of Conciliation and Arbitration, Justice Henry Bourne Higgins, set
a minimum wage for male unskilled labourers based on the cost of living
‘in reasonable and frugal comfort’ for an average family. The judgement
did not cover female workers as, at that time, it was assumed that a father
or husband would support them.
[arbitration]

head of government
The leader of the executive government
In Australia, the prime minister is the nation’s head of government. Prem­
iers are the heads of government in the states, and chief ministers are the
heads of government in the mainland territories. This position contrasts
with the head of state, which is a ceremonial post in some countries,
although the two positions are combined in others.
[chief minister]

head of state
The formal leader of a nation
Depending on the political structure of a country, the head of state may
possess real power as well as being the ceremonial leader. In Australia the
head of state is the monarch, represented by the governor-general.
[constitutional monarchy, head of government]

hegemony
Domination or strong influence over others
In politics, the term is applied to a strong nation that has power or influ-
ence over neighbouring countries.
[imperialism]

HELP (Higher Education Loan Program)

See Higher Education Contribution Scheme (HECS)
 high commission 93

high commission
A diplomatic mission from one member country of the Commonwealth to
a country that is also a Commonwealth member
A high commission has a similar diplomatic status to that of an embassy.
This terminology has been continued from the time when members of the
Commonwealth were part of the British Empire.
[Commonwealth, embassy]

high commissioner
The diplomat in charge of a high commission
A high commissioner has the same diplomatic rank as an ambassador.
[ambassador]

High Court
The most senior court in Australia and established in accordance with the
Constitution
The Constitution sets out the procedure for the appointment of judges
and defines the matters that are to be the concern of the court. These
include constitutional cases and those that affect Australia’s relationships
with other countries. The High Court also has power to deal with appeals
against the judgements of lower courts.
[Federal Court of Australia]

Higher Education Contribution Scheme (HECS)

A scheme requiring some students to make a contribution towards the cost
of their university education
HECS students are required to pay back a percentage of the cost, by instal-
ments, after their income reaches a specified threshold. HECS began under
the Hawke government in 1989, following free university education intro-
duced by the Whitlam government in 1974. Modifications were made by
the Howard government in 2004, including a name change to the Higher
Education Loan Program (HELP). The basic requirement for students to
make delayed payments was retained. The scheme has caused some resent-
ment as it was introduced by a generation who benefited from the free
education introduced by the Whitlam government.

History Wars
Controversies over the interpretation of Australian history, often influ-
enced by party politics. The term is linked to ‘Culture Wars’
The term History Wars comes from the USA, where it is applied to argu-
ments over the nuclear bombing of Japanese cities and is the title of a
book on the subject. In Australia, it is mainly applied to opinions about
the treatment of the Indigenous people. Historians who have contended
that the Indigenous people were seriously mistreated have been criticised
94 hoi polloi

and accused of left-wing bias by others who argue that there is no cause
for shame or regret. Those who express the latter view tend to be politi-
cally conservative; famous among them is the former prime minister, John
Howard, who termed the more sympathetic view towards the Indigenous
people as ‘black armband’ history.
[Culture Wars]

hoi polloi
A term for the ordinary people or the lower classes, sometimes used in a
derogatory or condescending manner
The expression comes from the Ancient Greek language meaning ‘the
many’, and is sometimes used, mistakenly, to indicate superior or impor-
tant people.
[classes]

honeymoon
A metaphor used mainly by journalists to describe the first few weeks or
months after the election of a new government or party leader
Media commentators imply that a new leader or government is given
a period of exemption from harsh criticism during this early stage of
responsibility.

Honourable
A title for some categories of politicians
Ministers in federal and state governments are given the title ‘Honourable’
before their names, and so are members of state upper houses whether
ministers or not. It is customary for members of parliament, when making
speeches in the house, to refer to their colleagues as ‘honourable members’.
[modes of address for members of parliament, titles of members
of parliament]

house (of parliament)

An assembly of members of parliament; each house of parliament is part
of the law-making process
Members of a house meet to discuss and vote on proposed legislation
and to monitor the activities of ministers and the government. The lower
house of parliament determines which party will become the government.
The continued functioning of a government depends on it retaining the
support of the lower house of parliament and traditionally it resigns if
support of the lower house is lost. There are two houses in the Federal par-
liament and in all state parliaments except Queensland, where the upper
house was abolished in 1922. There is only one house in the ACT parlia-
ment and one in the Northern Territory.
[lower house, upper house]
 House of Assembly 95

House of Assembly
The name of the lower house in the parliaments of South Australia and
Tasmania
Both of these states also have an upper house, called the Legislative Council.
[house (of parliament), lower house]

House of Representatives
The lower house of the Federal parliament
It is the more important of the two houses as it decides which party will
form the government, and the prime minister has always been a member
of the House of Representatives. It is referred to as the ‘people’s house’ as
each member represents nearly the same number of electors, in contrast
to the Senate, and it is regarded as representing the opinion of Australian
electors more accurately. The style of debate in the House of Representa-
tives is more lively and forthright than in the more staid and dignified
Senate.
[lower house, people’s house]

house of review
An upper house of parliament, such as the Senate, is sometimes described
as a house of review
The reputed role of an upper house has been to review bills and to propose
amendments. There is still some basis for this reputation but it is dimin-
ishing as upper house members usually speak and vote on party lines.
Furthermore, bills are frequently introduced in upper houses.
[bicameral system, upper house]

how-to-vote cards
Printed cards or leaflets that show how to fill in ballot papers in accordance
with the recommendations of a party or candidate
These cards are offered to voters as they approach polling places. They
are similar in layout to ballot papers but have numbers marked along-
side the candidates’ names. They are intended to influence undecided
voters, and to indicate to party supporters the recommended sequence
of preferences. They also help voters fill in complicated ballot papers
without making mistakes. The handing out of how-to-vote cards is a
traditional and sometimes boisterous feature of Australian elections
because of the close proximity of enthusiastic supporters of opposing
political parties.
[informal vote, preferential voting]

H.R. Nicholls Society

See Nicholls Society
96 human rights

human rights
See civil liberties, Universal Declaration of Human Rights

hung parliament
See deadlock (lack of a majority)
I
identity politics
Political activities organised on behalf of particular social groups
Members of these groups often had been victims of intolerance, discrimi-
nation or persecution because of their gender, race, sexual orientation or
ethnicity. Identity politics emerged from the human rights revolution of
the late 1960s and 1970s, although similar movements developed much
earlier such as the suffragettes, active in the early years of the twentieth
century in various countries, including Australia.
[suffragettes, Universal Declaration of Human Rights]

ideology
The ideals and beliefs on which political policy is based
The publicised policies of any political party may not fully reflect its
ideol­ogy as doing so could be considered to be inappropriate because of
circumstances at the time, or be unacceptable to the majority of voters.
[policy, political theory]

ILO
See International Labour Organisation

immigration
The entry of people into a country with the intention of becoming
residents
In Australia, all residents except Aborigines are immigrants or the
descendants of immigrants. Immigration has continued ever since Euro-
pean settlement began, although its rate has been irregular. It has been
very substantial since World War II and the census of 2006 showed that
24 per cent of the Australian population was born outside the country.
Policy on immigration has at times been the subject of political argu-
ment, with the question of possible restrictions on the basis of race
98 imperialism

a contentious issue. The optimal size of the population has also been
questioned.
[boat people, census, multiculturalism, racism, White Australia
policy]

imperialism
The policy of acquiring dependent territories and asserting authority over
them
The countries taken over, often by military force, are termed colonies.
The dominating country, together with the colonies, becomes an empire.
Examples include the Roman Empire and the British Empire.
[colony, hegemony, political theory]

inaugural speech
See first speech

income distribution
The share of total national income received by different segments of the
population
In Australia, the Bureau of Statistics periodically determines the pattern
of income distribution, and this gives a better understanding of incomes
actually received than the simplistic ‘average income’ figure.
[basic wage, total wage]

income tax
Compulsory payment to the government of a proportion of personal
income
The amount to be paid is subject to complicated rules that are framed
to take account of the different circumstances and responsibilities of tax­
payers. In Australia, taxation is partly in the form of income tax and partly
indirect tax, such as the goods and services tax. There is continuing argu-
ment over the merits and best mixture of different forms of taxation.
[progressive tax, regressive tax, revenue, sales tax, taxation]

incumbency dominance
The thesis that it is easier for the party that is currently in government to
be re-elected than for the opposition
The theory was quoted as a partial explanation of the longevity of the
Howard government. Its defeat in 2007 prompted the revival of another
theory, namely that voters become bored with a long-time incumbent.
[pork-barrelling]

independent member of parliament

A member who belongs to no political party
 Independents (faction) 99

Reproduced courtesy of Jon Kudelka

Some MPs are elected as independent candidates. Others, who have been
elected as party candidates, resign from the party or are expelled. There are
usually few, if any, independent members in Australian federal and state
parliaments but they sometimes have a disproportionate significance in a
closely contested parliamentary vote.
[deadlock (lack of a majority)]

Independents (faction)
An historically significant group within the Australian Labor Party, later
known as the Non-Aligned Group
At first called the Participants, this group developed in Victoria in the
1960s because of dissatisfaction with the structure and factional control of
the state branch of the ALP at that time. The group was partly responsible
for the federal intervention in Victoria in 1970 that assisted the election of
the Whitlam government in 1972.
[intervention (ALP), Non-Aligned Group, Participants]

indexation
Adjustment of pay rates in accordance with changes in the cost of living
Indexation is the term for automatic adjustment of wages, superannuation
and pensions in accordance with changes in prices, usually based on the
consumer price index.
[consumer price index]
100 Indigenous Australians

Indigenous Australians
An increasingly accepted name for those whose forebears inhabited Aus-
tralia and the Torres Strait Islands before colonisation
The term includes the peoples of both areas. The initial letter is usually
capitalised when referring to peoples of both regions as a single group.
[Aborigines]

individualism
A social philosophy that puts greater emphasis on the freedom of the indi-
vidual than on the benefits of group organisation and action
This philosophy considers the individual as being of primary importance
and society as a collection of individuals, rather than being an entity
with an independent existence. In politics and economics, individualism
favours the market system with minimal government regulation. This pol-
icy became widespread in the latter part of the twentieth century and was
followed by the economic upheaval of the early years of the twenty-first
century.
[collectivism]

industrial dispute
A disagreement between employers and employees, usually over wages and
conditions or alleged unfair dismissal
Disputes can lead to stoppages, strikes, black bans and lockouts. If serious
enough arbitration might be required, but disputes are often settled by
negotiation between employers and employees. Trade unions and employ-
ers’ organisations might become involved and serious disputes have often
been referred to the Industrial Relations Commission.
[black ban, industrial relations, lockout, strike]

Industrial Groups
A powerful faction within trade unions and the Labor Party active during
the 1940s and 1950s, and closely related to the organisation now referred
to as ‘the Movement’
The formal name was the ALP Industrial Groups and it had Labor Party
endorsement in most states for several years when the involvement of
the Movement in the Industrial Groups was not widely understood. The
Groups exerted a strong influence within some trade unions and the ALP
from the mid-1940s until 1955, especially in Victoria. The connection with
the ALP was severed at the Hobart ALP conference in 1955. The Industrial
Groups then supported the Democratic Labor Party. Members were called
groupers.
[anti-communism, Labor ‘Split’, Movement, the]
 industrial relations 101

industrial relations
The relationship between employers and employees over wages and
conditions
In Australia, industrial relations have been handled by trade unions and
employers’ organisations, with industrial tribunals and other bodies
established by government such as the Industrial Relations Commission
that have authority to make binding decisions. Other factors, including
the Accord of 1983 and ‘enterprise bargaining’ introduced by the Howard
government, have also played roles in determining employees’ pay and
conditions.
[Accord (the Prices and Income Accord), arbitration, Australian
Fair Pay Commission, Australian Industrial Relations Commission]

Industrial Relations Commission (IRC)

See Australian Industrial Relations Commission

Industrial Revolution
The great changes in industry and social conditions that have occurred
since the eighteenth century
The Industrial Revolution was the outcome of discoveries and inventions
such as the steam engine, and the development of large factories and indus-
trial cities. It resulted in the emergence of wealthy industrial leaders and
upheaval for workers and their families, who endured bad working con-
ditions, low pay and slum housing. These conditions persisted for many
years and led to the development of trade unions and worker-oriented
political parties.
[classes, political party, trade union]

industrial tribunals
Semi-judicial bodies that deal with industrial relations matters, including
wages and conditions of employment
Tribunals are independent bodies established by state and federal govern-
ments, with different names in different states.
[industrial relations]

inflation
Significant increase in general prices and the reduction in the purchasing
value of currency
In Australia the consumer price index (CPI) is a measure of price changes,
usually quoted as a percentage over twelve months. Modest inflation does
not cause great concern, but high inflation has led to economic chaos in
some countries. Economists differ widely on the causes of inflation and
how to deal with it.
[consumer price index, economics, political economy]
102 informal vote

informal vote
A ballot paper that has not been filled in correctly and is excluded from
the count
There are detailed rules that define the requirements of a formal (effective)
vote and these rules vary slightly in different elections. The main principle
is that the voter’s intention must be clear.
[ballot paper, count, preferential voting]

infrastructure
Basic services needed in residential, commercial and industrial areas
Infrastructure includes water, sewerage, transport, electricity and several
other services. These must be provided in new areas and existing services
may need upgrading to cope with the extra load.
[decentralisation, planning, public private partnerships]

Institute of Public Affairs (IPA)

A politically conservative think tank
The IPA was established in the 1940s and played a direct role in the estab-
lishment of the Liberal Party. In later years its main activities have been
research and the presentation of reports and right-wing opinions on pub-
lic affairs. It publishes sceptical views about climate change.
[political theory, think tank]

integration
A less insular attitude or negative attitude by Australian society towards
immigrants that replaced assimilation in the 1960s as the desired aim
Unlike assimilation, a policy of integration encouraged immigrants to
retain their original languages and customs. It was superseded by the pol-
icy of multiculturalism in 1973.
[assimilation, multiculturalism]

intelligence
Information, including secret information, that might be important for a
country’s security
The term is sometimes used to mean the process of gathering such infor-
mation, including spying. Most countries, including Australia, have one or
more intelligence organisations and much of their work is secret.
[Australian Secret Intelligence Service, Australian Security
Intelligence Organisation]

interjection
A statement, usually short and shouted, by a member of parliament while
another member is making a speech
 International Confederation of Free Trade Unions 103

Although not officially permitted, interjections are traditionally part of

parliamentary behaviour and can add vitality and interest to a debate. Pre-
siding officers are usually tolerant of interjections, unless they become too
disruptive. An interjection is not recorded in Hansard unless the MP mak-
ing the speech responds to it, in which case both the interjection and the
reply will be recorded.
[Hansard, presiding officer]

International Confederation of Free Trade Unions

An organisation that has national union bodies such as the ACTU as its
members
The confederation provides opportunities for communication between
trade union bodies from different countries, but does not become involved
in industrial action.
[International Labour Organisation]

International Labour Organisation (ILO)

An agency of the United Nations that aims to improve working conditions
and living standards
The ILO was established in 1919 by the League of Nations. Delegations from
each nation include representatives of the government, employers and employ-
ees. The codes and standards set by the International Labour Organisation
cannot be enforced but are regarded as goals and have international influence.
[League of Nations, United Nations]

International Monetary Fund (IMF)

An organisation that oversees worldwide economic circumstances and
events; it aims to increase economic wellbeing and assist cooperation
between nations, together with reducing poverty and unemployment
The IMF is closely related to the United Nations. It was founded after World
War II to help restore economic stability to countries that had been shattered
by the war. Its concerns are worldwide and most members of the United
Nations also belong to the IMF. Its activities include monitoring economic
conditions, lending to countries in financial difficulties and providing tech-
nical advice. It also engages in research and compilation of statistics.
[United Nations]

intervention (ALP)
The action of the Federal Executive of the ALP when dealing with a major
problem in the affairs of a state branch of the Labor Party
A shortened version of ‘Federal intervention’, interventions occurred in
Victoria in 1954 and again in 1970. They are recognised as historic events
in Australian politics and had important consequences.
[Labor ‘Split’, Labor Unity (faction), Movement, the, Socialist
Left (faction)]
104 intervention (Northern Territory)

intervention (Northern Territory)

Action taken in response to the ‘Little Children are Sacred’ report of 2007
The Inquiry into Protection of Aboriginal Children reported widespread
child abuse in some Indigenous townships in the Northern Territory. The
Howard government responded by sending in the Australian Army and
social workers to identify those responsible. It also introduced a scheme to
control the payment of welfare benefits with the aim of ensuring that the
money would be spent on food for the children. The Rudd Labor govern-
ment continued the scheme.

IRC
See Industrial Relations Commission

isolationism
The foreign policy of a nation that chooses to remain detached from inter-
national matters, especially military alliances
The term became well known as the policy of the United States between
the two world wars. Although President Wilson proposed the creation of
the League of Nations (the predecessor of the United Nations) after World
War I, the USA did not become a member. However, it did join the United
Nations after World War II. Australia has not adopted isolationism but
tries to maintain good diplomatic relations with other countries and is a
member of the United Nations.
[American alliance, ANZUS Treaty]

issue of writs
The formal action that begins the process for holding an election or a
referendum
As required by the Australian Constitution, the governor-general issues the
writs for House of Representatives elections, except by-elections, and also
for referendums. State governors issue writs for Senate elections and state
elections. The writs (and consequently the timing of elections) are almost
always issued on the advice of the government.
[election day, writs]

issues
Matters of political difference of opinion and debate
The media apply the term particularly to policies that become matters of
contention during election campaigns.
[policy, political theory]
J
J-curve
A diagram to illustrate a theory, concerning the consequences of the
d­epreciation of a nation’s currency on its balance of trade
The theory is that a nation’s trading position becomes worse for a time
after depreciation and then makes a substantial improvement to a state
better than the original. The short downward part of the J represents the
bad period, curving up to improvement.
[economy (of a nation)]

jobs for the boys

Appointing friends or colleagues to positions of employment
The expression implies that the appointment is made for personal or
political reasons rather than on account of the ability of the appointee.
In politics, ministers are often criticised for making such appointments.
Sometimes these controversial appointments are appropriate because the
people chosen have the same attitudes and priorities as the government.
[nepotism]

joint committee
A parliamentary committee with members from both houses of parliament
These committees may have responsibilities of a continuing nature, or may
be established to undertake a particular task and be disbanded when it is
completed. They report to both houses of parliament.
[committee system]

Joint Committee of Public Accounts

See public accounts committee

joint sitting
An official meeting of all members of both houses of the Federal parliament
106 judicature

The Constitution provides for a joint sitting of the Senate and the House
of Representatives to resolve deadlocks between the houses. A deadlock
can occur when the House of Representatives passes a bill but the Senate
rejects or fails to pass it. Conditions defined in the Constitution, including
the occurrence of a double dissolution, must be fulfilled before a joint sit-
ting can be held.
[deadlock (between two houses)]

judicature
The structure and operation of the system of justice in a country
The Constitution defines the Australian ‘Judicature’ in considerable detail.
It specifies the method of appointment of High Court judges, the powers
of the High Court and the extent of the powers of the Federal parliament
to make laws relating to the judicature. Each state has its own separate
judicial system, in which the Supreme Court is the most senior court.
[Family Court of Australia, Federal Court of Australia, High
Court, Supreme Court]

judiciary
This term describes judges as a group
The term applies to judges in their official capacity. The judiciary is also
regarded as one of the three arms of government along with the executive
and the legislative.
[arms of government, judicature]

junior minister
An MP who is in charge of a less important ministry
‘Junior minister’ is not an official title in Australia but the term is applied
to ministers not included in the cabinet.
[cabinet, minister]

junta
Rule by a small group, usually composed of military officers
A non-democratic form of government, a junta is set up and maintained
by force or threat of force. The government of Fiji established in 2006 is
an example.
K
Keynesianism
An important economic theory that focuses on maintaining economic
st­ability and a high level of employment
The English economist John Maynard Keynes proposed the theory in
the 1930s and it had international acceptance for many years, especially
from the end of World War II until the 1960s. Keynes proposed the use
of government fiscal and monetary policy to regulate demand and to
stimulate the economy when necessary to avoid high unemployment. He
also emphasised the distinction between macroeconomics and micro­
economics. A greater emphasis on the market system in the latter part of
the twentieth century partly replaced Keynesianism.
[depression (economic), economics, market system, recession]

kickbacks
Financial payments made by business interests in return for preferential
treatment
The Cole Inquiry exposed a gross example in 2006. It found that the Aus-
tralian Wheat Board (AWB) made illicit payments to Saddam Hussein’s
regime in Iraq to ensure a monopoly in that country. The inquiry found
that, although AWB executives had behaved illegally and should be pros-
ecuted, the kickbacks did not constitute bribes.
[oil-for-food]

kitchen cabinet
A small group that supplants the bona fide ministry or cabinet in making
important decisions
A typical kitchen cabinet would consist of selected colleagues of the gov-
ernment leader together with a small number of people from outside
parliament. The power of such a group would be undemocratic and dan-
108 kite flying

gerous to good government. The term is sometimes applied to less sinister

groups that simply give advice to political leaders.
[cabinet, ministry (as a group)]

kite flying
An attempt to discover public reaction to a political idea before making a
firm decision
The term comes from the figurative expression ‘finding out which way the
wind is blowing’. It may be achieved by ‘leaking’ a report about the pro-
posal or by a minister or politician informally discussing the idea so that
the media will give it publicity without the commitment of the govern-
ment or political party.

Kooris
A term that gained temporary popularity in the 1980s as a supposedly tra-
ditional name for Indigenous Australians
‘Kooris’ was a traditional name only in some parts of the south-east of
the continent and, therefore, is not appropriate when referring to all
In­digenous Australians.
[Aborigines, Indigenous Australians]

Kyoto Protocol
An international agreement that sets binding targets for reduction of
greenhouse gas emissions for industrialised countries
Adopted in Kyoto, Japan in 1997, the Kyoto Protocol is closely connected
to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Each
participating country received a specified target, although this could be
modified by emissions trading. The USA and Australia were the only
countries not to ratify the agreement promptly. Australia failed to sign for
several years but the Rudd government did so soon after the 2007 election.
[climate change]
L
Labor Party
See Australian Labor Party

Labor rat
See rat

Labor ‘Split’
The colloquial term for the division of Labor support that followed federal
ALP intervention in Victoria in1954
The Federal Executive of the ALP investigated the affairs of the Victorian
branch, paying particular attention to the role of the Movement, led by
B.A. Santamaria (later the National Civic Council). As a result, the ALP in
Victoria was restructured amid great controversy, which finally led to the
formation of the Democratic Labor Party. The ‘Split’ affected the ALP in all
states but its effects were most severe in Victoria.
[intervention (ALP), Movement, the, National Civic Council]

Labor Unity (faction)

A strong Labor Party faction in Victoria
It came into prominence at the time of the federal Labor intervention in
Victoria in 1970. In federal politics it is part of the Right group, although
its members sometimes protest about being labelled as right wing, claim-
ing that they have widely differing views. As in other factions, concern over
policy has diminished with increased focus on gaining strength and pos­
itions within the ALP.
[factions—Australian Labor Party, intervention (ALP)]

labourism
The idea that the interests of workers can be safeguarded in a capitalist
country by a combination of a strong trade union movement and a parlia-
mentary Labor Party
110 labour movement

Features of Australian labourism in the first half of the twentieth century

included a policy for government ownership of essential services, protec-
tive tariffs, the White Australia policy and the industrial arbitration system.
These policies were greatly modified or eliminated in the later years of the
century. More extreme left-wingers asserted that gradual improvements
in workers’ conditions were delaying the change to full socialism, which
could be achieved only by revolution.

labour movement
In Australia, the informal alliance between the trade unions and the Aus-
tralian Labor Party
This traditional and frequently used term does not have a precise meaning.
It is used to refer to a shared attitude but not a structured organisation.
The conventional spelling is ‘labour’ when the word is part of the term
‘labour movement’ but ‘Labor’ in the political party.

ladder of opportunity
A metaphor for social mobility
The term came into prominence in Australia during the 2004 federal elec-
tion campaign when the ALP leader, Mark Latham, used it repeatedly to
describe policies that were intended to help disadvantaged Australians
improve their position.
[social mobility]

laissez faire
The doctrine of non-interference
In politics, laissez faire is the policy of minimal government regulation or
involvement in economics, commerce or industry. In varying degrees, it is
one of the policies of conservative political parties.
[conservatism, economics, planning]

land rights
The movement for the return of land to Indigenous Australians
From the early 1960s the question of Aboriginal land rights became a
controversial public issue. It gained increased public interest as a result
of the Mabo decision in 1992, which rejected the legal concept of terra
nullius—that the land belonged to no one. State and Commonwealth
le­gislation followed amid controversy between Aboriginal rights groups
and mining and farming interests. The Wik decision of the High Court
in 1996 caused renewed controversy and pressure from farming interests
for new legislation.
[Mabo case, Native Title Act, Wik decision]
 landslide 111

landslide
An election which results in a large majority for one party, often associated
with a substantial swing in voting patterns
Sometimes a small swing can result in several seats changing hands. This
can occur when many seats were previously held by very narrow majorities.
[marginal electorate]

law
The rules by which a community or country is governed
There are two separate types of law: statute law and common law. The
processes of parliament produce statute law. Common law is built up by
custom and tradition and the decisions of courts.
[common law, statute law]

law and order

There are two interpretations: laws for the peace of a community; and a
slogan employed by embattled governments when confronted by public
protests
The two uses of the term focus attention on the need for a balance between
order and justice. Over-emphasis on order may result in unsuitable laws
and evils continuing indefinitely. But if people resorted to violence over
every imagined injustice, communities would live in fear and disorder.
[civil liberties, rule of law]

Law Reform commissions

Commissions established to investigate state and federal legal systems and
to make suggestions for their improvement
The Federal government established the Australian Law Reform Commis-
sion in 1975. Law Reform commissions have been established in every state
and the two territories, although not all have survived. They do not have
the power to make changes but can make recommendations to parliament.
[law, statute law]

Leader of the Government in the Senate

The senior minister in the Senate and the manager of government business
in that chamber
The position has responsibilities similar to those of the Leader of the
House in the House of Representatives.

Leader of the House

The minister appointed by the prime minister to organise proceedings in
the lower house of parliament
The main aim of the Leader of the House is to ensure that government
business, especially the passage of bills, is conducted without too much
112 Leader of the Opposition

delay. This requires consultation with the opposition and the presiding
officer of the house. In the Senate the position is called the Leader of the
Government.

Leader of the Opposition

The leader in parliament of the largest non-government party
The opposition leader, like the prime minister or a premier, is always from
the lower house. She or he is the opposition aspirant for the position
of prime minister or premier and is the chief debating opponent of the
government leader. The position of Leader of the Opposition is officially
recognised, and the holder of the position receives higher pay and bet-
ter facilities than backbenchers. Opposition leaders are often in danger of
being replaced after failing to win an election, or even between elections, as
there may be ambitious rivals waiting to take the position.
[backbencher, opposition]

League of Nations
An international organisation established soon after World War I with the
chief aim of maintaining peace
The League of Nations did not prevent the rise of fascism and Nazism, or
World War II. The USA did not join the League of Nations and Germany,
Italy and Japan left it before 1939. The United Nations is regarded as the
successor to the League of Nations and has received greater international
support.
[United Nations]

League of Rights
An extremist right-wing political organisation
Founded by Eric Butler in the 1940s, the League of Rights became an
Australia-­wide organisation in 1960. It supported apartheid in South
Africa, opposed communism and socialism and was antisemitic. The
league has attracted limited support from some conservative politicians.
[lunar right, racism]

leakage (of preference votes)

Votes for an eliminated candidate that do not follow that candidate’s rec-
ommended preferences
In forecasting the winner of an election before the count has been com-
pleted the distribution of eliminated candidates’ preferences are important.
These will mostly follow the candidates’ recommendations as shown on
their how-to-vote-cards. The votes that do not follow the card are referred
to as the ‘leakage’ of preferences.
[preferential voting]
 leaks 113

leaks
Unauthorised disclosure of confidential information, particularly from
government or political sources
Leaks can provide confidential information to politicians to use with the
aim of embarrassing their political opponents. Confidential infor­mation
from party sources, such as caucus meetings, may also be disclosed,
either deliberately for tactical, personal or factional reasons or innocently
through unguarded comments.
[caucus]

leftie
A term for a person who takes a left-wing political position or is alleged
to do so
It is often used as a criticism, not always accurately.

left-wing
A vague term indicating a position in the political spectrum
The meaning depends on the context. When applied to a political party it
indicates a leaning towards socialism. But when applied to a faction or an
individual within a party its meaning depends on the general stance of that
party. For example, the left-wing members of a conservative party would
be very different from the left-wing members of the Labor Party.
[political spectrum]

legal aid
Provision of legal services to people who cannot afford the full cost of
representation in court
The theoretical principle is that no one should be disadvantaged in legal
matters because of lack of funds. Although this ideal is not fully achieved,
financial assistance for legal services is provided in some cases to those
who cannot afford legal representation.
[civil rights and responsibilities]

legalism
Interpretation of the Constitution or legislation in accordance with very
strict legal concepts
Those who believe that greater importance should be placed on the inten-
tions of legislation and of the Constitution and that current attitudes
should be taken into account usually employ the term as a criticism. A
contrary view is that the courts could make interpretations that would
depend too greatly on the personal beliefs of the judges. Similar arguments
apply to literalism.
[literalism]
114 legislation

legislation
Laws made by parliament
The laws made by Australian parliaments—federal, state and territory—
make up statute law. The process is the parliamentary procedure of
introducing bills, debating them and voting for their approval or defeat. If
approved, they require formal assent by the governor or governor-general.
[common law, statute, statute law]

Legislative Assembly
The name of the lower house of parliament in most Australian states and
in the two mainland territories
It is the name of the lower house in New South Wales, Victoria and Western
Australia. It is also the name of the only house of parliament in Queens-
land, the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory. In South
Australia and Tasmania the lower house is called the House of Assembly.
[bicameral system, unicameral system]

Legislative Council
The name of the upper house in all Australian state parliaments, except
Queensland, which has only one house

legislative councillor
A member of parliament who is a member of the Legislative Council in
one of the state parliaments
Members of a Legislative Council have similar rights and duties to those of
members of a lower house. They may become ministers but not premiers,
who always come from a lower house. All legislative councillors have the
title ‘Honourable’.

legislature
An assembly of people empowered to make laws
The legislature is one of the three ‘arms of government’, the other two
being the executive and the judiciary. In democracies such as Australia the
parliaments have this power based on the principle of responsible govern-
ment, which requires that those who make the laws are responsible to the
people. Section 1 of the Constitution sets out the legislative powers of the
Australian parliament.
[arms of government, responsible government]

lemon socialism
Government financial assistance to private companies that might other-
wise collapse during a period of economic recession
The 2009 worldwide economic crisis provided many examples when
national governments gave massive amounts of financial help to major
 letterboxing 115

businesses such as banks and vehicle manufacturers. The term ‘lemon’

comes from its figurative application to second-hand cars with grave faults.
[economics, global financial crisis]

letterboxing
Delivery of political material to household letterboxes
A popular term used by political activists for hand-delivery of leaflets,
either by paid distributors or, more often, by party supporters. Opinions
differ on whether political material should be placed in letterboxes labelled
‘No junk mail’. Those in favour of delivery suggest that to call political
information ‘junk’ is to misunderstand the value of democracy and the
responsibility of citizens.

level playing field

A metaphor for international trade without tariffs or subsidies; sometimes
used to indicate fair competition in general
In particular, it is used to indicate the absence of tariffs and subsidies,
implying that fair competition would be the result. But other factors affect
international trade, such as great differences in rates of pay from country
to country.
[protection, subsidy, tariffs]

liberal democracy
A form of government based on the principle of fundamental human
rights for all, including those who hold and express unpopular beliefs
These rights include freedom of speech and assembly, protection of
minorities and freedom of religion. The possibility that a strong feeling
of a majority may endanger such liberal principles, even temporarily, is an
argument in favour of a formal Bill of Rights. An opposing argument is
that tradition is a more effective guarantee of these freedoms and there is
no need for a formal, codified document.
[Bill of Rights, liberalism, Universal Declaration of Human
Rights]

liberalism
A political ideology emphasising social reform, tolerance and freedom of
the individual
The philosopher and economist John Stuart Mill was an important influ-
ence on liberal thought in England in the mid nineteenth century and
increasing support for liberalism resulted in the growth of the long-­
established Liberal Party, which became a major force in England in the
late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Its main opponent was the
Conservative Party. ‘Liberal’ is used differently in different countries. In
the USA the term ‘liberal’ is used by conservatives to criticise those who are
alleged to have ‘leftist’ views. In Australia the Liberal Party is closer to the
116 Liberal Movement

British Conservative Party and became more so after the decline in influ-
ence of the ‘small-l Liberals’.
[bleeding heart liberal, conservatism, liberal democracy, small-l
Liberals]

Liberal Movement
A breakaway group from the Liberal Party in South Australia that devel-
oped into a short-lived political party
Founded in 1972 by Steele Hall, a Liberal member of parliament, it had
some success in parliamentary elections. Most of its members returned
to the Liberal Party in 1976 but some of them joined the Australian
Democrats.
[Australian Democrats]

Liberal National Party (LNP)

A combination of the Liberal Party and the National Party in Queensland
It was formed just before the 2009 Queensland state election to avoid Lib-
eral candidates and National Party candidates opposing one another in
some electorates—as had happened in earlier Queensland state elections.

Liberal Party (1909–1917)

See Fusion Party

Liberal Party (of Australia)

The major conservative party in Australia
The Liberal Party was founded in 1944, mainly through the efforts of R.G.
(later Sir Robert) Menzies. It has had substantial electoral success since
1949, particularly in federal politics, in coalition with the National (for-
merly Country) Party. The immediate predecessor of the Liberal Party was
the United Australia Party and, from 1917 to 1931, the Nationalist Party.
But there had been an earlier party called the Liberal Party (alternatively
called the Fusion Party) which existed from 1909 to 1917.
The Liberal Party’s record in government has been consistent with a
conservative ideology, modified by the provision of social services such as
family benefits and pensions. The party’s membership and support ranges
from small-l liberals to right-wing conservatives. The latter group won
power from the small-l Liberals in the 1980s and its domination continued
into the twenty-first century.
[conservatism, factions—conservative parties, Fusion Party,
Nationalist Party, United Australia Party]

literalism
Interpretation of the Constitution or legislation based on narrow defi­
nitions of the words
 Loan Council 117

Literalism is criticised as being too narrow a basis for interpretation; on

the other hand, there are fears that personal attitudes of the judges could
play too great a part if insufficient attention is paid to the actual words of
legislation and the Constitution. Similar arguments apply to legalism.
[High Court, legalism]

Loan Council
See Australian Loan Council

lobby
To attempt to influence attitudes or decisions of politicians, ministers and
governments
The term is derived from the custom of greeting and engaging politicians
in conversation in the lobbies or corridors of a parliament house. Lob-
bying may be carried out directly by the people interested in the matter,
or by professional lobbyists who are paid for their services. The average
person does not need to employ a lobbyist or go to a parliament house.
Members of parliament have electorate offices in various suburbs and
country towns, where people can go and express their views or explain
their problems.
[electorate office, lobbyist]

lobbyist
A person or company whose income-earning business aims to influence
political or ministerial decisions
Professional lobbying has become accepted as a normal and respectable
business and many companies and individuals are engaged in it. Never­
theless, lobbying is sometimes associated with donations to parties or
politicians in anticipation of favours. Some lobbyists spend a good deal
of time in and around the various parliament houses or other places fre-
quented by politicians, to whom they are often well known.
[slush fund]

local government
The third level of government in Australia, within every state and the
Northern Territory
Local government is also known as municipal government and the elected
assemblies are called municipal councils or, simply, councils. The powers
and responsibilities of local government are specified in Acts of the state
and territory parliaments. Funding mainly comes from rates and charges
levied in its own area by each council and from government grants. In
the early years of local government its main concern was the provision of
roads and drainage, but its responsibilities gradually widened and coun-
cils now make substantial contributions to community welfare, with
concern for people from childhood to old age. In conjunction with other
118 lockout

levels of government, councils also take an active part in planning and

development.
[mayor, tiers of government]

lockout
Direct action by an employer to prevent employees from working during
an industrial dispute
This may be in the form of mass dismissals, or by barring or locking the
entrances to the place of work. It is a tactic sometimes used by employ-
ers to persuade or coerce workers to agree to conditions desired by the
employer.
[industrial dispute, strike]

lock-up
The political meaning is a temporarily isolated place where journalists can
study official documents before they are made public
The arrangement provides journalists with a few hours to read and analyse
documents such as government budgets before they are made available to
the general public. This enables the news media to give summaries of long
and complicated documents immediately following their official release,
together with interpretations and comments by specialist writers.
[embargo]

logging
The felling of trees from forests for commercial purposes
Political controversy surrounds the logging industry as many environmen-
talists want logging areas to be more restricted than those engaged in the
timber industry would like. Selective logging is the removal of some trees
and the leaving of others. Clear felling is the removal of all trees in a par-
ticular area.

lower house
One of the two houses of parliament in a bicameral system
The party that controls the lower house forms the government, no matter
which party has the numbers in the upper house, and the prime minister
and the premiers always come from the lower house. Lower houses have
been given the title the ‘people’s house’. For many years they were elected on a
broader franchise than the upper houses. In the Commonwealth parliament,
the House of Representatives is elected on the principle of ‘one vote–one
value’, but the Senate is not. The number of senators is the same in each state
despite the great disparity in their populations. In Australia, all parliaments
have an upper and lower house except Queensland, the Australian Capital
Territory and the Northern Territory. Each of these has a unicameral system.
[one vote–one value, people’s house, unicameral system, adult
franchise]
 lunar right 119

lunar right
Vernacular term applied to extreme right-wing and neo-Nazi groups
The term is comparable to the ‘loony left’, which identifies the more extreme
leftists in Australian politics. Organisations belonging to the ‘lunar right’
include Eric Campbell’s New Guard, P.R. ‘Inky’ Stephensen’s Australia First
Movement, National Action, the National Front and Eric Butler’s League
of Rights. Such groups sometimes try to infiltrate branches of the major
conservative parties.
[League of Rights, National Front, New Guard, racism]

Lyons Forum
A socially conservative group or faction formed by some conservative
members of Federal parliament in 1992
It condemned euthanasia and abortion, and supported heavy censorship
of television programs. The secretive Lyons Forum received publicity at
the time of the 1996 controversy over the Northern Territory’s euthanasia
legislation, which it opposed. The group was named for a UAP prime min-
ister of the 1930s, J.A. Lyons.
[Endeavour Forum]
M
Mabo case
In 1992 the High Court ruled that, under some circumstances, Indigenous
Australians and Torres Strait Islanders have a continuing right to land
Eddie Mabo, a Torres Strait Islander, took the case to the High Court in
1982. The court decided that the native right to land is a common law one,
but exists only where the native people have maintained their connection
with the land and where an Act of Parliament has not discontinued their
rights. The court’s decision was based on its rejection of the doctrine of
terra nullius, which is the legal term for the notion that Australia was a land
that belonged to no one before colonisation. The Mabo decision set a legal
precedent and resulted in renewed public interest over Aboriginal land
rights. New Commonwealth and state legislation was passed, including the
Commonwealth Native Title Act. The Act did not resolve the question of
whether native title continued over pastoral lease land and this was the
subject of the Wik case in the High Court in 1996.
[common law, land rights, Native Title Act, terra nullius, Wik
decision]

machine politics
Control of a political party or a section of it by a tightly organised group
or by a powerful leader
Machine politics has the danger that those in control may focus on ben-
efiting associates and friends rather than formulating sound policy. It
can result in the promotion of unsuitable people and poor legislation. In
practice, a modified form of machine politics often applies with the ruling
group acting partly in its own interests while retaining a substantial degree
of interest in political ideals.
[faction, kitchen cabinet]

macroeconomics
Economics relating to the whole economy of a nation
 maiden speech 121

Macroeconomics deals with national income, balance of trade, general

wage rates, unemployment, interest rates, prices and inflation. Govern-
ment policy and action at a macroeconomic level depend on the economic
theories in favour with a government, the condition of the national
economy, and on powerful international economic influences that affect
investment and trade.
[microeconomics]

maiden speech
See first speech

main committee
A parliamentary committee that considers bills referred to it by agreement
between the government and non-government MPs
Established in 1994 to help speed up parliamentary proceedings, the main
committee meets concurrently with a sitting of the house. Bills referred
to the committee are ones which are considered unlikely to be conten-
tious and it attempts to reach decisions by agreement. The results of the
main committee’s work are reported to the house, which makes the final
decisions.
[committee system]

Main Street
A figurative term used in political and economic discussion which refers
to local business activity
The term comes from the United States but is frequently seen in Aus­tralian
publications. It is used in conjunction with a similar metonym, ‘Wall
Street’, to comment on top-level economic decisions and the consequences
on suburban or small-town business activity.
[big end of town, Wall Street]

majority
More than half of the valid votes in an election, or more supporters than
opponents
The term can also mean the excess of votes received by the winning can-
didate (before or after distribution of preferences) over other votes polled.
It can mean more than half of the first preference votes, or more than half
the votes after preferences have been distributed.
[first-past-the-post system, plurality, preferential voting]

malapportionment
The division of a nation or state into electorates so that the number of
electors is much smaller in some electorates than in others
Malapportionment can result in a party winning a majority of members
of parliament with a total vote well below 50 per cent. For example, in
122 managerialism

Queensland in the time of the Bjelke-Petersen government, his party won

more than 60 per cent of the seats with 40 per cent of the vote. Oppo­sition
to malapportionment led to the adoption of the slogan ‘one vote–one
value’. Malapportionment should not be confused with gerrymander,
which is a different type of system but also unfair.
[gerrymander, one vote–one value]

managerialism
The acceptance of management as a profession in its own right whatever
the nature of the activity being managed
With the increased complexity of organisations it is widely believed that
the same principles of good management apply whatever the technical
area of operation may be, and they apply to commercial companies, gov-
ernment entities and not-for-profit charitable organisations.

mandate
The right to govern or legislate on particular matters, based on the approval
of the electors
The term has no firm definition and there is sometimes controversy over
political parties’ claims to possess a mandate. One interpretation is that a
party (or coalition) that has won a majority in the lower house has obtained
a mandate from the people. This is the basis on which a governor-­general
or a state governor asks a party leader to form a government. The meaning
of the term is often extended to mean approval to legislate in accordance
with the winning party’s policy. A contrary argument is that the mandate
does not extend beyond the policy expressed before the election, and does
not necessarily apply to all of it.

manhood suffrage
The legal entitlement of all male adults to vote
The term has no more than historical interest in Australia because of the
adoption of universal suffrage for federal elections in 1902. The term
‘manhood suffrage’ came from an earlier time when voting was mostly
restricted to property owners.
[franchise, adult franchise]

manifesto
The stated policies of a political party or candidate
The term applies particularly to published policies during election
campaigns.
[election policy]

marginal electorate
One in which support for the main candidates is almost equal, after distri-
bution of preferences
 market system 123

The results in marginal electorates are of great interest as the outcome in a

few of them can mean success or defeat for the contending parties. These
electorates are given special attention during election campaigns by the
parties and the news media. Because of this interest, marginal electorates
often attract many candidates who hope to gain publicity for their parties
or themselves.
[two-party-preferred vote]

market system
An economic policy or model favouring minimal government involve-
ment or regulation
Sometimes called ‘the market’, the policy is contentious and debate is cen-
tred on the degree of government regulation. Some political conservatives
argue for little or no government intervention and place emphasis on the
importance of the freedom to trade in a variety of markets. Left-of-centre
opinion favours significant government involvement to maintain stability
and low rates of unemployment, in keeping with Keynesian theories. For
some three decades after World War II this policy was widely adopted in
most countries, but from the 1960s it was gradually replaced by the market
system. Major economic difficulties erupted in 2008 and the attitude of
governments changed again; they chose to intervene substantially in an
effort to reduce the damage.
[economics, Keynesianism, recession]

Marxism
A political theory, or theories, based on the work of Karl Marx and a term
often used as a synonym for communism
Karl Marx was a nineteenth-century German philosopher and, together
with Friedrich Engels, he provided the theories on which communism
has been based. There is doubt and controversy over the interpretation of
Marx’s ideas and whether communist governments have followed Marxist
principles.
[communism, political theory]

mass media
The means of communication with very large numbers of people, particu-
larly through newspapers, radio and television
The mass media include electronic and print media. The first group
includes radio and television and, perhaps, telephones, and the Internet.
The second includes newspapers, magazines, books and printed advertis-
ing. Newspapers, radio and television are regarded as very important in
influencing public opinion on political matters.
[fourth estate, oligopoly]
124 mateship

mateship
A core value of Australian national identity, consistent with the belief that
Australian men, especially manual workers, look after each other
Mateship was accepted as a significant element in working-class ethos and
radical nationalism, which emerged in Australia in the late nineteenth cen-
tury. It is characterised by confidence that Australian men demonstrate
unusual levels of care towards their workmates and comrades in times of
danger or adversity. The ideal of the digger in World War I, especially from
the defeat at Gallipoli in 1915, is consistent with the concept of mateship.
The term is inserted, sometimes inappropriately, into political rhetoric.
The term has been criticised because it seems to exclude women and
also because of the implication that lively concern for others is uniquely
Australian.
[mores]

mayor
One of various titles denoting the presiding officer of a municipal council
Different titles are used in different states and for different classifications
of municipalities. The title ‘lord mayor’ is used in capital city councils and
‘shire president’ in rural district councils. Other titles are ‘chairman’ and
‘warden’.
[local government]

means testing
Assessment of a person’s income and possessions to determine whether
conditions are met for government financial assistance
Means testing can be a controversial political issue. Complications arise
in relation to medical benefits and to the careful manipulation of assets in
order to comply with the regulations that apply to the particular form of
government benefit.
[pensions, social services]

media conference
A prearranged meeting between members of the news media and a public
figure, such as a minister
An older term is press conference, but radio and television are often present
in addition to newspaper reporters. These conferences may be held regu-
larly or called to deal with an event or situation that has suddenly arisen.
[mass media, propaganda]

Medibank
The original universal health scheme in Australia established by the Whit-
lam government in 1974 and which was the forerunner of Medicare
 Medicare 125

Reproduced courtesy of Ron Tandberg

Medibank was opposed by the Australian Medical Association, the Lib-

eral Party, the Country Party and the Democratic Labor Party. Despite this
opposition, the necessary legislation was passed and the scheme began
operating in 1975. It was gradually modified by the Fraser government and
virtually abolished in 1979, although a remnant, Medibank Private, con-
tinued as a private health insurance provider. The principle of the original
Medibank was revived in 1983 under the name of Medicare.
[Medicare, social services]

Medicare
A national health scheme that aims to make medical attention and hospital
accommodation available to all Australian residents
In 1983 the Hawke Labor government introduced Medicare to provide free
public hospital treatment and refunds of a substantial portion of the cost
of medical consultations. It has been financed partly by a levy on income
and partly by government. Private health insurance may be purchased to
supplement the benefits provided by Medicare. The major political par-
ties have traditionally held opposed or divergent views on public health
services although the Howard government allowed Medicare to continue.
[Medibank, social services]
member
A shortened form of member of parliament
The use of the term is usually restricted to contexts that make it clear that
a member of parliament is the intended meaning.

member of parliament
An elected member of any of the houses of parliament in Australia: federal,
state or territory
126 Menzies Research Centre

Members of parliament have the responsibility of representing their con-

stituents and the opportunity of contributing to the law-making process.
Although members of parliament are frequently criticised or ridiculed,
there is great competition to become an MP and many of them are highly
qualified, able and experienced.
[constituent, legislature, representative democracy]

Menzies Research Centre

A conservative think tank
Established in Canberra in 1994, this centre is named after Sir Robert
Menzies, a former Liberal prime minister. It undertakes political research,
arranging seminars and preparing publications. The centre describes itself
as providing a ‘focal point for academics with a Liberal leaning’ and ‘a plat-
form for the promotion of Liberal views’.
[think tank]

meritocracy
A social or political system in which power and position depend on ability
rather than on class or wealth
An essential characteristic of such a system would be the provision of an
equal standard of education to all students, with the aim of each one being
able to enter an occupation and achieve a position according to ability.
Advocates of a meritocracy argue that countries that do not adopt such a
system will fall behind in international competition.
[classes, equal opportunity]

me-tooism
The propensity for political parties to copy each other’s policies under
some circumstances
If a particular policy of one party has become popular it may be adopted
by the other despite being contrary to its traditional attitudes. Also, media
scrutiny has made politicians nervous of proposing untried policies. Me-
tooism is one way to play it safe.
[policy formation]

microeconomic reform
Reforms intended to increase the efficiency of individual sectors of the
economy
The changes usually require government action or support and the
broad aims are to improve a country’s living standards and international
competitiveness by reducing costs. Targeted changes include increased
competition, reform of restrictive work practices and reductions in tar-
iffs. In Australia, microeconomic reforms have sometimes met with strong
opposition.
[productivity, restrictive trade practices, tariffs]
 microeconomics 127

microeconomics
Economics that deal with various segments of a nation’s economy, such as
specific industries and companies
Microeconomics can apply to a wide range of activities from small busi-
nesses to nationwide industries, and applies to individual people as workers
and as consumers. It deals with the priorities and effective use of resources
and the aims of people affected, such as profit and incomes. The boundary
between macroeconomics and microeconomics is unclear.
[economics, macroeconomics]

middle class
A position on the social or occupational ladder of status
The middle class traditionally (in Great Britain) consisted of professional
people and managers but in Australia there are no clear definitions of
classes such as ‘upper’, ‘middle’, ‘working’ and ‘lower’ classes. A wide range
of Australians regard themselves as ‘middle class’ and this has some conse-
quences in adopting political policy.
[battler, classes, dog-whistle politics]

middle class welfare

Government assistance, usually in the form of direct or indirect financial
benefits, for people who are in moderately secure circumstances
Political matters that are affected include health, education and rates of tax
for different levels of income. The middle class is reputed to include many
voters who are not consistently allied, or ‘rusted on’, to any particular party.
For this reason some political commentators suggest that election poli-
cies are influenced by the aim of political parties to win support from the
swinging voters of the middle class.

Millennium Development Goals

A United Nations initiative that set targets for living standards for people
throughout the world
The goals, to be achieved by the year 2015, were agreed upon in 2000—the
beginning of the new millennium—and include eradication of extreme
poverty and hunger, universal primary education, better health, adequate
shelter, fairer trade and international debt relief, gender equality and
en­vironmental sustainability.
[climate change, Universal Declaration of Human Rights]

minister
A member of parliament appointed to the executive and usually responsi-
ble for a significant segment of public administration such as a department
In the words of the Constitution, ministers are chosen by the governor-
general and become members of the Federal Executive Council but, in
128 ministerial adviser

practice, the political party (or coalition) that is in government chooses

ministers. Several factors in addition to their personal abilities affect the
selection of ministers.
[accountability of ministers, executive (arm of government),
ministry (minister’s responsibility]

ministerial adviser
A senior member of a minister’s personal staff
Advisers can be expected to have attitudes and aims similar to those of the
minister. As their title implies, they give advice to the minister after investi-
gating problems and policy matters. They provide a link with senior public
servants in the minister’s department. Advisers also deal with numerous
less important or routine matters that do not warrant the minister’s per-
sonal attention.

ministerial brief
A concise explanation to assist a minister in decision-making and in pub-
licly explaining a course of action, or one under consideration
Such a brief may contain the essential background facts: what the proposal
aims to achieve, the arguments that may be raised against it, possibly some
spin, and recommendations on a course of action.
[spin]

ministerial code of conduct

A code to ensure confidence in ministerial honesty and accountability, and
to eliminate conflicts of interests
The code was established by the then prime minister, John Howard, and
published in 1998. Such a code does not have the authority of parliament
and can be changed by the prime minister. In December 2007 the minis-
terial code was modified by the incoming prime minister, Kevin Rudd. It
includes a range of measures to ensure greater scrutiny of federal minis-
ters. It requires lobbyists to be listed on a public register before accessing
ministers; bans electoral fundraising at the Lodge and Kirribilli House; and
requires ministers to divest themselves of shareholdings. It also includes
restrictions on their business dealings after they have left office. There is no
formal code of conduct for federal backbenchers, although codes do apply
to all MPs in some states.
[conflict of interests]

ministerial responsibility
The convention that a minister takes responsibility for the actions of her
or his department
Ministers are answerable to parliament and, if there is a major blunder
or impropriety, the minister is expected to resign, even though she or he
was not directly responsible. There is an uncertain line between matters
 ministerial statement 129

that require resignation and less important mistakes by departmental

officials that could be expected to happen from time to time in any large
organisation.

ministerial statement
A speech in parliament by a minister on a matter of topical importance
Such a statement is distinct from a minister’s speech in a debate on a bill.
Ministers also use other opportunities to share views and information
with parliament, such as answers during Question Time.
[Dorothy Dixer]

ministry (as a group)

The prime minister (or premier) together with the other ministers
After an election a ministry is formed and given the name of the govern-
ment leader, for example ‘the Deakin ministry’. The name remains until the
next election or until a new prime minister is appointed. Another meaning
of the term ‘ministry’ is the area of responsibility of an individual minister.
[cabinet, executive]

ministry (minister’s responsibility)

The area of responsibility, such as a department, a minister is commis-
sioned to administer
Sometimes a minister may be given charge of more than one department,
or may be allotted none. In the latter case, the title applied is ‘minister
without portfolio’. The term ‘ministry’ has a separate meaning, namely, all
the ministers as a group.
[department, ministry (as a group)]

minority government
A government formed by a party without a majority of members in the
lower house
This type of government must rely upon the voting support in parliament
of a sufficient number of independents or members of another party or
parties. The likelihood of a minority government is greater when the elec-
toral system—such as proportional representation—increases the chance
of candidates from small parties winning seats.
[deadlock (lack of a majority), proportional representation]

moderate
Between conservative and radical, but the meaning of the term depends
on the context
In politics, the term is used in describing policies and people active in
political parties or associated bodies. For example, when used to describe
130 moderates

people in left-wing organisations, the term is sometimes used to indicate

that a member is more conservative than most members of the group.
[political spectrum]

moderates
Conservative politicians with small-l liberal attitudes
The term is used as an alternative to the cumbersome ‘small-l liberal’
expression. It is sometimes applied to individuals to indicate their princi-
ples, apart from any possible connection to any faction.
[factions—conservative parties, small-l Liberals (faction)]

modes of address for members of parliament

There are various official titles for different categories of members of
parliament
These titles are used in formal documents and usually in correspondence.
Ministers in state and federal parliaments have the title ‘honourable’, as do all
members of state upper houses. Members of the Senate have the title ‘Sena-
tor’, except those who are also ministers; their title is ‘Senator the Honourable’.
Members of the House of Representatives and the lower houses of state par-
liaments retain their normal titles of Mr, Ms etc. In parliamentary debate,
members of lower houses refer to their colleagues as ‘honourable members’.
Ex-ministers retain the title of ‘honourable’ as, in theory, they remain mem-
bers of the Executive Council, although they do not attend its meetings.
[protocol (ceremonial)]

monarchy
A form of government having a monarch as either its effective or cer­
emonial head
A monarch usually acquires the position by hereditary right and can be a
king, queen, emperor or empress or be called by some other title of simi-
lar meaning. Australia is described as a constitutional monarchy. Its form
of government is defined in the Constitution and includes the monarch,
or the monarch’s representative, in the Federal parliament. The governor-
general is the monarch’s representative in the Federal parliament, and the
governors hold similar positions in each of the state parliaments.
[Constitution of Australia, constitutional monarchy, head of
state]

monetarism
An economic theory that gained popularity in the 1970s and largely dis-
placed Keynesianism
Monetarism is closely identified with the United States economist Milton
Friedman and emphasises the importance of control over the money sup-
ply. Supporters of monetarism maintain that tight control over the money
supply is a powerful and desirable method of influencing the economy
 monetary 131

of a country and restricting inflation. They are critical of action by gov-

ernments to influence the economy by fiscal means, such as government
expenditure to ease unemployment. Monetarism and associated economic
theories were widely accepted until the economic upheaval that began in
2008 caused a revision of economic beliefs.
[Keynesianism, market system]

monetary
An economic term applying to the supply of money and credit

money bills
Bills introduced in parliament to authorise government expenditure or for
taxation changes
[appropriation bills]

monopoly
A monopoly exists when only one person or organisation is able to provide
a particular service or product
The seller may be able to fix prices and have too little regard for quality.
The same problems can occur when a small group of organisations (an
oligopoly) control the supply of a product. Competition can encourage
low prices and good quality, but can lead to the failure of some companies
and the emergence of a monopoly. The ‘anti-trust’ legislation of the United
States is an example of legislation aimed at curtailing the problem.
[oligopoly, restrictive trade practices]

moratorium
A postponement of an activity or obligation
In politics it can apply to a temporary relaxation of penalties on an
unlawful activity, such as the possession of illegal weapons, which may be
surrendered without penalty during the period of the amnesty. Another
example would be the postponement of debt repayments during a time of
severe economic difficulties.

mores
The values and principles and resulting customs and conventions of a
society
The mores of a society are the result of a wide range of interacting influ-
ences, including customs and traditions, peer group pressure, religion,
ethnicity, politics and education. The term ‘mores’ comes from Latin and
did not come into popular use as an English word until the twentieth
century
[ideology, peer group pressure, society]
132 motherhood statement

motherhood statement
An attempt to gain acceptance of an assertion by comparing it with univer-
sally liked values or beliefs
In politics, the term is used to criticise a speaker or writer who uses this
tactic instead of clearly explaining what is proposed.
[propaganda, spin]

motion
A formal proposal for consideration by parliament (or by any meeting)
that a specified course of action be undertaken
There are several types of motions put forward in parliament. Some are
procedural and non-controversial, such as formal motions to allow items
of business to proceed. Others are contentious and may be debated at
length. At small meetings, such as those of a local club, proposals are put
forward in the form of a ‘motion’. If approved by the meeting the motion
becomes a ‘resolution’.
[resolution]

movement
In a political or social sense, like-minded people acting together to bring
about a change, or to forestall it
A movement is different from a political party as it does not aim at form-
ing a government. The dividing line between a movement and a pressure
group is less clear but movements have broader aims and can attract sup-
porters from several sectors of society. Examples include conservation,
euthanasia and feminism.
[ideology, pressure group]

Movement, the
A secretive political organisation founded in 1942 and led by B.A. San-
tamaria, which in 1957 became the National Civic Council and was closely
allied to the Democratic Labor Party
The Movement began as an active opponent of communists in the trade
unions. Its interests and activities soon extended beyond simple anti-
communism and it became a powerful force within the ALP, especially in
Victoria. It was centrally involved in the Labor ‘Split’ of 1955 that led to the
formation of the Democratic Labor Party.
The Movement relied heavily on the support of Catholic clergy and
laymen, although its relationship to the Catholic Church was a mat-
ter of uncertainty and controversy within the church. The existence and
operations of the Movement were kept as secret as possible. Codenames
such as ‘the organisation’ or ‘the show’ were used by members who were
instructed to deny its existence in its early years. Eventually the unoffi-
cial term ‘the Movement’ became widely used by historians and authors.
The Movement was, at different times, officially named the Catholic Social
 muck-raking 133

Studies Movement and the Catholic Social Movement. Finally it became

the National Civic Council.
[Labor ‘Split’, National Civic Council]

muck-raking
See dirt file

mud-slinging
Allegations, often false, against the character or conduct of a political
opponent
Even true criticisms may be properly described as ‘mud-slinging’ when
they are used simply to distract attention from a topic of debate that could
be damaging. Claims that critics are ‘mud-slinging’ are sometimes used in
an attempt to belittle or deflect well-justified criticism.
[dirty tricks campaign]

multiculturalism
In Australia, the belief and policy that all residents should be able to live in
harmony, whatever their cultural, religious or ethnic backgrounds
Multiculturalism also includes acceptance and encouragement of immigrants
retaining much of their traditional cultures. A consequence of multicultur-
alism is the need for long-term residents and recent immigrants to accept
expressions of a wide variety of cultures within the Australian community.
[assimilation, integration, racism]

multi-member electorate
An electorate that is represented by more than one member in a particular
house of parliament
The Senate has multi-member electorates in each state and territory and so
do the parliaments of Tasmania, the ACT and the Northern Territory. The
Victorian upper house also has multi-member electorates.
[electorate, proportional representation]

multinational corporation
An organisation with substantial business interests in a number of differ-
ent countries
Also called ‘transnational’, these are often huge business organisations
that may take over or displace local companies. Their beneficial aspects
include their research and development capability and economies of scale.
Their disadvantages include those typical of monopolies and oligopolies,
in­cluding the closure of long-established local enterprises.
[monopoly, oligopoly]

municipal councils
See local government
N
naming a member
A disciplinary action taken in response to unacceptable behaviour in par-
liament by an MP
The formal naming of a member by the presiding officer is usually followed
by a motion for the suspension of the offending member from parliament.
This practice is intended to assist the presiding officer in maintaining rea-
sonable standards of debate and conduct.
[presiding officer, suspension]

nation
An independent country with its own government
States that have joined together in federations, such as Australia or the
United States, have their separate state governments but these states are
not completely independent and are not ‘nations’.
[federalism, polity]

national anthem
The official song or musical expression of a nation
Australia’s national anthem is ‘Advance Australia Fair’, which may be sung
or the music played without words. It replaced ‘God Save the Queen’ (or
‘King’) in 1974. ‘God Save the Queen’ was reinstated for some ceremonies
in 1976, and again replaced by ‘Advance Australia Fair’ in 1984.

National Civic Council (NCC)

A politically influential organisation closely connected to the Democratic
Labor Party for many years
The National Civic Council had that name from 1957 but, in practice, it
was the same organisation as the Movement. It had the same leader, B.A.
Santamaria. It retained the support of those Catholic clergy and laymen,
particularly in Victoria, who had supported the Movement. It continued
the publication of the newspaper News Weekly. The NCC also had a close
 national colours 135

and supportive relationship with the Democratic Labor Party until that
party faded in the 1970s. From that time, the National Civic Council moved
away from active politics and focused on ethical and moral questions.
[Democratic Labor Party, Movement, the]

national colours
Green and gold are Australia’s official national colours
The governor-general made the declaration of the national colours in
1984. The colours were precisely specified as ‘Pantone Matching System
numbers 116C and 348C, as used for printing on paper’.

national debt
The money owed by all levels of government to creditors inside and out-
side the country
The national debt is sometimes called the ‘public debt’ as it is indirectly
owed by all the people of a nation. In Australia the national debt is the total
of Commonwealth, state, territory and local government debt.

National Estate
Assets of special national importance
They can be natural or man-made and include unspoilt natural areas and
some historic buildings.

National Farmers’ Federation (NFF)

A peak body having primary producers’ organisations as its members
The NFF was formed in 1979 and incorporated existing organisations that
represented farmers and graziers. It is a natural ally of the National Party
but sometimes expresses views different from those of the Nationals.
[primary producers’ organisations]

National Front
An extreme right-wing racist group founded in Australia in 1978
This group has receded from view and is significant only in demonstrating
the persistence of racist intolerance among a minority of Australians.
[lunar right, racism]

national interest, the

A nation’s survival and its economic, military, social and cultural objectives
National interest can include independent survival and security, the health
and wellbeing of it people, economic security and growth and preservation
of its culture.
[essential services, civil liberties, Universal Declaration of
Human Rights, security (national), security (social)]
136 nationalisation

nationalisation
The establishment of government organisations for the provision of goods
or services or the compulsory acquisition of private organisations by
government
Nationalisation can be in the form of a new enterprise or activity or the
take-over of a private company. A nationalised undertaking may be a
monopoly, or may operate in competition with private companies. There
have been several such bodies in Australia, mostly in service industries,
and some have been sold to private owners. The Commonwealth Bank,
founded in 1911, was a successful and well-known example of a national-
ised organisation until sold in the 1990s.
[privatisation]

nationalism
Feelings of loyalty and pride in one’s country, its people, its culture and
traditions
Nationalism ranges from an admirable loyalty to the country and com-
munity to excessive feelings that can lead to intolerance, racism and
aggression. Nationalism in Australia is complex because of the diverse
origins and attitudes of its people. Australians now include Aborigines,
descendants from early settlers and more recent immigrants from all parts
of the world including a wide range of races and cultures. Consequently
nationalism in Australia is much different from that in countries with less
eclectic communities.
[imperialism, patriotism]

Nationalist Party
The major conservative party from 1917 to 1931, when the United Aus-
tralia Party replaced it
The name ‘Nationalist Party’ was adopted when a group of dissident ALP
members, including the Labor leader W.M. ‘Billy’ Hughes, combined with
the Liberal (or Fusion) Party. The Nationalists, alone or in coalition with
the Country Party, continued as the federal government from 1917 to
1929, when Labor won and James Scullin became prime minister.
[Country Party, Fusion Party, United Australia Party]

national parks
Areas that are legally reserved so that their natural or highly valued quali-
ties will be safeguarded
Some are large tracts of wilderness set aside to preserve the natural
e­nvironment. Others are small but with special qualities, such as water-
falls, breeding areas for various species of wildlife or have other special
or historic value. Australia has one of the largest national park systems
in the world, covering over 24 million hectares of diverse landscape from
lush rainforest to waterless desert. A number of Australia’s national parks
 National Party 137

have been declared World Heritage Areas. Development is prohibited or is

strictly limited in these areas and visitors have to follow specified rules of
behaviour so that the nature of the parks will not be altered or damaged.
[conservation]

National Party
An important, rurally based conservative political party, formerly known
as the Country Party
The National Party supports private enterprise, although it advocates gov-
ernment involvement and assistance in rural matters. It adopted the name
in 1982 but, as an organisation, has operated since the for­mation of the Aus-
tralian Country Party in 1920. The name was changed to National Country
Party in 1975 and changed again, in 1982, to National Party. The names of
the rurally based parties are not the same in every state although, in prac-
tice, they are closely connected to the National Party. It has frequently joined
the city-based conservative party to form coalition governments, particu-
larly in federal politics. The National Party should not be confused with the
Nationalist Party, the city-based conservative party from 1917 to 1931.
[coalition, Country Party, United Australia Party]

National Seniors Australia

An Australia-wide, community organisation for people over 50 years of age
With branches in all states and mainland territories, this organisation’s
membership includes people still at work, pensioners and self-funded reti-
rees. It provides a range of services to its members and lobbies on their
behalf.

national service
Compulsory military service, including training during peacetime
National service usually applies to young men and they are required to
serve for a set period of time, typically three months. Alternative types of
service are sometimes provided for those who object to military service.
The term ‘conscription’ is used during wartime and has a similar meaning.
There have been intermittent periods of national service in Australia, but
none since the Vietnam War.
[conscription]

National Trusts
Voluntary organisations having the aim of preserving selected natural
areas and entities of historic significance
These organisations identify geographical areas, buildings and other items
that are considered to be worthy of preservation and encourage govern-
ments and others to save them from destruction. In some cases, such as
historic buildings, they arrange for restoration and preservation.
[National Estate]
138 National Union (faction)

National Union (faction)

An unpublicised group based in Melbourne that exerted a dominating
influence in the United Australia Party
The National Union collected and controlled conservative party funds and
had a major role in policy-making and the selection of candidates. A simi-
lar group, the Consultative Council, operated in Sydney. The nature of the
National Union, the identity of its members and its substantial political
power were unknown to most Australians at the time. In the early 1940s it
was superseded by the Institute of Public Affairs.
[factions—conservative parties, Institute of Public Affairs]

Native Title Act

Commonwealth legislation dealing with Aboriginal land rights and related
matters that followed the Mabo decision of 1992
The bill was introduced in 1993 after much preliminary publicity and
controversy. There were sharp differences of opinion among interested
groups, particularly between Aboriginal people and the mining and farm-
ing industries. The legislation was passed in December 1993 after many
amendments and a difficult passage through the Senate. The Native Title
Act did not resolve the question of the status of native title when land is
subject to pastoral and mining leases and left that matter to be determined
by the courts. The High Court Wik decision of December 1996 declared
that native title and pastoral leases could co-exist.
[land rights, Mabo case, Wik decision]

natural law
Rules applying to human conduct, which some people assert are implied
by nature and are immutable
There are different opinions on whether or not there are natural laws of
this kind and what they may be, and these differences are an additional
factor in some political debates, especially on matters of a philosophic or
moral nature, such as euthanasia.
[common law, conscience vote, ethics, euthanasia, statute law]

NCC
See National Civic Council

negative gearing
A form of tax relief for property investors
Negative gearing allows taxpayers to reduce their overall tax liabilities by
making losses on investment properties. Critics argue that negative gear-
ing is a form of unfair tax avoidance for the rich, and call for its abolition.
[taxation, tax avoidance]
 neoconservatism 139

neoconservatism
A political philosophy that emerged in the USA in the 1980s that supported
aggressive military policy, Christian fundamentalism and neoliberal eco-
nomic beliefs
Adherents of neoconservatism are referred to as ‘neocons’. They gained
influence under the presidency of George W. Bush and are socially con-
servative, with links to evangelical Christianity. They are opposed to the
provision of social services and favour minimal government expenditure,
except for military purposes.

neoliberalism
The economic philosophy of the ‘free market’ or ‘the market system’
The characteristics of neoliberalism include reliance on the unregulated
market, reduced public expenditure, deregulation and privatisation. It
displaced Keynesianism in popularity in the latter years of the twentieth
century.
[Keynesianism, Thatcherism]

nepotism
The granting of favours or prized positions to friends or relatives by pow-
erful people
Nepotism can be practised by governments, private enterprise and various
organisations. The word is derived from the Latin word nepos, meaning
nephew or grandson.
[jobs for the boys, meritocracy, old boy network]

neutrality
The policy of a country that chooses not to become directly involved in a
war
A country close to a war zone does not necessarily have the choice of
being neutral as one of the warring nations may invade. But those directly
involved in a war sometimes find it advantageous to have a neutral country
nearby for industrial and commercial reasons and to enable indirect con-
tact to be made with enemy nations.
[isolationism]

New Australian
A name applied to immigrants, especially foreign language speakers, after
World War II
The term was promoted by the then immigration minister, Arthur Calwell,
with the aim of overcoming racial prejudice or suspicion and to combat
the use of derogatory expressions.
[multiculturalism, racism]
140 New Guard

New Guard
An extremist right-wing organisation operating in Australia in the 1930s
The New Guard claimed to have great loyalty to the British Empire but
followed fascist ideology and methods, including the training of unau-
thorised paramilitary personnel. It was founded by Eric Campbell in 1931
and had some characteristics in common with a more recently organised
group, the League of Rights.
[League of Rights, lunar right]

New Left
Left-wing movements in the 1960s and 1970s that focused on a wide range
of political issues, including discrimination relating to gender, race and
sexuality
The New Left in the USA was associated with the hippy counter-culture
and tertiary students and their critiques of traditional conservative values.
In Australia the term New Left is applied to radical historiography that
differs from the interpretation of the Old Left when dealing with the Cold
War.
[Old Left]

New Right
A loose amalgamation of right-wing conservatives; also a group or faction
within the Liberal Party
The term came into prominence in the 1980s and the group has included
well-known people from commerce, farming organisations and the aca-
demic world. Doctrines of the New Right include advocacy of monetarism,
and opposition to public ownership, trade unions and extended social
services. New Right attitudes have been broadly similar to those of the
Dries and the H.R. Nicholls Society. As a faction within the Liberal Party
it became powerful in the 1980s and took over control from the small-l
Liberals.
[Dries (faction), Nicholls Society, Thatcherism]

new states movement

Organised activity to create new states
The Australian Constitution makes provision for the creation of new states
but only with the parliamentary approval of the state or states concerned.
There have been several attempts to create new states since Federation, but
none has been successful.

nexus (political)
The relationship between the number of senators and the number of
members of the House of Representatives
 Nicholls, (H.R.) Society 141

The Constitution requires that the number of the lower house members be
approximately twice the number of senators.

Nicholls, (H.R.) Society

A far-right group opposed to trade unions and the arbitration system
Founded in Melbourne in 1986, the organisation’s original steering com-
mittee included several members with New Right or Dries factional
allegiance. H. R. Nicholls, whose name has been adopted by the society,
was highly critical of Justice Higgins, the Arbitration Court’s president
who established the basic wage in 1907.
[basic wage, Dries (faction)]

nimby
Acronym for ‘not in my back yard’
Nimby is used as a term of criticism to describe a person who wants the
benefits of public services and infrastructure but is unwilling to accept any
disadvantages.

no-confidence motion
An attempt to demonstrate that a government or a minister lacks support
in parliament
If such a motion is carried in a lower house the government or the min-
ister is expected to resign. A no-confidence motion is similar to a censure
motion except that it does not apply to an individual member.
[censure motion]

nomination for election

The procedure required to be officially listed as an intending candidate
A candidate must meet criteria similar to those that must be met by vot-
ers, although sometimes the criteria are stricter. The correctly completed
nomination document, together with a deposit, must be lodged with the
returning officer before the time officially set for the close of nominations.
[candidate, deposit]

Non-Aligned Group
A small group of Labor Party members who believe that the major factions
exert too much power within the ALP
This group opposes branch stacking and claims to be different from the
major factions as it does not direct its members to vote for particular pol-
icies or candidates in internal ALP elections. Its earlier names were the
Participants and the Independents.
[branch stacking, Independents (faction), Participants]
142 non-alignment

non-alignment
The position chosen by some countries that prefer not to join military
alliances
Several countries that did not wish to be linked with either side in the Cold
War became known as non-aligned, although many of them did take an
active part in international affairs through the United Nations.
[alliance, Cold War, United Nations]

non-core promise
A promise made at election time but one that a government chooses not
to fulfil
The term became well known during John Howard’s time as prime min-
ister when the expression was used as an explanation for disregarding
election promises. Failing to keep promises may be reasonable in some
cases, such as unforeseen changes in circumstances, but the term provokes
scepticism or is regarded as an example of ‘spin’.
[core promise, spin]

non-government organisation (NGO)

An organisation, usually created by independent groups of people, free
from government control
Their status allows NGOs to act in situations where direct association
with governments might make their work more difficult. Some NGOs
are funded totally or partially by governments but retain their non-­
government st­atus. Leading NGOs include Save the Children, the World
Wildlife Fund, Greenpeace and Amnesty International.

non-Labor parties
A term used to distinguish other parties from the Australian Labor Party
In response to the growing strength of the Labor Party, conservative politi-
cal groups previously opposed to one another combined in the early years
of the twentieth century to become the Fusion Party. Other non-Labor par-
ties have included the Nationalists, the United Australia Party, the Country
Party and the Liberal Party. Non-Labor parties usually direct preferences
against the ALP, although an important exception is The Greens.

Northern Territory parliament

It consists of a single house of parliament—the Legislative Assembly
The Northern Territory has had a limited form of self-government since
1978, under a Commonwealth act of parliament, but the superior power
of the Commonwealth was clearly demonstrated by the overriding of the
Northern Territory’s enactment of euthanasia legislation in 1996. The
Northern Territory has an administrator whose duties are somewhat
 notice 143

si­milar to those of a state governor, and a chief minister who is the leader
of the government.
[Country-Liberal Party, territories, unicameral system]

notice
One of the formal procedures used to assist the operation of parliament
This is an indication in advance of the intention of a member of parlia-
ment or minister to take some formal action in the house, such as the
presentation of a bill.
[standing orders]

notice paper
An official document identifying the outstanding business set for the
attention of a house of parliament
A new notice paper is issued on each sitting day, except the first day of a
session. It comprises three sections, namely, the business section which
includes notices of motion and orders of the day; questions on notice;
and an information section. The notice paper is prepared by officials of
the house in consultation with representatives of the government and the
opposition.
[orders of the day]

nuclear deterrence
The threat by opposing powers (the USA and the Soviet Union) during
the Cold War that a nuclear attack would immediately provoke a nuclear
counter-attack
An argument presented in defence of nuclear arms was that nations were
deterred from engaging in a major war by the likelihood of the use of
nuclear weapons, and the terrible worldwide consequences that would
follow. Arguments against nuclear deterrence included the possibility of
nuclear disaster following an accident or mistake, and that other nations
would feel the need to become nuclear-armed. This fear was well founded
and the danger of catastrophe has worsened.
[Cold War]

Nuclear Disarmament Party

A minor political party established in 1984
In its public statements this party concentrated almost exclusively on its
anti-nuclear policy. It has had some success in Senate elections but also
problems of dissension among its members.
[single-issue group]

Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty

An agreement involving many countries, including Australia, aimed at
controlling the distribution of nuclear weapons
144 nuclear power

The treaty was made in 1968 and important participants included the
United States, the Soviet Union and the United Kingdom. France and
China did not sign the treaty. The effectiveness of the agreement has been
the subject of international argument. Its critics have suggested that it
could not be effectively enforced and that it gave an unfair advantage to
those countries already possessing nuclear weapons. Supporters of the
treaty have maintained that the international monitoring of nuclear weap-
ons that was a result of the treaty has reduced their spread.
[nuclear deterrence]

nuclear power
Electricity generated from a nuclear reaction
Fission or splitting of atoms in the reactor core of a nuclear power station
produces heat. This heat is used to produce steam and drive a turbine to
generate electricity, which is the same as electricity generated by any other
means. Nuclear power is contentious because of the risk of catastrophic
accidents, together with the practical difficulty of disposing of radioactive
nuclear waste. Its supporters argue that it is a low-emission alternative to
fossil fuels and under some circumstances is less costly.
[climate change]
O
OECD
See Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development

office of profit
Government employment (‘office of profit under the Crown’) renders a
person ineligible to become a member of parliament
The Constitution bars government employees, and some others who
receive payments from the government, from being elected as members
of parliament. In practice, candidates for parliament resign from any gov-
ernment employment and if not elected are usually reappointed to their
former positions.
[pecuniary interest]

oil-for-food
An arrangement established by the United Nations to avoid famine in Iraq
caused by international economic sanctions after the first Gulf War
A temporary measure, the scheme allowed the Iraqis to sell limited
amounts of oil for food and medicine. The scheme wound up in late 2003
because of the war in Iraq amidst corruption charges in which the Aus-
tralian Wheat Board (AWB) was accused of paying kickbacks to Saddam
Hussein’s regime.
[kickbacks]

old boy network

The continuing relationship, as adults, of former students of exclusive pri-
vate schools, often to their mutual benefit
The connection is often independent of any personal friendship, and is
useful in business and professional life as a help to obtaining clients, intro-
ductions, positions and confidential advice.
[classes, Establishment, nepotism]
146 Old Left

Old Left
Name given to old-style Western Leninists, Trotskyists and Stalinists by the
so-called New Left, which emerged in the late 1960s and 1970s
The Old Left emphasised party organisation and class-consciousness over
a cultural agenda, and organised in the industrial sectors of society. It
declined as a result of many factors, including anti-communist pressure in
the USA and Khrushchev’s denunciation of Stalin in 1956. In Australia, the
term Old Left is also used to refer to a group of left-wing intellectuals who
were associated with the Communist Party.
[Communist Party of Australia, New Left]

oligarchy
Government by a small number of unelected persons
The term applies to this type of government, and also to the group of
pe­ople who possess this power. The name usually refers to the govern-
ment of a nation but it can also apply to a smaller entity such as a club or
a business.
[authoritarianism, autocracy]

oligopoly
Substantial power or domination by a small number of companies or
organisations in an industry
Oligopolies are potentially harmful. The design, the quality and the price
of a product or service may be more open to manipulation under these
circumstances than when there is a large number of producers or sup­pliers
in true competition. Conversely, under some conditions an oligopoly may
be a benefit to customers by giving lower prices and higher quality as a
result of economies of scale, provided the individual companies remain
competitive, without secret agreements. Oligopoly also involves the danger
of takeovers—possibly leading to a monopoly.
[economy of scale, monopoly, restrictive trade practices]

ombudsman
A public official with the responsibility of investigating complaints from
individuals against an institution, such as a government
Ombudsmen have considerable independence and are free to criticise
official decisions and actions. Their aim is fairness combined with an out-
come reasonably acceptable to those involved. They have wide authority to
obtain information but no power to force acceptance of decisions. Never-
theless, recommendations by ombudsmen are usually adopted.
[Administrative Appeals Tribunal, consensus]

One Big Union (OBU)

The idea that all employees should be represented by a single union rather
than by a large number of separate ones
 One Nation Party 147

Many trade unionists in the early twentieth century believed the formation
of OBU would strengthen the union movement by avoiding dissension
between rival unions. Such a body was established in Western Canada in
1919. In Australia, the International Workers of the World (Wobblies)
attempted to organise on similar lines but the existing unions, based on
trades, were too well established. More recently there have been amalga-
mations into bigger unions, although the unions who do so sometimes
retain a degree of individuality.

One Nation Party

See Pauline Hanson’s One Nation Party

one vote–one value

A slogan used by those opposing malapportionment and gerrymanders,
both of which distort the values of votes
The catchphrase is based on the democratic principle that every person
should have an equal say in elections.
[gerrymander, malapportionment]

on the voices
A vote in parliament decided by the presiding officer on the strength of the
voices of those present
This is often done to save time when there is no doubt about how the vote
will be resolved. If two or more members ask for a division, the vote must
be taken by this more time-consuming method. In some debates a div­
ision is demanded to ensure that the vote of each member is recorded in
Hansard.
[division (voting), Ring the bells!]

open government
The principle that the affairs of government should be open to public scrutiny
Openness of government has been extended by legislation. With some
restrictions, members of the public have been given the right to examine
government documents.
[freedom of information]

opinion leader
A person in a group who influences the ideas and opinions on various
subjects, including politics
Such a person can be valuable by directing attention to matters of public
concern, or a danger by being too persuasive. Opinion leaders are present
in various groups, such as workmates at lunch or executive groups whose
decisions affect many people. In politics, the influence of opinion leaders
is increased by widespread apathy towards public affairs.
[apathy, peer group pressure]
148 opinion polls

opinion polls
See public opinion polls

opposition
The members of parliament, as a group, belonging to the major party or
coalition that is opposed to the government
The role and rights of the opposition are not mentioned in the Consti­
tution but are recognised in the customs and procedures of parliament.
They include additional pay and facilities for the Leader of the Opposition.
The opposition is seen as the alternative government, with shadow minis-
ters debating against government ministers and ready to take over if their
party comes to power. Opposition speakers criticise almost everything the
government does or proposes, in keeping with the confrontationist style
of debate.
[adversarial politics, confrontation, shadow minister]

opposition benches
The seats in a parliament used by the opposition members
These seats are on the left-hand side of the presiding officer and directly
face the seats occupied by government members of parliament.
[cross benches, treasury benches]

opposition leader
See Leader of the Opposition

optional preferential voting

A variation of preferential voting in which it is unnecessary to indicate
preferences for all candidates
The main advantage of this system is the reduction in accidental infor-
mal votes that are an unfortunate feature of other preferential systems,
es­pecially when there are many candidates. A drawback is that some votes
can be discarded during the counting process and have no effect on the
result. Optional preferential voting could be disadvantageous to allied
political parties that benefit from the flow of one another’s preferences.
[preferential voting]

order
The traditional term for a calm working atmosphere in parliament
The command ‘Order!’ is used, sometimes shouted, by the presiding officer
when calling for a reduction in noise or unruliness in the chamber. There
are various means available to help in keeping order, including the power
to ‘name’ a member of parliament, which can result in the member being
temporarily excluded from parliament.
[naming a member, presiding officer]
 orders of the day 149

orders of the day

A list of the bills and other matters to be dealt with in a house of parlia-
ment on a particular day
The orders of the day are included as part of the notice paper and indicate
the sequence in which items of business are to be considered. Theoreti-
cally the house itself makes the decisions on the business to be considered.
However, in practice it is determined mainly by the government.
[Leader of the House, notice paper]

Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development

(OECD)
An international organisation with the aims of growth in trade, improved
living standards and economic stability
Established in 1961 with twenty members, most of them European coun-
tries, nations that joined later include the United States, Japan, Canada
and Australia. In addition to promoting economic growth and trade, the
OECD undertakes extensive research and statistical work, some of which
is widely publicised although at times there has been criticism of the
re­liability of some of its published material.
P
Pacific Islands Forum
An annual meeting of the heads of government of Pacific Islands nations
The founding members, in 1971, were Australia, the Cook Islands, Fiji,
Nauru, New Zealand, Tonga and Western Samoa. By 2009 the number of
member countries had grown to sixteen. The main concerns of the forum
are regional trade and economics, together with matters related to good
governance and security.

Pacific Solution, the

The plan developed by the Howard government to deal with unauthorised
immigrants arriving in Australia by boat
In 2001 the government decided to detain such immigrants in offshore
facilities on Nauru, Manus and Christmas Island with the aim of dis-
couraging further arrivals. These facilities attracted criticism because
they operated outside of Australian law and parliamentary scrutiny,
and the people could be detained indefinitely and were not entitled to
legal representation. The conditions have been criticised as psychologi-
cally damaging for detainees, and the facilities were extremely expensive
to run. Soon after its election, the Rudd government closed the Nauru
detention facility in December 2007 but the Christmas Island facility was
maintained.
[boat people, immigration]

pacifism
The belief that violence, especially war, must be avoided and individuals
should refuse to participate in war
Support for pacifism increased and became more organised during the
nineteenth and twentieth centuries as wars affected larger proportions
of the population and conscription became widespread. Other factors
encouraging pacifism include the horror of modern war, religious beliefs,
 Page Centre 151

attitudes critical of the causes of war and the belief that international disa-
greements should be settled by diplomacy.
[conscription, defence, diplomacy, ideology]

Page Centre
A conservative think tank focusing particularly on rural matters
The name honours the memory of Sir Earle Page, who was the leader
of the Country Party in the 1920s and 1930s, and prime minister for a
short period in 1939. The Centre’s affiliation with the National Party
is publicly acknowledged as are its links with other right-leaning think
tanks, including the Institute of Public Affairs and the Menzies Research
Centre.
[Country Party, National Party, think tank]

pair/pairing
An arrangement to maintain the relative voting strengths of government
and opposition when a member of parliament is justifiably absent
When it is foreseen that an MP will have a good reason to be absent from
a parliamentary sitting, it is customary for the opposing party to ‘grant a
pair’. This means that one of its members will refrain from voting and thus
compensate for the opponent’s inability to vote.

paradigm
A model or pattern
The word has become popular in political and business language, and
derives from the Ancient Greek word meaning ‘to show side by side’.

parish pumping
A traditional metaphor for an obvious attempt by members of parliament
to enhance their popularity within their own electorates
Adjournment debates and grievance debates provide opportunities for
‘parish pumping’ and are often used to mention events, people and mat-
ters of interest in the MP’s electorate.

parliament
An assembly of elected or appointed persons, or some of each, with power
to make laws and to govern
In Australia there is a federal parliament and a parliament in each state
and the mainland territories, namely, the Australian Capital Terri-
tory and the Northern Territory. Federal parliament is made up of the
governor-­general, representing the monarch, the Senate and the House
of Representatives. Each state parliament has a governor and an upper
and lower house, except Queensland, which has no upper house. The
152 parliament (period of time)

parliaments of the ACT and the Northern Territory each have only one
house.
[house (of parliament), parliament (period of time), Westminster
system]

parliament (period of time)

The expression ‘a parliament’ is sometimes used to indicate a parliamen-
tary term
In this sense, a parliament is the period from the first sitting day after an
election until parliament is dissolved prior to the next election. A number,
such as ‘the 38th Parliament’, identifies each parliament.
[term (of parliament)]

parliamentary democracy
A political system with a democratically elected parliament and a govern-
ment approved by the parliament and answerable to it
The form of government operating in Australia is officially based on the
Constitution with conventions derived from the Westminster system play-
ing an important role.
[democracy, responsible government, Westminster system]

parliamentary privilege
Protection of members of parliament and parliament itself to encourage
plain speaking and effectiveness
The Australian Constitution provides that the rules of parliamentary priv-
ilege that applied to the House of Commons at the time of Federation
would apply to the Federal parliament, although each house also has the
power to make its own rules. Parliamentary privilege enables members of
parliament to be frank and outspoken without fear of legal action. It also
strengthens parliament by giving it power to summon witnesses to present
evidence. Parliamentary privilege can be misused, but at the risk of serious
loss of reputation by the offending member of parliament.

parliamentary system
A system in which the parliament has ultimate power, in theory or reality
In the Westminster system, on which the Australian form of parliamentary
government is mainly based, the executive, or ministers, are answerable to
the parliament. In Australia the parliamentary system is modified by the
circumstance that the power of the parliament is limited by the Consti­
tution, as interpreted by the High Court.
[High Court, parliament, Westminster system]

Parliament House
The building that contains the parliamentary chambers and accommo­
dation for activities associated with the operation of parliament
 Participants 153

Federal parliament and each state parliament have their own Parliament
House, as do the parliaments of the Australian Capital Territory and the
Northern Territory. Within each Parliament House there are special assem-
bly rooms called chambers, in which formal parliamentary sittings take
place. There are also meeting rooms and offices for MPs and parliamentary
staff, a library and amenities such as dining rooms.
[chamber]

Participants
A group with historic significance in the ALP, and which was the forerun-
ner of the Independents faction and the Non-Aligned Group
A small number of ALP members formed the group in the 1960s because
they were dissatisfied with the Victorian State Executive’s authoritarian
management of the ALP. Among its early members were Richard McGarvie,
who later became Governor of Victoria, and Barry Jones. The Participants
grew in influence and played a significant role in the federal intervention
in Victoria in 1970, which has been recognised as an important factor in
Whitlam’s victory in the 1972 election.
[Independents (faction), intervention, Non-Aligned Group]

party
See party system, political party

party discipline
Efforts by political parties to persuade members, especially prominent
ones, to support party decisions
The major Australian parties are umbrella parties and accept members of
widely differing views. Therefore it is not unusual for individual members or
groups to disagree with various party decisions on policy and tactics. Public
disagreement is regarded as damaging, especially if MPs or prominent party
members are involved. Restraint is therefore encouraged and a member who
is considered to be seriously harming a party may be expelled.
[umbrella organisation]

party system
A system in which political parties are accepted as part of the structure of
parliament and government
Political parties were not mentioned in the original Australian Consti­
tution but an amendment in 1977 to Section 15 does refer to them in the
procedure for filling Senate vacancies between general elections. In re­ality,
parties play a major role in Australian politics. After an election, the leader
of the winning party becomes prime minister, or premier, and minis-
ters will be chosen from that party. The leader of the major losing party
becomes opposition leader. The party system usually results in stable and
154 patriarchal

predictable government, except when the numbers for the government

and opposition are close to equal.
[Constitution of Australia, deadlock (lack of a majority)]

patriarchal
Used mainly by feminists, the term describes organisations or communi-
ties dominated by men
Applied particularly to bodies that try to maintain control by men, this
term also refers to the related mental attitude. The word is derived from
‘the patriarchy’, meaning control of a family by the father and a society that
is an extension of that principle.
[discrimination, feminism]

patriotism
Loyalty, especially of an emotional kind, to one’s country
Patriotism is similar to nationalism. Interpretations of the term range from
it being a natural and proper feeling of loyalty and respect for one’s coun-
try and its traditions to an unreasoning acceptance of proclaimed attitudes
and policies even when they are unacceptable by normal standards.

patronage
Appointments or benefits granted to friends or associates
Governments and ministers have the power to grant favours and, if
in­equitable or unseemly, actions of this kind can be brought to the atten-
tion of the public by political opponents and, perhaps more effectively, by
the mass media.
[jobs for the boys, nepotism, old boy network]

Pauline Hanson’s One Nation Party

A minor right-wing party that opposed immigration and multicultur-
alism, and was accused of racism; it had considerable success in the late
1990s but soon lost support
Pauline Hanson was chosen as the Liberal candidate for Oxley in 1996 but
her endorsement was withdrawn. She then won the seat as an independent
and formed the One Nation Party with David Oldfield and David Ettridge.
The party reached its peak of success in the 1998 Queensland election,
winning eleven seats, but gradually declined and polled poorly in the fed-
eral election of 2007.
[racism, White Australia policy]

peak organisation
A senior organisation whose members are mostly organisations rather
than individual people
 pecuniary interest 155

Peak organisations are useful in discussions and negotiations as they

reduce the number of participating bodies. The Australian Chamber of
Commerce and Industry and the Australian Council of Trade Unions are
examples of peak organisations. Member organisations are sometimes
referred to as being ‘affiliated’.
[umbrella organisation]

pecuniary interest
Federal and state parliament rules that require members of parliament to
disclose their financial interests
The rules are complicated and different in various houses of parliament
and a particular difficulty is the need, if any, for declarations about the
financial interests of family members. Ministers are usually required to
rid themselves of interests, such as shares or directorships in companies
which could be affected by their ministries. One type of pecuniary interest
is an ‘office of profit under the Crown’, a paid government position which
would bar a person from becoming a member of parliament. The problem
of pecuniary interest affects all three levels of government.
[office of profit]

peer group pressure

Political influence, deliberate or unintentional, exerted on an individual by
friends or colleagues
Secret voting is intended to reduce the danger of such influence but it
can be powerful, especially if the voter is apathetic or uninformed about
politics.
[apathy, mores]

pensions
Regular payments from the government to people who are deemed to need
financial help for any one of a number of reasons
Pensions are paid to those who meet carefully defined conditions among
the aged, widows, war veterans and people with illness or disabilities. The
unemployed and those injured at work usually receive regular payments
similar to pensions but these benefits have other names.
[social services, superannuation]

people’s house
An unofficial term for the House of Representatives
This term expresses the belief that the House of Representatives more
fairly represents the will of the Australian people than does the Senate.
Supporters of this majority view argue that the number of electors in each
House of Representatives electorate is close to equal, contrasting with the
widely divergent number of electors represented by various senators. Also,
156 permanent campaigning

senators are elected for longer terms and the views of electors may have
changed before senators’ terms expire.
[House of Representatives, Senate]

permanent campaigning
As soon as an election is over, political parties begin to prepare for the next
election
The term was coined in the US but the phenomenon is occurring in Aus-
tralia too. The permanent campaign includes activities such as the close
monitoring of leaders’ media images and intensive opinion polling. It is
criticised because it can hinder policy development as governments may
concentrate on keeping voters happy and winning the next election rather
than creating policy. It can also reduce benefits from laws or government
action that need and deserve cross-party support to be fully effective.
[confrontation, dirt unit]

personal explanation
A statement in parliament by a member in response to an alleged mis­
representation or in relation to a personal matter
This right is a protection against unfair or untrue criticism in parliament,
but can be misused by MPs who simply wish to re-enter a debate. The pre-
siding officer has the task of quickly assessing the validity or otherwise of
the purported personal explanation and taking appropriate action.

petition
A formal document presented to parliament expressing an opinion or
request
Electors, often a large number of them, sign a petition. The local member
of parliament usually makes the presentation if the petition has come from
a particular area. Some petitions are organised on a nationwide basis. The
purposes of a petition are to make known a viewpoint, to exert political
pressure or to gain publicity.
[pressure group]

pic fac
A media term for an event held for no other reason than to generate pic-
tures for news bulletins
A term that originated in the USA but is now used widely by the Australian
media. Pic facs are particularly common in election campaigns, as poli­
ticians vie for publicity.

planning
In the political sense this can range from the zoning of a small area of land
for housing to planning the economy of a nation
 platform 157

All mainstream political parties believe in some degree of planning, but

right-wing parties usually favour a ‘market system’ approach with minimal
government intervention, while left-wing parties support greater govern-
ment involvement.
[infrastructure, market system]

platform
The basic policies of a political party, sometimes written into a party’s
constitution
The term may be used to describe the policies proposed at the time of an
election, although its more usual meaning is the generalised policy and
ideals of a party. Platforms of parties change over the years as a result of
changing attitudes of members of the party and of the community. The
term is derived from the idea that a party ‘stands on its platform’ and this
leads to describing particular policies as ‘planks’ of the platform.
[election policy, policy]

plebiscite
An election or referendum in which all voters are entitled to participate
A plebiscite is a direct vote by all the people, in contrast to a vote by
representatives. It is often the method of election in smaller bodies such
as clubs, or in political party meetings in local areas. A federal referen-
dum for a proposed alteration to the Constitution is also an example of
a plebiscite.
[referendum, representative democracy]

pluralism
The theory that a community benefits from the existence of several dis-
tinct groups
Pluralists advocate the retention and encouragement of separate groups
so that political decisions will result from confrontation and compromise
rather than from domination by any one class or group.
[Movement, political theory]

plurality
A candidate who receives more votes than any other is said to have a ‘plu-
rality’. It can be less than half the total votes
Under the first-past-the-post system, the candidate who receives the plu-
rality is the winner. If there are more than two candidates, the winner can
be elected with a plurality of substantially less than 50 per cent of the total
votes. Preferential voting excludes this possibility.
[first-past-the-post system, preferential voting]
158 point of order

point of order
A formal protest by an MP that proceedings in parliament are not in
accordance with the rules
When a point of order is raised, business is suspended until the presiding
officer has made a decision to uphold or dismiss the objection. Spurious
points of order are sometimes raised as a tactic to disrupt the speech of an
opponent and are usually promptly dismissed. Rulings are made on the
basis of formal rules, known as standing orders, but also depend on the
interpretation and judgement of the presiding officer.
[standing orders]

policy
The publicly stated aims and ideals of a political party
The term has a number of political meanings. The most important is that
it represents the party’s fundamental political philosophy and long-term
aims. In this sense, it is closely related to the party’s platform. Another
meaning of the term is the party’s attitude to one or more topical issues
and proposals for action in the near future. Not infrequently, policies may
be presented in fine-sounding but vague terms.
[ideology, platform]

policy formation
The processes leading to adoption or changing of policies by parties and
governments
Much of the policy of the political parties has been accepted since their
beginnings so that policy formation deals mainly with changes in empha-
sis. Special ‘election policy’ is adopted at each general election. Most
parties have meetings or conferences that make and change policy but
the real decision-making is often done behind the scenes. When a party is
in government its members of parliament take on a greater significance,
especially when new matters arise and are discussed at caucus meetings.
[caucus, policy]

political advertising
Ranges widely from advertisements in the mass media, including television,
to public meetings, material distributed in letterboxes and door-to-door
canvassing
This includes explanation of policy, criticism of opposing parties and can-
didates, emphasis on party leaders and, in local media, promotion of the
local candidate. The high cost of political advertising and the need to raise
the necessary funds have become matters of concern.
[mass media, propaganda, public funding (election campaigns)]
 political agenda 159

political agenda
Issues that are selected for promotion and action by political groups,
es­pecially by the government
A ‘political agenda’ usually requires encouragement of public interest that
will lead to support for the proposals. In some cases support of the govern-
ment members of parliament might be enough, or a long and substantial
campaign with media cooperation might be necessary to win approval in
advance of government action.
[policy, propaganda]

political asylum
See asylum seeker

political blog
Political commentary written by individuals and displayed on the Internet
Political blogs are popular because they are perceived as being frank and
more open about the writer’s opinion (or bias) than more formal or
of­ficial statements. They have been criticised for being unreliable but have
the benefit of sometimes providing information not available elsewhere
and encouraging thought and discussion.
[freedom of information]

political economy
Economics that takes social and political factors into account
Critics of the conventional perception of economics (including some
famous economists) maintain that social and environmental matters
should be intrinsic factors in economic policies.
[economics, environmentalism, social justice]

political football
Exploitation of a matter of topical public interest as a political tactic, with
little concern for the subject itself
The matter may be of considerable or of minor importance, but is usually
one that has been taken up and given prominence by the media. Criticism
that a topical matter has become a ‘political football’ must be considered
with caution as such an attack may be an attempt to avoid a real debate on
the subject.
[dirty tricks campaign, spin]

politically correct
Choice of language to avoid giving offence, as well as attitudes towards
sensitive topics
People who write or speak in public usually try to choose their words so
as not to give offence to sections of the community who may have strong
160 political mandarin

feelings about particular matters and expressions used in discussing them.

Examples include terms, particularly slang or derisive ones, that relate to
religious or ethnic groups, gender and people with disabilities. The term is
also used mockingly to denigrate reforms or changes of attitude or those
who indulge in excessive euphemism.
[black armband view of history, protocol (ceremonial), reform]

political mandarin
Very senior government official or bureaucrat
The term comes from the title of senior public officials in Imperial China.
Its use implies the bureaucrat in question is inaccessible and extremely
powerful.
[bureaucracy]

political party
An organisation with particular political beliefs and policies, and the aim
of putting them into effect
Parties provide the opportunity for people of similar attitudes and ideals
to meet and develop these views and establish policies; they also enable
party members to work together to gain support for their ideas. A party
may nominate candidates for parliament and, if enough seats are gained,
form the government. Parties also provide the most practical avenue for
people aiming at a political career.
[ideology, political theory, social movements]

political spectrum
Applied in its figurative sense, meaning a wide range of parties and policies
In keeping with this figure of speech, colours are used to indicate political
views. Red is usually connected in Australian politics with Labor; blue with
the Liberals; green with The Greens.
[left-wing, right-wing]

political theory
Principles and proposals for community, national and international
organisations and government
Throughout recorded history, thought and discussion have been devoted
to devising forms of government and a great number of actual or theor­
etical types have been created. The better known ones include absolute
monarchy, anarchy, autocracy, communism, conservatism, constitutional
monarchy, democracy, dictatorship, fascism, Marxism, meritocracy, mon-
archy, representative government, republicanism and socialism. Some
of these terms have overlapping meanings. In practice, there have been
combinations and modified forms of many of these theoretical forms of
government.
[economics, ideology, politics]
 politics 161

politics
The theory, study and practice of making laws and governing
The term is a wide-ranging one and is applied to international affairs and
national, regional and municipal government. Politics includes the study
and development of theories of government and related matters, such
as the rights and responsibilities of members of the community, and the
importance of the natural environment and the world’s resources. In prac-
tical terms it is the system of government that inevitably affects everyone
in a community, including those who may be unaware of its significance or
would prefer to ignore its existence.
[apathy, civics, civil rights and responsibilities, government,
ideology]

politics of envy
An expression used to criticise those who argue that there should be less
variation in the distribution of wealth and influence
The term is also used to criticise those who support high rates of taxation
on the very rich. In Australia, one example is the application of the term to
those who disagree with the amount of government funding that is allo-
cated to affluent private schools.
[income distribution, old boy network, progressive tax, trickle-
down effect]

polity
A nation or a community that has its own organised character or
government
The term can apply to the area or a community that has a unified system
of government or to the system of government itself.
[government, politics]

poll
An election and, also, the organised procedure of voting
In common usage there is little difference between ‘poll’ and ‘election’, but
in more technical language the term ‘poll’ refers to the voting process as
distinct from other elements of the election, including the campaigns by
candidates and parties.
[election, election day, public opinion polls]

poll clerk
An official who assists at a polling place during an election
Poll clerks are part of the organisation that has the duty of conducting the
election fairly and efficiently. During the poll they issue ballot papers after
ensuring that the prospective voters are eligible. After the close of voting
they assist in counting the votes. Most poll clerks are employed in that
162 polling place

capacity only for polling day, although they are supervised by full-time
officers of the Australian Electoral Commission.
[Australian Electoral Commission]

polling place
An officially appointed venue for voting at an election
Public buildings, such as schools or halls, are most often used. In towns
and metropolitan areas they are usually spaced so as to be within walking
distance of most residents. No election campaigning is permitted inside a
polling place, nor within a legally specified distance from its entrance.

populism
The theory that the perceived or imagined will of the people should guide
political decisions
Some interpretations and elements of the theory have beneficial conse-
quences, such as consultation with community groups prior to government
decisions. In other cases, a government may be frightened to make an
unpopular decision even though it is necessary.
[grass roots, public opinion polls]

pork-barrelling
Excessive or inappropriate spending of government funds in particular
electorates in an effort to win votes
The expression is an old American political one, also used in Australia.
It refers to government favours such as expenditure on new public facili-
ties in particular electorates—usually in the months before an election.
Although usually denied by governments, the existence of pork-barrelling
has been confirmed in auditor-general reports and, on one occasion, by a
minister who revealed the existence of a ‘white board’ on the ministerial
office wall that was used in the complicated process of allocating projects
to marginal electorates.

portfolio
Frequently used as a synonym for ministry, or the responsibility of a
minister
A portfolio is not always the same as a ministry. A minister may have more
than one area of responsibility and each is termed a portfolio.
[ministry (minister’s responsibility)]

postal vote
A vote made by an elector unable to attend at a polling place and posted to
the electoral authorities
Strict rules apply to rule out cheating. Those eligible to obtain a postal
vote include the aged and the infirm, Australians travelling or resident
 poverty 163

overseas or other electors otherwise prevented from attending a polling

place. Applications for postal votes must be made on the appropriate form
(available at post offices) several days before election day.
[absentee vote, pre-poll voting]

poverty
The lack of adequate food, shelter or other necessities; its definition varies
according to local standards
Poverty is recognised as a social evil not only to its direct victims but also
to the whole community, and governments aim to eliminate poverty or to
keep it to a minimum. Governments try to ease the effects of poverty by the
provision of services and assistance such as pensions and unemployment
benefits, health and education services. Various charitable organisations
are also active in helping people who are suffering from poverty.
[income distribution, Universal Declaration of Human Rights]

poverty line
The lowest income needed for any particular category of family to avoid
being in poverty
The term was used in the report of the Henderson Commission into Pov-
erty (1975) and has become widely adopted by others interested in social
conditions.

Poverty Lines: Australia

A quarterly publication giving minimum income levels needed to prevent
families suffering poverty
Calculated and published by the Melbourne Institute of Applied Economic
and Social Research at the University of Melbourne, the income levels are
based on the Henderson Poverty Line concept. The necessary incomes are
calculated for categories of families, taking various factors into account,
including housing circumstances.

PPPs
See public private partnerships

pragmatism
Actions to suit circumstances and what is practically achievable
In politics this can sometimes mean breaking election promises or
ig­noring traditional party policy.
[core promise, non-core promise]

pre-emptive strike
Military action taken against a potential enemy when fearing a possible
attack
164 preferential voting

The term gained publicity in 2003 when former prime minister John
Howard provoked an angry response from other nations when he argued
that Australia had the right to attack terrorist groups in South-East Asian
countries if it had credible evidence that these groups planned to attack
Australia or Australians.
[security (national)]

preferential voting
A system in which voters can indicate the order in which they prefer the
various candidates
In elections with more than two candidates, preference votes can some-
times decisively affect the outcome. If no candidate receives more than
half, the one with the fewest votes is eliminated from the contest and the
votes for that candidate are re-examined and allocated to one or other of
the remaining candidates according to the second preference. This pro­
cess of elimination and distribution is continued until one candidate has
received more than half the votes.
[single transferable vote system, voting systems]

premier
The leader of the government in an Australian state
The premier is the most senior minister. Premiers usually choose to take
particular ministerial responsibilities in addition to the leadership role but
their most important task is to oversee and coordinate the work of the other
ministers. (The chief minister is the government leader in the Australian
Capital Territory and also in the Northern Territory.) In Labor govern-
ments, the premier usually allocates the ministries to ministers elected by
the caucus. In Liberal or National Party governments the premier normally
selects the ministers and allocates the ministries. In coalition governments
the ministries are shared between the coalition parties.
[caucus, chief minister, selection of ministers]

premiers’ conferences
Meetings to discuss matters of mutual concern to federal, state and terri-
tory governments
Although premiers’ conferences of some kind have been held since before
Federation, regular conferences began in 1927 when the Australian Loan
Council was established. They were usually held annually until 1999 and
their main purpose was to determine the Commonwealth grants to each
of the other governments.
[Australian Loan Council, Council of Australian Governments
meetings]
 Premiers’ Plan 165

Premiers’ Plan
The implementation in Australia of the economic measures demanded by
the Bank of England during the Great Depression of the 1930s
The bank’s representative, Sir Otto Niemeyer, visited Australia and, in com-
pliance with the dominant economic beliefs of the time, insisted on wage
and pension cuts and reduced industrial activity. This reduced purchasing
power, the economic situation worsened, and unemployment plunged to
tragic depths. A minority of economists, including J.M. Keynes, and some
Australian politicians protested that the accepted economic policy was the
reverse of what was needed. History has shown that the policy forced on
Australia had disastrous consequences.
[Great Depression, Keynesianism]

pre-poll voting
Voting, in person, before election day
People who will be unable to vote on election day for various reasons, such
as absence from the country, have the opportunity of voting at an electoral
office beforehand. The term ‘pre-poll voting’ also applies to the voting that
is arranged at various larger institutions, such as hospitals, which are vis-
ited by teams of electoral officials during the week or two before election
day. Voting can also be done by post.
[absentee vote, electoral office, postal vote]

preselection
The process of choosing a political party’s candidate to stand for election
Different parties have different methods of selecting candidates and,
even within one party, the procedures may not always be the same.
There may be direct or indirect influence from local party members and
from the central administration of the political party. Factions often
play a major role, especially for winnable seats. The term ‘preselection’
has gradually replaced the older one ‘selection’, which had the same
meaning.
[branch stacking, faction]

President (of an upper house)

The title of the presiding officer of the Senate and of each of the state
L­egislative Councils
Presidents’ powers and duties are similar to those of Speakers in lower
houses of parliament.

presiding officer
A general term for the chairperson in any house of parliament
166 press conference

The presiding officer’s title depends on the nature of the house. Titles
include Speaker, Deputy Speaker, President and Deputy President. The
Speaker is the traditional title for the presiding officer in a lower house.
[casting vote, President (of an upper house), Speaker]

press conference
An open meeting between a political figure and newspaper reporters
The term has been largely superseded by ‘media conference’, as repre-
sentatives of radio or television stations are often present in addition to
newspaper reporters.
[media conference]

press gallery
The group of media representatives who attend parliament, and the
accommodation for them overlooking each chamber in Parliament House
Members of the press gallery sometimes remain in their positions for sev-
eral years and become expert in political matters and, in some cases, well
known and influential. Office space and equipment are also made available
to them.

pressure group
An organised group endeavouring to influence political decisions
Pressure groups seek to influence decisions at various stages in the politi-
cal process. These include policy-making by parties, decisions by individual
members of parliament, and action by the parties in parliament. Pressure
groups tend to concentrate on particular issues with great intensity. The
forms of attempted persuasion can range from the presentation of factual
evidence and reasoned discussion to threats and promises, especially when
the targeted person is a political candidate or an MP in a marginal electorate.
[punishment politics, single-issue group]

price control
Government control of the prices of goods and services
In Australia, the Constitution does not give power over prices to the Com-
monwealth government except in times of national emergency such as war,
as was done during World War II. State governments do have the power to
control prices but it is rarely used. Referendums were held in 1948 and
in 1974 to enable the Commonwealth to control prices but neither was
successful.
[Australian Competition and Consumer Commission, Choice,
monopoly, oligopoly]

primary industry
Industry that directly uses natural resources
 primary producers’ organisations 167

The major primary industries include farming, fishing, forestry and min-
ing. Australia is fortunate in having a wide range of natural resources and
consequently primary industry is important to the national economy.
The policies and activities of some primary industries have aroused con-
cern over economic viability, conservation and climate change. Another
problem is finding the right balance between exporting raw materials and
adding value to primary products before their export.
[secondary industry, tertiary industry]

primary producers’ organisations

The term usually refers to bodies representing farmers and graziers.
M­ining interests have their own associations
Primary producers’ organisations work for their members by establishing
policies, explaining them publicly and exerting their influence in politics.
Some categories of farmers—for example, woolgrowers and dairy farm-
ers—have their own separate organisations.
[National Farmers’ Federation, primary industry]

primary vote
The total number of first-preference votes for a particular candidate or
party
The term applies in elections based on preferential voting, in which the
voters must indicate their preference for every candidate with a sequence
of figures starting with ‘1’ for the one they most favour and continuing
without any gaps.
[electoral systems, preferential voting]

prime minister
The leader of the Federal government
The prime minister is the ‘head of government’ and represents Australia
in that capacity when dealing with other nations. The governor-general is
the ‘head of state’. The government party caucus elects its leader, who then
becomes prime minister. The prime minister oversees and coordinates the
work of other ministers and also has duties that come within the responsi-
bilities of the Prime Minister’s Department. The prime minister may also
become the minister in charge of another department, as some have done.
[caucus, head of government, head of state]

Private Doctors of Australia (PDA)

An association opposed to government or third-party involvement in the
practice of medicine
The PDA describes itself as a free-market organisation and emphasises the
importance of the doctor–patient relationship. It opposes third-party or
taxpayer funding of health services.
[Australian Medical Association, Doctors Reform Society]
168 private enterprise

private enterprise
See private sector

private member
A member of a lower house of parliament who is not a minister
The term applies to a backbencher (and sometimes to a minister) acting
as an individual rather than as a member of the government or the oppo­
sition. In this role, members of parliament may bring forward matters that
are of particular concern in their local electorates. A senator acting in the
same capacity is termed a ‘private senator’.

private members’ bills

Proposed legislation introduced by members of parliament who are not
ministers
Ministers propose most bills on behalf of the government but individual
MPs can also introduce bills, although little time is allowed for such bills
and few are successful.
[backbencher]

private sector
Private, rather than government, ownership of elements of industry and
commerce
In the majority of the world’s nations, including Australia, there is a mix-
ture of government and privately owned producers of goods and services.
The term ‘private enterprise’ and others such as ‘the private sector’ and
‘free enterprise’ are applied to a range of businesses from very small ones,
owned by individuals, to very large ones, usually owned by shareholders.
The contentious political question is which businesses should be pri-
vately owned and operated and which should be the responsibility of
government.
[public sector]

privatisation
The sale or transfer of a government business or service to private owner-
ship or management
Which activities should be undertaken directly by government and which
by private companies or persons is one of the important decisions made by
governments, and a subject of political argument. Responsibilities such as
the administration of justice, policing and other essential services are usu-
ally retained as the direct responsibility of government, or made subject to
rigid conditions if transferred to private companies.
[private sector, public private partnerships]
 Privy Council 169

Reproduced courtesy of Judy Horacek www.horacek.com.au

Privy Council
A senior United Kingdom advisory and judicial body

The Privy Council was the highest court of appeal for Australian legal cases
for many years. (Strictly its name was the ‘Judicial Committee of the Privy
Council’). Appeals to the Privy Council were severely restricted in 1975
and, since the Australia Act came into operation in 1986, such appeals have
been abolished and the Australian High Court has been the final court of
appeal.
[Australia Act(s) 1986, High Court]

productivity
The relationship between output and the consumption of the components
needed for production
The basic needs for producing goods and services are labour, materials
and capital. Productivity is a measure of the efficiency with which these
elements of production are used.
[economics, industrial relations]

progressive politics
A revised version of social democracy
In Australia, progressive politics is similar to the Third Way espoused by
former British Prime Minister Tony Blair. It advocates government that
provides substantial social services without a planned economy, and
170 progressive tax

has been posited as an alternative to the neoliberal ideology of small

government.
[social democracy, Third Way]

progressive tax
Taxation that increases in rate as taxable income increases
Progressive tax takes a higher rate of tax from higher income earners, in
contrast to flat tax, which takes the same percentage from incomes of any
size, and regressive tax, which takes a higher proportion of income from
lower paid earners.
[regressive tax, sales tax]

propaganda
Information or persuasive argument to encourage acceptance of particular
beliefs or ideas
The word became widely used during World War II to refer cynically to
news reports and statements that were suspected of distortion. The term
is also applicable to some political advertisements and items published or
broadcast by the mass media.
[campaign, mass media]

property vote
Voting rights once available only to property owners
Upper houses in most states and also municipal councils were elected
mainly or partly on the basis of a property vote well into the twentieth
century. This form of restricted franchise for Legislative Council elections
remained until 1951 in Victoria and until 1973 in South Australia.

proportional representation
A voting system used in multi-member electorates
Under proportional representation a political party can win one or more
seats in proportion to the number of votes it receives. This system gives
small parties a better chance. To be elected a candidate must obtain at least
a ‘quota’, which is a number of votes calculated from the number of places
to be filled and the total number of votes. Preference votes are taken into
account in some variations of the proportional representation system,
but not in others. For convenience, the quota is sometimes described as a
percentage of the total vote. For example, if six senators are to be elected
in a state the quota is approximately 14.3 per cent. Examples of propor-
tional representation are elections for the Senate, the Tasmanian House of
Assembly and the ACT parliament.
[Droop quota, Hare-Clark system, multi-member electorate,
quota]
 prorogation 171

prorogation
The formal closure of a session of parliament when another session will
follow without an election being held
The governor-general or governor proclaims the prorogation of parlia-
ment, and the parliament goes into recess. This is done on the advice of
the prime minister or the premier.
[recess, session (of parliament)]

protection
Protection of a country’s industries by restricting imports by imposing
taxes on imported goods or by assisting local industry
Protection may be in the form of tariffs, which add to the cost of imported
goods, or by import quotas, which limit the quantities of specified goods
that can be imported. Subsidies may be paid to local industry. The Aus-
tralian Constitution prohibits any tariffs or restrictions on trade between
the states. The argument between those supporting free trade and those
favouring protection has been a major factor in Australian political history.
[free trade, level playing field, subsidy, tariffs]

Protectionists
An important political party at the beginning of the twentieth century
As the name implies, the main policy of this party was protection of local
industry, and its main opponent for many years was the Free Traders Party.
Both parties were fundamentally conservative but because of their concern
over the growing strength of the Australian Labor Party they amalgamated
in 1909 to form the Fusion Party, also known as the Liberal Party.
[Free Traders (political party), Fusion Party]

protocol (ceremonial)
The rules and customs applying to parliamentary and diplomatic cer­
emonies and procedures
Protocol includes traditional rules of public etiquette, such as the ranking
of persons holding various parliamentary and official positions.
[diplomacy (international), modes of address for members of
parliament]

protocol (treaty)
A formal agreement between countries
A protocol may be a preliminary agreement before a major treaty is signed
or a portion of a treaty, possibly a secret one.
[diplomacy, treaty]

province (electoral)
The official term for a Victorian Legislative Council electorate
172 psephology

Provinces are given individual names from a variety of sources, such as

geographical regions within a state, or the names of famous people.
[Legislative Council]

psephology
The study of elections
Psephology is best known for the attempts of its practitioners to predict
the outcome of elections. Psephology involves statistical investigations
and sociological studies, including the changes to socio-economic status,
a­verage age and occupation in individual electorates.
[demographic change, public opinion polls, socio-economic
status]

public accounts committee

A parliamentary committee that investigates and reports on the financial
performance of government bodies
In the Federal parliament its official title is ‘Joint Committee of Public
Accounts’ and it is a statutory committee as an act of parliament established
it. The committee has representatives from the House of Representatives
and the Senate and includes government and opposition MPs. The com-
mittee has the responsibility of examining the accounts and auditor’s
reports of government bodies and has legal power to interrogate persons
the committee believes can assist its investigations. It is required to report
its findings to both houses of parliament. State parliaments also have pub-
lic accounts committees in one form or the other.
[committee system, joint committee]

public funding (election campaigns)

Provision of financial assistance from government funds for election cam-
paign expenses
The practice, which is increasingly popular in democratic countries, is
intended to reduce the dependence of political parties on large donations
from corporations suspected of being made to secure favoured treatment.
Public funding was introduced in Australia in New South Wales in 1981
and was adopted for federal elections in 1984.
[blind trust]

public gallery
This is a place from which visitors may witness parliamentary proceedings
Public galleries are provided for both chambers of bicameral parliaments.
Visitors are made welcome but must behave quietly and with decorum. On
most occasions visitors can gain admittance easily, although booking in
advance may be necessary for larger groups such as school classes.
[Parliament House]
 public office 173

public office
An elected position in an official public body
The term is usually applied to elected positions in federal, state, territory
and municipal assemblies.
[tiers of government]

public opinion polls

Assessment of public opinion, including voting intentions, based on inter-
viewing a small or modest number of people
The results can be reasonably accurate, providing good statistical methods
are used. The subjects of such polls range widely but many deal with political
questions. These polls give a continuing assessment of the popularity of the
government and opposition in between elections, as well as during election
campaigns. There is controversy over whether or not they influence voting.
[psephology, push polling]

public private partnerships (PPPs)

A PPP is a system for funding infrastructure projects for which the govern-
ment is responsible, such as roads and bridges
Part of the construction cost is borne by a private company in the expec­
tation of making a profit from the income from the project. In this way the
government seeks to avoid criticism for incurring debt, although critics
argue that PPPs actually increase the real costs to the public.
[essential services, infrastructure]

public sector
Activities that are directly undertaken by the government
The activities of the three tiers of government as well as semi-government
bodies and statutory authorities are included in the public sector. The term
includes non-profit government services such as defence, law and order,
education and health, and also trading activities such as transport, postal
services and water supply, although the private sector may also be engaged
in some of these.
[private sector]

Public Service
The various government departments and their employees, called ‘public
servants’
The Public Service performs a wide range of duties, most of which have
traditionally been direct responsibilities of government. Well-known ones
include defence, foreign affairs, taxation, health, education, and law and
order. The minister in charge of a department is answerable to parliament
for its performance. The Public Service has the task of remaining politi-
cally neutral and administering the law and implementing the policy of
174 pump priming

the government in power. This can require substantial adjustments when

there is a change of government.
[department]

pump priming
Increased or special government expenditure to stimulate economic activ-
ity and increase employment
This type of expenditure is applied to public works, such as road construc-
tion, which can be of lasting economic benefit. The economic stimulation
of ‘pump priming’ during times of economic recession or depression is
a tactic consistent with Keynesian economic theory, but economists who
support the market system have traditionally opposed government eco-
nomic intervention.
[Keynesianism, market system]

punishment politics
Threats made by pressure groups against MPs or political candidates
This extreme technique is sometimes employed to put pressure on partic-
ular candidates who will not comply with the demands of various groups.
Candidates in closely contested seats are usually the targets. Another tactic
is to threaten to publish a list of candidates classified according to their
compliance or resistance to the policy of a certain pressure group.
[single-issue group]

push polling
A disreputable tactic aimed at unjustly harming an opposing candidate’s
reputation
Push polling consists of what appears to be a public opinion poll. A ques-
tion is so worded that it implies that the targeted candidate has a bad
character or record. Push polling can be conducted over the telephone. A
typical question would be, ‘Would you vote for John Smith if you knew he
was a frequent drug user?’
[dirty tricks campaign]
Q
quality of life
The totality of factors that affect a person
In politics emphasis is given to economics and indicators such as the gross
domestic product but many other factors, some influenced by government,
also affect human wellbeing. They include human rights, security, work-
ing conditions, aged care, health services, recreation and the environment.
[civil liberties, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, secu-
rity (social)]

quango
An organisation that has been established or substantially funded by a gov-
ernment but is almost independent of government control
The acronym derives from ‘quasi non-government organisation’. The
term is an unofficial one and the characteristics of a quango are not
precise.
[statutory authority]

Queensland Labor Party

A party that split away from the Australian Labor Party in 1957 and merged
with the Democratic Labor Party in 1962
The Queensland Labor Party was a de facto branch of the Democratic
Labor Party from 1957. It began as a consequence of the Labor ‘Split’ of
1955 in which Vincent Gair, then Premier of Queensland, sided with the
supporters of the National Civic Council—formerly the Movement.
[Labor ‘Split’]

Queensland parliament
It has only one house and therefore is called ‘unicameral’
In 1922 the upper house was abolished and the Queensland parliament
has consisted from that time of only one house: the Legislative Assembly.
For many years the Queensland parliament was unrepresentative because
176 questions on notice; questions without notice

of severe malapportionment. The average number of voters in metropoli-

tan electorates was much greater than in country ones.
[malapportionment, one vote–one value, unicameral system]

questions on notice; questions without notice

See Question Time

Question Time
The period during parliamentary proceedings when ministers are ques-
tioned by members of parliament
The questions may be asked ‘without notice’, implying that an immediate
answer should be forthcoming, or they may be asked ‘on notice’, acknowl-
edging that the minister will need time to obtain detailed information.
Many questions are asked with the aim of gaining party political advantage
and are usually answered in the same spirit. Questions put by government
members are sometimes prearranged with ministers, who will have already
prepared answers.
[Dorothy Dixer]

queue jumpers
Pejorative term applied to some unauthorised immigrants
The criticism may be justified in some cases but not when there is no safe
and orderly process available in their country of origin.
[asylum seeker, refugees]

quorum
The minimum number of members of parliament formally required to be
present during a meeting of a house of parliament
In the Federal parliament this number is equivalent to one-third of the
members. It is usual for many MPs to be absent from the chamber, although
most of them remain within Parliament House. The presiding officer must
halt proceedings if it is pointed out that the number of members present
is fewer than the required quorum. Absent members are notified by the
sounding of bells or buzzers and the flashing of lights throughout Parlia-
ment House.
[Ring the bells!]

quota
The number of votes needed by a candidate to be elected in a multi-­
member electorate under a proportional representation system
The quota depends on the total number of votes and the number of places
to be filled. Using the Droop quota method, the quota will be a precise
number of votes but it is convenient to refer to it as a percentage. For exam-
ple, if six senators are to be elected the quota is said to be 14.3 per cent.
[Droop quota]
R
racism
Prejudice against people on the basis of their racial origin
In Australia prejudice has, at times, been directed against racial, religious
and ethnic groups, including the Aboriginal inhabitants.
[assimilation, White Australia policy]

radical
Used in politics to criticise alleged extremism at both ends of the political
spectrum
The term can be applied to people, political parties, factions and policies.
Two examples show the wide range of the use of the term. For example,
left-wing factions in the Labor Party and the Dries in the Liberal Party
have both been called radical.
[political spectrum]

radical nationalism
Claims of a uniquely Australian ethos that tied imminent Australian
nationhood to the radical politics of the late nineteenth century
Its exponents celebrated anti-authoritarian heroes such as convicts and
bushrangers, and claimed their characteristics to be truly Australian as
opposed to those celebrated by conservatives who remained tied to Britain
and Empire. Radical nationalism was espoused by a range of writers, from
Henry Lawson in The Bulletin of the 1890s to historian Russel Ward in The
Australian Legend (1958).

rank and file

Political party members who are neither officers of the party nor members
of parliament
The term can also apply to members of trade unions or other organis­
ations. Its meaning is related to that of ‘grass roots’, meaning ordinary
178 rat

people who make a contribution to their chosen organisation without

being exceptional or ambitious.
[grass roots]

rat
A contemptuous term for a political turncoat and of special significance
in the Labor Party
There have been several historic defections from the ALP, including those
of well-known leaders W.M. ‘Billy’ Hughes, William Holman, Joseph Lyons
and Vince Gair.
[duchess, scab]

realignment
Politically, the term means a change of attitude towards policies or parties
Realignment refers particularly to a change by most people in a group,
such as members of a social class or a religion. Peer group influence is
an important factor. The term can also refer to people in a district that
undergoes a significant change, such as a slum district close to a city that
becomes popular as a residential area for people with high incomes.
[demography, psephology]

realpolitik
Politics or diplomacy based on practical considerations rather than
ideology
The term comes from the German for ‘practical politics’. It is used to
describe foreign policy that is based on power rather than ideals and is
sometimes used to imply that, while a particular political action may be
effective, it is nonetheless unprincipled.
[pragmatism]

recess
The period of time between two sessions of parliament
Although the official interpretation of recess is the time between two
sessions of parliament, the term is also frequently applied to each of
the periods of several weeks between the autumn and spring sittings of
parliament.
[session (of parliament)]

recession
An economic condition characterised by moderately high unemployment
and industrial stagnation but less severe than a depression
The term is not a precise one, although it is sometimes defined as a fall in
the GDP in two successive three-monthly periods.
[depression (economic), gross domestic product]
 recognition 179

recognition
Official acknowledgement that a particular leader, group or assembly is the
real government of a foreign country
Recognition does not necessarily indicate approval of the foreign govern-
ment and there are two degrees of recognition that give some indication
of the relationship. ‘De facto’ recognition accepts the fact of control by a
ruling group; ‘de jure’ recognition includes a full diplomatic relationship.

reconciliation
A movement supported by government legislation to encourage coop-
eration, fairness and harmony between Indigenous and non-Indigenous
Australians
Equal rights for all Australians was acknowledged by an amendment to
the Constitution in 1967 and the reconciliation process was formally sup-
ported by the Commonwealth Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation Act
1991, which established the National Council for Aboriginal Reconcili­ation
(NCAR). The process aimed at achieving better relationships between
Indigenous and other Australians through a change of attitude, education
and an appreciation of Indigenous cultures; also the need for social justice
for Indigenous Australians. National Reconciliation Week is held each year
in May to celebrate the rich culture and history of the first Australians.

Reconciliation Australia
An independent, not-for-profit organisation that promotes reconciliation
between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians
It is a peak national organisation established in 2000 by the former Coun-
cil for Aboriginal Reconciliation and provides advice to various groups
and to government. Its board of directors comprises Indigenous and non-
Indigenous people who believe that reconciliation is in the best interests
of Australia.
[Indigenous Australians]

recount
Rechecking the number and the validity of the votes in an election
A returning officer may decide to recount the votes, especially if the result
is a close one. In the course of a recount, ballot papers of doubtful validity
are carefully rechecked and all votes are examined to ensure that they have
been correctly credited to the intended candidates.
[count, scrutiny]

redistribution
Changes to the boundaries of electorates
The size and shape of electorates need to be changed from time to time
because of changes to the number of members of parliament or the
180 red tape

distribution of population. In the past redistributions have provided an

opportunity for gerrymandering or malapportionment, but since 1984 the
independent Australian Electoral Commission has had responsibility for
redistributions.
[gerrymander, malapportionment]

red tape
Over-complicated procedures, especially bureaucratic ones, resulting in
delays
The term comes from the old custom of tying up official documents with
red tape. Standard procedures adopted in government departments and
other large organisations may require several reviews and multiple check-
ing. Simplifying or speeding up the procedures is referred to as ‘cutting red
tape’.
[bureaucracy, due process]

referendum
A vote of the people to indicate their opinion on a particular matter
In Australia since Federation the usual understanding of the term is a
countrywide vote on proposed amendments to the Constitution. The
detailed requirements for amendment of the Constitution are set out in
the Constitution itself. The proposal must be supported by a majority of
the total votes and also be approved in a majority of the states.
[Constitution of Australia, plebiscite]

reform
Widely used in politics in recent years instead of ‘change’
Dictionaries continue to define ‘reform’ as improvement, so the use of the
word implies that each change is a desirable or valuable one. In some cases
this judgement may be politically contentious.

refugees
People who have left their own country and cannot return without the
likelihood of persecution
Refugees may be in danger because of their politics, race or religion, and
many countries will allow refugees to stay even though they may have
come illegally. Deciding whether those claiming to be refugees are genuine
can be a difficult problem for the host nation.
[asylum seeker, boat people]

regime
A term used to identify a form of government or a particular government
‘Regime’ is often joined with a description of the type of system or the
name of its leader, for example, ‘the Czarist regime’ or ‘the Roosevelt
 regressive tax 181

regime’. The term is usually reserved for governments that continue for a
considerable time or have a distinct character.
[government, ideology]

regressive tax
A tax that takes a greater percentage of income from lower incomes than
from higher ones
Indirect taxes and charges tend to be regressive, such as sales tax on neces-
sities and licence fees.
[progressive tax]

regulations
Details of a law that have not been precisely defined in the original act—
they may be described as ‘sub-laws’
Acts of parliament may give a delegated power to the minister to add detail
to the original act in the form of regulations. Any regulations made must
be tabled in parliament and may be over-ruled in either house. An exam-
ple would be an adjustment of a fine for a minor offence, such as a vehicle
parking infringement.
[delegated legislation]

representative
A single person representing a group or a number of people
In parliamentary politics it is the role of members of parliament to rep-
resent the electorate that has elected them. In party politics, the term can
refer to a delegate who has been elected to represent local party members
at conferences or meetings, such as those for the selection of parliamentary
candidates.
[delegate]

representative democracy
Government by elected representatives of the people
Direct democracy would require all the people to meet frequently to make
decisions, but this would be impractical in large communities. Decision-
making by elected representatives overcomes the problem, but the voting
system must be fair if democratic ideals are to be retained. It is also neces-
sary that no potential candidates be unfairly prevented from standing for
election or hindered from making their views known to the voters. In some
countries the huge costs associated with election campaigns compromise
the fairness of a system purporting to be democratic.
[democracy, responsible government]

representative government
Government by representatives of those entitled to vote
182 republic

This form of government is not necessarily democratic as voting rights

may be restricted, or the voting system may be unfair through gerryman-
der or malapportionment.
[franchise]

republic
A nation governed by the people through their elected representatives and
having an elected or nominated head of state rather than an hereditary leader
The right to vote in fair elections and the supreme power of parliament
are the hallmarks of a genuine republic. The political structures of nations
claiming to be republics differ widely and some are republican in name
only, their real nature being authoritarian. Republics usually have an
elected or appointed president whose role is a formal or ceremonial one,
or a president who has real political power.
[head of government, head of state]

republicanism
In Australian politics, the policy of gaining complete constitutional
independence
Becoming a republic would mean that the British monarch would no longer
be the Australian head of state nor part of the Australian Commonwealth
parliament. The more general meaning of republicanism is advocacy of
a form of government based on democratic principles and headed by an
elected or appointed president rather than an hereditary monarch.
[Australian Republican Movement, Australians for a Constitu-
tional Monarchy]

research and development (R & D)

Research is scientific investigation; development is making the results of
research directly useful
For economic and industrial wellbeing it is considered essential that a
country provides sufficient resources for research and development. It can
come from government or private sources. The CSIRO is the main govern-
ment research organisation in Australia.
[Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation]

Reserve Bank of Australia

Australia’s central bank, largely responsible for the nation’s monetary
policy
Formed by the Reserve Bank Act of 1959, it took over economic respon-
sibilities from the Commonwealth Bank. The RBA aims to achieve
manageable inflation, high rates of employment and prosperous business
conditions. It is not possible to completely insulate Australia from world-
wide circumstances and in difficult times the RBA’s aim is to minimise the
adverse effects. The RBA’s monthly decisions on interest rates are keenly
 reserve powers 183

awaited as they affect business, employment, investments and payments

on home loans.
[economics, economic system]

reserve powers
The power of the monarch and the monarch’s representatives to disallow
proposed laws passed by parliament and to reject government advice
The Australian Constitution, in Sections 58 and 59, gives the monarch
and the governor-general, as the monarch’s representative, powers that are
superior to those of parliament. They are strengthened by the ‘disallowance’
power of the monarch. Despite the convention that the governor-general
and governors act on the advice of the government, they have the power to
do otherwise and on rare occasions this has happened.
[disallowance, governor-general]

residual powers
Powers that have remained solely with the states since Federation
The Australian Constitution, and amendments to it, have given the Federal
parliament power to make laws in respect to specified matters. Powers over
other matters remain with the states.
[division of powers]

resolution
A formal decision of a meeting
Proposals are made as ‘motions’ at many kinds of meetings. When a pro-
posal is voted on and approved it becomes a ‘resolution’—a decision that
the officers or committee of the organisation are required to carry out.
[motion]

resources
Materials and other factors of potential benefit, especially to humans
An economic interpretation is that resources have commercial value, such
as land and material, together with capital and labour. A broader definition
would include everything that might add to the quality of life, now and
into the future, whether of monetary value or not.
[quality of life]

responsible government
A political system in which the government is responsible to the people
In practice this means a democratically elected parliament. The Aus­
tralian political system largely conforms to this ideal, but not completely.
The monarch and the governor-general have the constitutional power to
ignore or overrule government advice and decisions.
[democracy, reserve powers]
184 restricted franchise

restricted franchise
See property vote

restrictive trade practices

Schemes to increase profits by secret arrangements between companies
Secret agreements between rival companies to avoid price competition
are a prominent example. Another is the practice of powerful companies
applying pressure on smaller ones to fix prices. Takeovers and mergers
are also ways of reducing competition within an industry. The Common-
wealth Trade Practices Act defines those practices that are illegal under the
Act.
[monopoly, oligopoly]

restrictive work practices

Rules relating to work practices that increase costs or cause delays
These rules have been established over many years and have been incor-
porated into agreements and industrial awards. Combined efforts of
government, employers and trade unions began in the mid-1980s to
reduce the problem, lower costs and improve export prospects.
[microeconomic reform, productivity]

retrospective legislation
Laws that deal with activities that occurred before the legislation was
passed
Retrospective legislation is rare and is likely to be met with criticism,
even when there are sound reasons for the proposed laws. Justification
for such legislation could include coping with clever devices that are
aimed at negating the obvious purpose of existing legislation. A cunning
ma­noeuvre to avoid the intention of a fair taxation law is an example.

returning officer (RO)

The appointed official in charge of an election in a particular electorate
The returning officer’s duties include the planning and provision of facili-
ties, staff and ballot papers and control of the conduct of voting on Election
Day. After the completion of voting, the RO’s responsibilities include over-
seeing the counting of the votes and making the declaration of the poll.
[declaration of the poll, Election Day]

revenue
Government income from taxation and other sources
Major sources of revenue include personal and company taxes, consump-
tion tax, excise and customs duty, capital gains tax, licence fees, payroll tax,
vehicle registration fees and fines for lawbreaking.
[taxation]
 rhetoric 185

rhetoric
Use of the term in a political context usually implies pretentious or vague
or deceptive speech
It suggests that an opponent has been indulging in meaningless talk instead
of making a frank and substantial statement. This may be fair criticism,
but the accusation can also be used as a device to avoid serious debate.

right to vote
The legal right to vote depends on meeting certain conditions such as age
and citizenship
The struggle for extensions to the right to vote has been a continuing fea-
ture of the growth of democracy. In Australia women gained the legal right
to vote in state and federal elections at the start of the twentieth century.
In Australia, voting has become not only a right and a civic duty, but also
a legal obligation.
[adult franchise (or suffrage), property vote, suffragettes]

right-wing
A simple interpretation is ‘politically conservative’, but the term is a relative
one and its meaning depends on the context
In Australia, the Liberal Party and the National Party are regarded as right-
wing or conservative parties. But care should be taken in interpreting the
terms in other contexts, especially when they are applied to factions or
individuals. For example, a faction regarded as right-wing in one party
could be quite different from a right-wing group in another.
[left-wing, political spectrum]

Ring the bells!

The traditional order by the presiding officer to summon absent members
of parliament to the chamber
This call is made before a vote in the form of a division is held, and also
when it has been confirmed that a quorum is not present.
[division (voting), quorum]

Robson rotation
A way of arranging names on ballot papers to avoid unfair advantage to
any one candidate from the ‘donkey vote’
Named after its originator, a Tasmanian MP named Neil Robson, it is a sys-
tem of changing the positions of names on batches of ballot papers so that
the top position is shared equally between all candidates. Consequently
the ‘donkey vote’ will not unfairly affect the result. The system has been
introduced in Tasmania and the ACT.
[donkey vote]
186 roll

roll
See electoral roll

rort
In general, cheating or misuse of laws or systems for personal advantage
This term also applies to political matters and an example is the gerryman-
dering of an electorate.
[gerrymander, slush fund]

royal assent
The final step in the passage of legislation
This is the legal assent by the governor-general (or governor), who signs
a copy of the bill as the representative of the monarch. Section 58 of the
Constitution gives the governor-general the power to refuse, but giving
assent is usually no more than a formality. The Constitution, in Section 59,
also provides for disallowance by the monarch of any legislation within a
year of its receiving the governor-general’s assent.
[disallowance, reserve powers]

royal commission
An inquiry appointed by parliament to investigate a matter of public
importance
Royal commissions have wide powers and can subpoena witnesses. They
report back to parliament and parliament decides what action to take, if
any, after considering a royal commission’s report.
[commission, subpoena]

rule of law
The principle that all people and governments have equal rights before the
law
The doctrine comes from English common law and requires that govern-
ment action abides by the law and that the administration of the law must
be impartial. It also requires that the judges be independent.
[due process, judicature]
S
safe seat
A parliamentary seat which a particular party is expected to win with a
comfortable majority at each election
The party in power prefers to have its ministers in safe seats, as ministers
are more vulnerable because they cannot spend as much time in their elec-
torates as backbenchers and must sometimes make ministerial decisions
that may be locally unpopular.
[blue-ribbon seat]

sales tax
A tax charged as a percentage of the selling price
This can be imposed on all goods or on selected ones and at different rates
depending on the class of goods. Some buyers may be exempted, such as
charitable institutions. Sales tax can be levied at different stages in the
chain of production and selling, such as at retail sale or at the wholesale
stage, or at each point where some process occurs that adds value to the
goods.
[goods and services tax]

sanctions
Actions to cause inconvenience or disadvantage to another nation to per-
suade it to change its policies
Non-military sanctions can include restrictions of trade or investment, or
of participation in international sporting events. Military sanctions, short
of war, include refusal to sell arms to the country. Sanctions may some-
times be effective, but in many cases may harm the general population
while failing to bring about a policy change.

scab
A derogatory term used by trade unionists for workers who take the place
of those on strike
188 scam

The resentment against such workers, sometimes called ‘strike breakers’,

stems from the principle of unity within trade unions.
[industrial dispute, rat]

scam
A ruse or confidence trick
The usual meaning applies to schemes to defraud victims of money,
although in a political context it is applied to a policy that may look attrac-
tive but in practice would help very few people.

scare campaign
Political propaganda to induce fears, usually unwarranted ones
Publicity is used to frighten people and gain support for a policy of a
political party or a pressure group. Catchphrases, such as ‘yellow peril’ or
‘slippery slope’, are used in scare campaigns.

scepticism (political)
Careful judgement of political matters based on the evidence, which
should not be confused with cynicism
This continuing responsibility may be tiresome, or painful when it involves
criticism of one’s favoured party, but widespread interest is essential for
good government.
[apathy, cynicism (political)]

scrutineers
People officially entitled to watch the election processes to guard against
improper practices and mistakes
Scrutineers are nominated by candidates, but candidates themselves are
not permitted to act as scrutineers. There are two categories of scrutineers:
those who observe the voting, and those who scrutinise the counting
process.
[count, scrutiny]

scrutiny
Examination of the electoral process by representatives of the candidates
The system of scrutiny helps to ensure that high standards and public con-
fidence in the electoral process are maintained. Scrutineers are allowed to
be present inside polling places while voting is in progress. They also watch
over the counting of votes and may challenge the validity of ballot papers if
they believe they may be informal. By watching carefully during the count,
scrutineers can assess the effect of preference votes and make early fore-
casts of the final result of the election.
[informal vote, preferential voting]
 seat (in parliament) 189

seat (in parliament)

An informal term for an electorate or a division in the case of the House
of Representatives
The use of the expression probably comes from the practice of allocating a
particular seat in parliamentary chambers to each member of parliament.

secession
The separating for self-government of a portion of the area controlled by
an established government
In Australia a serious attempt was made by Western Australia to secede
from the Commonwealth in 1933 following overwhelming support in a
referendum in that state. Secession required amendment of the British act
of parliament that incorporated the Australian Constitution, but the Brit-
ish act was not amended and secession did not happen.
[Federation]

secondary boycott
An extension of industrial action beyond the employer initially involved
A secondary boycott can take the form of action against other companies
unless they cease cooperating with the employer at the centre of the dispute.
This tactic is adopted when the company mainly concerned is impervious
to normal strike action. This form of industrial action is a matter of politi-
cal dispute and was made illegal by the Howard government.
[solidarity]

secondary industry
Industry that adds value to materials, especially manufacturing industry
Employment in secondary industry in Australia, as a proportion of total
employment, rose to a maximum percentage in the mid-1950s but then
decreased, mainly as a result of the use of technologically advanced
machinery and increased imports.
[primary industry, tertiary industry]

second reading
The second parliamentary stage in dealing with proposed legislation
At this stage the minister explains the contents of the bill and speaks in its
favour, usually at considerable length. The general principles of the pro-
posed legislation are then debated and a vote is taken. If this is carried
it indicates approval of the aims of the bill, but not necessarily to all its
details. The second reading is followed by consideration of the bill clause
by clause.
[bill, consideration in detail stage (of a bill), first reading, third
reading]
190 secret ballot

secret ballot
An election in which the procedure enables each voter’s choice to be kept
secret
Parliamentary elections in Australia are secret ballots and voters are given
privacy when they mark their ballot papers. This reduces the possibility
of unfair pressure being exerted on voters, although voters can make their
choice known if they wish to do so.

sectarianism
Antagonism between groups holding different religious faiths, sometimes
with political consequences
Australia suffered for many years from hostility between Protestants
and Catholics. Mainly from Ireland, the Catholics were mostly manual
workers and supported the newly formed Labor Party around the time
of Federation. The ALP was then sometimes labelled ‘the Catholic party’.
This form of sectarianism subsided during the twentieth century but, as a
result of immigration from a range of countries and cultures, antagonism
has emerged towards religions previously little known in Australia. An
ad­ditional religious factor affecting politics has been the growth in Aus-
tralia of American-style Christian fundamentalist churches that tend to
support conservative political parties.

section (of an act of parliament)

A distinct portion of an act, identified by a number
Sections may be single short sentences, or run to much greater length and
be divided into several sub-sections. Before the legislation is passed these
separate parts of the bill are called clauses.
[clause]

security (national)
Protection against aggression from other countries and insurrection from
within
Most countries, including Australia, maintain military and police forces
and secret security organisations to try to learn of potential dangers.
Secret security agencies can be misused both in their country of origin and
abroad as their activities cannot be so freely and thoroughly scrutinised as
those of other government agencies.
[Australian Secret Intelligence Service, Australian Security
Intelligence Organisation, defence]

security (social)
Confidence in the future, including freedom from fear of economic
distress
 sedition 191

In politics, it refers particularly to security of employment and availability

of help at times of need such as illness, incapacity and old age.
[depression, recession, social services]

sedition
Encouraging revolt against the governing authorities through speech or
writing
Sedition differs from treason and is a less serious offence, as no violent
action is involved.
[treason]

select committee
A parliamentary committee set up to undertake a particular task
The members of a select committee may be chosen from either one or both
houses of parliament. These committees can be expected to have a finite
life, ending when the particular task has been completed.
[committee system]

selection of ministers
The party in government chooses its ministers but the methods have var-
ied over time
The Constitution states that the governor-general chooses the ministers
but, in practice, the political party in government chooses them. Later, the
governor-general formally appoints them. The Liberal Party’s leader usu-
ally selects the ministers, including some from the National Party when
there is a coalition government. The caucus has usually elected Labor
Party ministers but there have allegedly been exceptions to this tradition
in recent years. Factions have influence in the selection of ministers in both
parties.
[caucus, minister]

Senate
One of the two houses of the Federal Parliament
Its membership is made up of twelve senators from each of the six states
plus two from each of the two mainland territories. The proposal for an
equal number of senators from each state was an inducement for the less
populous states to accept Federation. It is not consistent with the principle
of ‘one vote–one value’. Most senators vote on party lines and this reduces
the effectiveness of the Senate in protecting smaller states and its value as a
‘house of review’. The style of debate in the Senate is usually more subdued
and polite than in the House of Representatives.
[house of review, senator, territories]
192 Senate elections

Senate elections
Senators are elected to represent the whole of a state (or territory) by a
proportional representation system of voting
Senate elections are usually held in conjunction with House of Representa-
tives elections. At half-Senate elections, which are the usual type, senators
from the states are elected for a full six-year term but only half of them are
elected at any one time. Senators from the territories are elected for three-
year terms. After a double dissolution, all Senate seats become vacant. Half
of those from the states are elected for a full term, but the others for a ‘short
term’ of three years. Senate elections are conducted according to a modi-
fied Hare-Clark system, and each state and territory is a multi-­member
electorate.
[double dissolution, Hare-Clark system, half-Senate election,
simultaneous elections, territories]

senator
A member of parliament elected to the Senate, the upper house of the
Federal Parliament
A group of senators is elected from each state, and a group from each
mainland territory. In parliament they usually team together on party
lines, loyalties to political parties taking precedence over loyalties to states.
Members of the Senate are usually addressed by the title ‘Senator’.
[casual vacancy, Senate, Senate elections]

separation of powers
The independence of the three ‘arms of government’: the legislature, the
executive and the judiciary
The principle of the separation of powers is to guard against tyranny and
injustice such as can occur, for example, if the executive controls the sys-
tem of justice. The Australian Constitution does not completely separate
the three arms of government, as it follows the precedent of the Westmin-
ster system and makes the executive answerable to the parliament.
[arms of government, Westminster system]

session (of parliament)

A period from the opening of the parliament until it is prorogued or
dissolved
Parliament is said to be prorogued if the next session will be held without
an election intervening. If there is to be an election, parliament is ‘dis-
solved’. Prorogation of the Commonwealth parliament has become rare
and sessions often extend for the full term of the parliament.
[prorogation, recess]
 sexism 193

sexism
The attitude that people are superior or inferior, and have particular abili-
ties, inclinations and duties, according to their gender
In principle, either sex could be regarded as the inferior one, but in prac-
tice girls and women are the people more often disadvantaged.
[discrimination (within a community)]

shadow minister
An opposition member of parliament chosen to concentrate on a particu-
lar area of ministerial responsibility
The position does not have official status but is an established feature of
parliamentary practice. The shadow minister is usually the first member
to speak after the minister in a debate on a new bill. Appointment as a
shadow minister is regarded as promotion for a backbencher, and a step
towards becoming a minister if the opposition becomes the government.

shadow ministry
The group of senior opposition members of parliament chosen to concen-
trate on the various ministerial areas of responsibility
It is sometimes called the opposition front bench, and its members are the
opposition’s foremost spokespersons in parliament and to the mass media.
The shadow ministry is numerically equal, or nearly equal, to the govern-
ment ministry.
[front bench]

silent majority
A term used to suggest that most people silently disagree with changes
promoted by public argument and demonstrations
In some cases the suggestion may be justified, as strong campaigns can be
waged by pressure groups despite little general support. On the other hand,
the assertion that a ‘silent majority’ disagrees can be used as an excuse for
the absence of noticeable support for a person’s own viewpoint.
[populism, pressure group]

simultaneous elections
Elections of an upper house and a lower house of parliament that are held
on the same day
Although it is convenient and less costly to have simultaneous elections,
Commonwealth and state constitutions permit them to be held separately
and this has happened on some occasions in both federal and state elec-
tions. Referendums for amendment of the Australian Constitution that
would ensure that Senate and House of Representatives elections would be
held simultaneously have been defeated on two occasions.
194 single-issue group

single-issue group
A pressure group that is concerned and active about only one element of
political policy
These groups usually adopt the tactics of putting pressure on political par-
ties or candidates rather than becoming directly involved in parliamentary
elections as parties, although there have been some exceptions. Dispro-
portionate attention is sometimes given to these groups by the media and
politicians, deflecting attention from other matters of public concern. But
single-issue groups can increase awareness of issues that might otherwise
be ignored.
[pressure group, punishment politics]

single-member electorate
An area represented by one member of parliament
House of Representatives electorates and state lower house electorates
(except in Tasmania) are examples of single-member electorates.
[multi-member electorate]

Single Tax League

An Australian political movement advocating the land tax policy of Henry
George
Henry George was a nineteenth-century American economist who pro-
posed a single tax based on land values. The idea achieved some popularity
in Australia in the early years of the twentieth century, as it did in the USA
and Canada. The Single Tax League continues in Australia into the twenty-
first century with a tiny membership but it owns significant financial
assets, mainly from legacies.

single transferable vote system

A form of preferential voting
In this system, each voter has only one vote but it can be transferred to
another candidate under some circumstances. If only one position is being
contested, as in a House of Representatives election, this system would be
popularly called ‘preferential voting’.
[preferential voting]

sitting
A meeting of a house of parliament, usually extending over no more than
a day; it ends when it is adjourned
A sitting is suspended (or interrupted) when the presiding member leaves
the chair, usually for a meal break. The term ‘sitting’ has a different mean-
ing from ‘sittings’ (the autumn sittings and the spring sittings), which
refers to periods of some months when there are many sitting days.
[sittings (of parliament)]
 sitting day 195

sitting day
A day on which a house of parliament assembles to deal with formal
business
Sitting days are mostly set weeks beforehand. This helps all those likely to
be involved to make plans in advance. The schedule of sitting days may be
changed to cope with the pressure of business, particularly towards the end
of a session, when there may be an accumulation of bills needing attention.
[session (of parliament), sittings (of parliament)]

sittings (of parliament)

Two periods each year of about four months when Commonwealth parlia-
ment sits most weeks, although interspersed with non-sitting weeks; also
called a ‘sitting period’.
These are called the autumn sittings (between February and June) and the
spring sittings (between August and December). Each state parliament
chooses its own sitting days, which are planned and published in advance,
but sometimes changed to suit unexpected circumstances.
[recess, session (of parliament)]

slush fund
Money received by political parties or politicians from donors who expect
favours in return
The term is used in a derogatory way, which is well justified when dona-
tions, often secret, are made with improper motives although, in some
cases, it may be difficult to distinguish between legitimate donations and
‘slush fund’ money. The high cost of election campaigns and the potential
conflicts of interest that such contributions may entail are used as an argu-
ment for public funding of political advertising.
[blind trust (political party funding), public funding (election
campaigns)]

small-l Liberals (faction)

An historically significant faction that dominated the Liberal Party for
many years
Members of the group have been called the ‘moderates’ or ‘Wets’, in con-
trast with the ‘Dries’ or ‘conservatives’. The small-l Liberals have been
closer to the attitudes of the Liberal Party of earlier years under Menzies
than their factional opponents.
[factions—conservative parties]

social capital
A term with a range of interpretations, it deals with the consequences of
the relationship of individuals and groups within communities
196 social cohesion

Definitions vary widely, one being that social capital is the sum of net-
works, institutions and mutual assistance that contribute positively to
the quality of life of members of a community. Another interpretation—
espoused by the French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu—identifies the term
with the possession of advantage, or disadvantage, according to a person’s
position in the class structure.
[classes, community, socio-economic status]

social cohesion
A characteristic of a community whose members cooperate with one
another and live in harmony as a result of similarity of customs and values
or tolerance and goodwill
Such cohesion can be endangered by any of several factors, such as differ-
ences in religion, race, class or affluence whether such differences within
a population are the result of immigration or long-term circumstances.
[classes, racism, society]

social democracy
A form of government that includes democratic principles and a mixed
economy of capitalism and socialism
In Australia the term is used to describe the ideology of the Australian
Labor Party, whose platform includes social services and a mixed economy.
[democratic socialist, ideology, political theory]

social environment
The circumstances in which people find themselves as a result of legis­
lation, economics and accepted standards of behaviour
Political beliefs on matters such as the distribution of wealth, social mobil-
ity and education are important in changing or maintaining the social
environment. Other factors include customs and traditions, peer group
pressure, class structure, ethnicity and religion.
[civics, mores, peer group pressure, society, socio-economic status]

socialism
A political philosophy that gives high priority to social needs and favours
substantial government responsibility
Interpretations of ‘socialism’ range widely. In Australia, the term is usu-
ally taken to mean a mixture of government and private ownership, with
extensive social services.
[democratic socialist, ideology, social democracy]
 Socialist Left (faction) 197

Socialist Left (faction)

A major faction within the Labor Party in Victoria and influential in fed-
eral politics
The faction developed from an earlier one, the Trade Union Defence Com-
mittee, which was powerful in the 1950s and 1960s. The Socialist Left has
been regarded as being well to the left, but the emphasis on ideology has
gradually diminished and internal dissension has caused the growth of
sub-groups. In federal politics, Socialist Left members usually side with
members of similar groups from other states to make up ‘the Left’.
[factions—Australian Labor Party]

Socialist Party of Australia (1971–1996)

One of the parties in Australia that resulted from the splitting of the origi-
nal Communist Party
This party adopted a more pro-Soviet stance than the other ex-­Communist
Party groups, whose members were more critical of the Soviet Union. It
renamed itself the Communist Party of Australia in 1996.
[communism, Communist Party of Australia]

social justice
In colloquial Australian, the term means a ‘fair go’. Its fundamental belief is
the recognition of the basic rights of everyone to a reasonable share of the
benefits and the responsibilities of society
These rights include a share of the earth’s resources and equal opportu-
nities. Also access to social wellbeing, justice and employment in decent
conditions; and all of these without discrimination on account of gender,
race or religion.
[fair go]

social mobility
The possibility of people moving up or down the social or economic struc-
ture of a society
There are famous examples of people from humble backgrounds achiev-
ing success, but the playing field is not level. Family circumstances and
schools attended make a substantial difference to the opportunities avail-
able to young people in practice rather than theory.
[ladder of opportunity]
198 social movements

Reproduced courtesy of Fiona Katauskas

social movements
Groups of people who are either intent on political change or are opposed
to change
Social movements include an organised nucleus of enthusiasts and a larger
number of people ranging from active to silent supporters. Although the
issues often involve politics, the movements are usually independent of
parties and supporters cross party boundaries. Well-known examples
include the alignments of public figures and politicians on republicanism
and euthanasia.
Social movements positively bring attention to serious matters that
have been neglected, but there is also the danger of enthusiasts becoming
single-­issue lobbyists. In Australia social movements have been active over
a long period, including the Eight-Hour Day movement of the 1850s, the
suffragettes at the time of Federation and the conservationists, who were
active well before the danger of climate change was widely recognised.

social services
Publicly funded services or provision of financial assistance to those in
need
Social services include health services and education, housing, pensions
and other forms of financial assistance. Most economically developed
 society 199

countries have welfare services, although the appropriate range and level
of services is a matter of continuing political debate. Left-of-centre parties
usually favour more social services than conservative parties.
[pensions, welfare state]

society
An interacting community of people, especially a group that has devel-
oped a structure with customs and conventions
The term has a number of other meanings but society, considered as the
whole community, depends on its institutions, laws and customs and on
the spirit of cooperation and the mutual concern of its members. In poli-
tics, right-wing conservatives tend to dismiss the importance of so­ciety.
For example, the former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher
asserted ‘there is no such thing as society. There are individual men and
women, and there are families.’
[community]

socio-economic status
A term used in classifying groups of people; it is closely related to the older
term ‘class’
This depends on several factors, including education, occupation and
financial circumstances. Information about socio-economic status in
defined districts is of political interest, especially to psephologists.
[classes, psephology]

solidarity
Mutual support among trade unions
Help given to a union in a weak bargaining position by a stronger union
typifies solidarity. The term also applies to international cooperation such
as the support by the Australian Council of Trade Unions in 2008 for the
Korean Confederation of Trade Unions, whose officials had been jailed.
[secondary boycott]

sovereignty
Power over a nation by a person or by a group such as a parliament
Although the term comes from the word ‘sovereign’, meaning a monarch,
it is now applied to any form of government—whether a democratically
elected parliament, a small group or junta, a monarch or a dictator.

Speaker
The title of the senior presiding officer of the lower house of parliament
The Speaker acts as the presiding officer during sittings of parliament,
and shares this duty with a Deputy Speaker. Their responsibilities include
maintaining orderly conduct and debate. The house chooses the Speaker
200 speechwriter

from among its own members and, in practice, the party or coalition that
has a majority in the house makes the choice.
[President (of an upper house)]

speechwriter
People employed by politicians to write some of their speeches
The speechwriter has the task of researching the subject, of expressing the
policy of the politician (especially ministers and party leaders) without
gaffes or weaknesses that can be attacked by opponents, and of doing this
in a manner that will be engaging and catch the attention of the media.
[spin]

spill
The creation of vacancies for some or all of the positions in a political
group such as a ministry
The term can apply to any political party but is more frequently used in
reference to the ALP, as the Labor caucus has traditionally chosen the min-
isters. A ‘spill’ can be caused by the resignation or dismissal of one or more
of the office-holders or by dissatisfaction with them. A caucus election is
held to fill the vacancies, usually followed by a reallocation of positions.
[caucus]

spin
Careful choice of words to interpret a matter in a selective, misleading,
vague or even a dishonest way in an attempt to manipulate public opinion
The term came from the public relations industry to politics, especially in
Britain, where Tony Blair’s New Labour government lost public confidence
because of its alleged addiction to spin.

spin doctor
A media adviser who helps political speechmakers concoct spin
Tony Blair’s media adviser, Alastair Campbell, was the pre-eminent exam-
ple of a spin doctor but Australian politicians also employ media advisers to
help them create clever or deceptive speeches to influence public opinion.

‘Split’, the
See Labor ‘Split’

squattocracy
Long-established owners or occupiers of large country properties who
came to regard themselves as a superior class
The term ‘squatter’ came from the practice of some early settlers occupying
large tracts of Crown land without permission. Later, many obtained leases
 Standards Australia Limited 201

or became landowners. They were mostly graziers who became wealthy

and were treated with deference in their local areas.

Standards Australia Limited

The peak Australian body that sets standards for products, services and
working practices
Safety is one of its major concerns. The name was adopted in 1988. It was
previously called the Standards Association of Australia, a body that was
established in the 1920s with the main function of setting engineering
standards.

standing committee
A parliamentary committee with a continuing responsibility
Standing committees deal with important areas of government respon-
sibility. They continue for the life of the parliament and are likely to be
re-established in the following one. The Finance and Administration
Committee, the Migration Committee and the Education and Training
Committee are examples.
[committee system]

standing orders
The rules that apply to the proceedings of a house of parliament
Standing orders are the written rules adopted by parliament to make pro-
ceedings orderly, fair and efficient. The Speaker, or the presiding officer,
has the responsibility of keeping order and expediting the work of parlia-
ment with the help of the standing orders.
[order, suspension of standing orders]

state constitutions
Legislation that defines the powers and rules of state parliaments
Each of the Australian colonies (later to become states) adopted consti­
tutions during the nineteenth century, but the British parliament continued
to possess substantial power over the colonies until Federation. The states
continued to be partly subject to British laws, at least in theory, until the
British parliament and the Australian Commonwealth parliament passed
the Australia Act(s) in 1986. With the establishment of the Common-
wealth in 1901 many responsibilities were transferred from the states to
the Commonwealth government, but powers that were not listed in the
Constitution of Australia remained with the states. State constitutions can
be amended by state parliaments, in contrast to the Commonwealth Con-
stitution, which cannot be changed without a referendum.
[Australia Act(s) 1986, Statute of Westminster]
202 state(s)

state(s)
In Australia, the six separately governed regions that were called ‘colonies’
until Federation
Since Federation the states continued to be self-governing, but with
reduced powers. Each has its own parliament with power over all matters
that have not been allocated to the Commonwealth by the Constitution.
There are also two mainland territories—the ACT and the Northern Terri-
tory—each with its own parliament.
[Federation, residual powers, territories]

statesmanship
Political conduct of a responsible and dignified kind
The term can apply to politics within a country or to international dip­
lomacy. For example, the conduct of a national leader or diplomat who
confers with a representative of another nation in a way that maximises the
chance of a useful outcome is often referred to as ‘statesmanship’.
[diplomacy]

states’ rights
Powers retained by the states at the time of Federation and not transferred
later to the Commonwealth
The term has become identified with opposition to the transfer of powers
from the states. The Commonwealth parliament has sometimes legislated
on matters not listed in the Constitution, but has done so with the consent
of the states. The division of powers between the Commonwealth and the
states has been controversial, with those on the conservative side of politics
tending to oppose transfers to the Commonwealth.
[centralism, Federation, residual powers]

statute
An act of parliament; a formally defined and recorded law
In Australia, both state and federal parliaments produce statutes by the
formal process of debate and voting, although the government usually
decides the substance of new legislation in advance.

statute law
The sum of all the acts of parliament—federal, state and territory
Statute law is the written law, contrasting with common law, which is based
on precedent. The two together make up the law of the country.
[common law, statute]

Statute of Westminster
An act passed by the British parliament in 1931 that formally recognised
the independence of Australia
 statutory authority 203

The statute acknowledged the autonomy of several countries that had once
been part of the British Empire. It was the result of uncertainty regarding
the possibility of the United Kingdom intervening in the government of
these countries. In Australia, the British legislation of 1931 did not become
effective until the passing of the Commonwealth ‘Statute of Westminster
Adoption Act’ in 1942. The passage of the Australia Act of 1986, which
removed or reduced various powers of the United Kingdom over Australia
and over the states, clarified the constitutional position of the Australian
states.
[Australia Act(s) 1986]

statutory authority
An organisation established by parliament with defined powers and duties
and a large degree of independence
Each statutory authority has its own minister, who decides matters of
broad policy, but it is the authority itself that is responsible to parliament.
The Australian Competition and Consumer Commission is an example.

statutory committee
A parliamentary committee established by an act of parliament
Parliamentary committees can be established by act of parliament or
under the standing orders of a house of parliament. The public accounts
committee is an example.
[committee system]

stolen generations
Aboriginal children taken away from their parents over many years in the
twentieth century
Children were taken from their families legally, and often forcibly, from
1909 to 1969 under the Aborigines Protection Act. Governments, churches
and welfare groups did this under the impression that it would be in the
best interests of the children and some were helped but, in addition to
the sadness of being permanently separated from their families, they were
often subjected to inhumane treatment and permanently harmed. The
1997 ‘Bringing them home’ report of the National Inquiry into this policy
confirmed the damage and misery that it caused and recommended a gov-
ernment apology and compensation. The prime minister at the time, John
Howard, decided not to make an official apology but Prime Minister Kevin
Rudd did so in 2008.

strike
The organised refusal to work by a group of employees because of a dis-
pute with their employer
204 sub judice

Strikes are usually, but not always, concerned with wages and conditions
of employment and are settled either by agreement or by arbitration or
sometimes end without any positive settlement.
[industrial dispute]

sub judice
A legal term meaning that a particular matter is the subject of court
proceedings
Public comment on such cases is forbidden for fear of influencing juries or
otherwise prejudicing a fair trial. Although law does not restrict comment
in parliament, it has become customary for MPs to abstain from comment
or to restrict it in accordance with traditional rules adopted by parliament.
[parliamentary privilege]

sub-laws
See regulations

subpoena
A legal demand that a person appear before a court or official inquiry
A royal commission has the same power as a court to order witnesses to
attend and give information.
[royal commission]

subsidy
Government financial assistance
Subsidies may be paid to industries to assist them against overseas compe-
tition; to public services, such as transport, in order to keep charges down;
and to cultural and voluntary welfare organisations.

suffrage
See adult franchise (or suffrage)

suffragettes
An historically famous English organisation that campaigned for women’s
voting rights in the early years of the twentieth century
Ridiculed at first, the suffragettes were partly responsible for achieving
limited voting rights for women in 1918, and full voting rights in 1928.
Emmeline Pankhurst founded the forerunner to the suffrage movement,
the Women’s Franchise League, in England in 1889. Similar organisations
operated in other countries, including Australia.
[adult franchise (or suffrage)]

sunset clause
A time limit on the operation of an act of parliament
 superannuation 205

Some acts include a date on which the law ceases to apply. An extension of
time is possible but would require the assent of parliament.

superannuation
The provision of pensions or other financial benefits to workers after
retirement
Superannuation usually requires contributions by the employees during
their working lives, plus contributions from employers. The benefits may be
regular payments or a lump sum, or a combination of both. The government
contributes to superannuation funds indirectly by allowing tax concessions.
Superannuation differs from age pensions, as the latter do not require direct
contributions from employees or others during their working life.
[pensions]

supply bills
See money bills

supply-side economics
The theory that factors affecting production have the most important
influence on the economics of a country
Supply-side economics concentrates on wage rates, taxation and the allo-
cation of capital. It contrasts sharply with Keynesian principles, which
emphasise the importance of demand, especially to prevent unemployment.
[Keynesianism, total demand]

Supreme Court
The most senior court in the judicial system of each state and territory
The work of Supreme Courts can extend over almost all legal matters
except those reserved for the High Court. Under some circumstances
appeals against the decisions of Supreme Courts can be made to the High
Court.
[High Court, judicature]

suspension
The temporary exclusion of a member from the proceedings of a house of
parliament because of disorderly conduct
Suspension is a part of the rules and procedures aimed at maintaining
order and decorum in a house of parliament. Although the presiding
officer of the house begins the process of suspension, the formal decision
to suspend a member is made by a vote of the parliament.
[naming a member, order]

suspension of standing orders

The decision of a house of parliament to operate, temporarily, in a manner
not in accordance with standing orders
206 sustainable development

This is for special reasons, such as dealing with urgent business. Standing
orders can be suspended only with the approval of an absolute majority of
the house.
[standing orders]

sustainable development
Economic and industrial development designed so that the environment
will not be irreversibly damaged
The United Nations 1992 Earth Summit conference in Rio de Janeiro dealt
with the future of those countries in which most of the people live in pov-
erty. The conference emphasised the need for economic development in
those countries without drastically degrading the natural ecosystems. The
term ‘sustainable development’ is used as a simplified explanation.
[climate change]

sweated labour
Excessive demand for output with low rates of pay
This term applied particularly to women workers a century ago, before they
belonged to unions. Another factor, especially in the clothing trade, was ‘piece-
work’—paying a stated amount per item for work done at home. Similarly, in
the twenty-first century, some goods purchased in richer countries are very
cheap because of low rates of pay in the countries where they are made.
[fair trade (social movement), women’s lib(eration), women’s
movement]

swing
A change in the percentage of votes received by the political parties that
can apply to one electorate or to all of them
Media commentators use the term when discussing an approaching elec-
tion. They relate swings to the number of seats that would change hands
and the swing necessary for a change of government.
[psephology]

swinging voter
A voter without a continuing party allegiance whose vote might change at
any election
Swinging voters can belong to a range of categories. Some are well informed
and vote carefully. Others may be influenced by minor factors. The exist-
ence of the ‘donkey vote’ indicates that some voters pay little attention to
politics and vote haphazardly. The percentage of swinging voters is rising,
possibly because of the diminishing class-identification of Australians and
the less prevalent lifelong adherence to a particular political party.
[apathy, donkey vote]
 Sydney Institute 207

Sydney Institute
A long-established political think tank
A privately funded, not-for-profit organisation engaged in political
research and publicity. The institute describes itself as ‘bringing a unique
focus to Sydney’s intellectual and business life’ and it conducts forums and
invites speakers from a wide range of backgrounds. It publishes the Sydney
Institute Quarterly.
[think tank]
T
tacking
The attachment of proposed legislation of some other category on to
money bills
This has sometimes been done in the hope that an upper house will pass
the total bill because of the convention that it should not reject money
bills. The Australian Constitution (Sections 54 and 55) forbids tacking in
the Commonwealth Parliament.
[appropriation bills, money bills]

tariffs
Taxes on imports, intended to protect local industry, especially
manufacturing
Tariffs provide revenue as well as protection for local industry, but they
increase the price paid by the purchaser. The matter of tariffs has been a
controversial one for many years, with a gradual move towards free trade.
[free trade, protection]

Tasmanian electoral system

Members of the House of Assembly are elected from multi-member elec-
torates by proportional representation
The method for the lower house is popularly known as the Hare-Clark
system. It combines proportional representation and preferential voting,
and makes use of the ‘Droop quota’ in counting the votes. In 1998 the gov-
ernment adopted an electoral system that provided for the election of five
MPs from each of five electorates to try to avoid ‘hung’ parliaments. The
Legislative Council uses a preferential voting system for each of its fifteen
single-member electorates.
[Droop quota, Hare-Clark system, deadlock (lack of a majority),
Robson rotation]
 taxation 209

taxation
Funds collected by the government to provide for public expenditure
Direct taxation is levied on income and, under some circumstances, on
capital gains. Taxation can also be in the form of death duties or inherit-
ance tax. There are also indirect taxes, the most important of which is sales
tax, which may be in any of several different forms. Taxation policy is a
major topic of political debate.
[goods and services tax, income tax, progressive tax, regressive
tax, revenue, sales tax]

tax avoidance
Arrangement of financial matters with the main objective of legally
re­ducing taxation
Tax avoidance is legal despite sometimes involving the contortion of
financial arrangements and using legal ‘loopholes’. Fringe benefits tax was
introduced to reduce some of the opportunities to elude the intention
of tax laws. Schemes for tax avoidance are criticised on moral grounds
and they tend to favour the more affluent at the expense of lower income
earners.
[fringe benefits tax, taxation, tax evasion]

tax evasion
Illegal action to reduce taxation
Common ways of evading tax include falsifying tax returns and accepting
payments for work in cash without documentary records.
[taxation, tax avoidance]

tellers
Members of parliament appointed to count the votes when a parliamen-
tary vote is in the form of a division
The presiding officer appoints two tellers to count the affirmative votes
and two to count the negative votes.
[division (voting)]

term
The period for which a member of parliament is elected
Lower house MPs are normally elected for a maximum of three or four
years, depending on the particular house of parliament. For example,
the term is three years in the House of Representatives but four years for
the Victorian Legislative Assembly. Senators from the states are normally
elected for a full term of six years or, under some circumstances, for a short
term of three years. Senators from the mainland territories are elected for
three years.
[Senate elections]
210 term (of office)

term (of office)

The period during which a particular prime minister, premier or party
continues in power in parliament
The expression refers to an uninterrupted period. For example, if a prime
minister is defeated but regains office at a later election, the new period as
a prime minister would be called a ‘second term’.

term (of parliament)

The time from the opening of a new parliament to its dissolution prior to
the next election
The maximum term is legally fixed, although it varies for different parlia-
ments. Parliament may be dissolved long before the maximum time has
elapsed if the governor-general, or the state governor, authorises the dis-
solution. This is almost always done in accordance with advice from the
government. A term of parliament is sometimes referred to as ‘a parliament’.
[dissolution, parliament (period of time), term, term (of office)]

terra nullius
The legal term for the concept that Australia was legally uninhabited and
owned by no one until colonisation began in 1788
The High Court rejected this concept in 1992 in the Mabo case by de­claring
the existence of native title to land. This ruling was extended by the judge-
ment in the Wik case of 1996.
[land rights, Mabo case, Native Title Act, Wik case]

territories
Areas, other than states, over which Australia has jurisdiction
There are two mainland territories: the Australian Capital Territory and the
Northern Territory. The external territories include the Australian Antarc-
tic Territory, Christmas Island, the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, the Coral Sea
Islands, the Heard and McDonald Islands, the Ashmore Reef and Cartier
Islands and Norfolk Island.
[Australian Capital Territory parliament, Northern Territory
parliament]

terrorism
A term for organised violence or intimidation to achieve a political or
i­deological goal
The causes of terrorism range from honest belief in victimisation and injus-
tice to self-righteousness, intolerance and blatant ambition for power. The
intense feelings that are part of terrorism are often associated with political,
religious or racial loyalties. Individual cases can be controversial: some rela-
tivists claim that ‘one man’s freedom fighter is another man’s terrorist’.
[ideology, security (national), theocracy]
 tertiary industry 211

tertiary industry
Service industries, such as retailing and transport, and professional ser­
vices such as law and medicine
Tertiary industry has been growing since the 1950s and has become the
largest of the three tiers of industry. An important element has been
leisure-­related industry such as entertainment, hospitality and the holiday
trade.
[primary industry, secondary industry]

Thatcherism
The neoliberal economic policies and anti-trade unionism espoused by
the former British prime minister
From her election in 1979, Margaret Thatcher worked to reverse Britain’s
post-World War II acceptance of Keynesian economic principles and to
reduce the influence of trade unions. During the 1980s Ronald Reagan,
president of the USA, supported similar polices. Consequently Thatch-
erism and Reaganism are frequently mentioned together as examples of
neoliberalism.

theocracy
A government dominated by clergy or religious power
Theocracies tend to be authoritarian as the leaders assert, and probably
believe, that they are acting according to divine law and therefore have the
right to discourage or forbid criticism or opposition.
[ideology]

think tank
A social and/or political research organisation, often also engaging in
political propaganda
Some candidly acknowledge their political sympathies, although they may
occasionally disagree publicly with certain policies of their favoured parties.
Others adopt names that suggest the dignity and detachment of academic
or professional institutions and give their employees titles such as ‘fellow’
or ‘senior fellow’. Well-known think tanks regarded as sympathetic to the
Liberal Party include the Institute of Public Affairs, the Tasman Institute,
the Menzies Research Centre and the Centre for Independent Studies.
Those sympathetic towards the Labor Party include the Evatt Foundation,
the Fabian Society and the Australia Institute.
[Evatt Foundation, Fabian Society, Institute of Public Affairs,
Menzies Research Centre, National Civic Council, Sydney
Institute]

third reading
The final parliamentary stage of dealing with a bill and the last at which it
can be debated
212 Third Way

This stage provides an opportunity for further debate—although it sel-

dom occurs—and then the vote is taken.
[bill, second reading]

Third Way
A political philosophy with the aim of a modified, socially compassionate
form of capitalism
As prime minister, the UK’s Tony Blair promoted the idea through the
1990s with support from US president Bill Clinton. After the demise of the
Soviet Union and the change from Keynesianism to neoliberal economics
in the USA and the UK, the Third Way emerged as a compromise between
extreme free market capitalism and social democracy. In Australia former
ALP leader Mark Latham espoused a similar idea but failed to win wide-
spread support.
[communitarianism, progressive politics, social democracy]

Third World
See developing world

ticker
Colloquial term for the heart and, hence, for courage, which in politics
implies the strength and confidence to make difficult decisions
Politicians suggest that opponents lack the courage to act fearlessly by
asserting ‘You don’t have the ticker!’ The Coalition accused former ALP
leader Kim Beazley of lacking the toughness (or ‘ticker’) to be a leader.

tiers of government
In Australia there are three levels of government—federal, state and local
The federal level of government deals with those matters allocated to it
by the Constitution. The state governments have the power to deal with
the rest and they delegate certain responsibilities to local government, also
called municipal government. Government in Australia is further com-
plicated by the existence of the two mainland territories: the Australian
Capital Territory and the Northern Territory.

titles of members of parliament

See modes of address for members of parliament

Tory
A colloquial term, derived from Gaelic, for a conservative politician or a
conservative voter
The term is widely used in the United Kingdom, but occasionally it is
applied to politically conservative people in Australia, usually by their
opponents and with a derogatory intent.
 total demand 213

total demand
An economic term for the spending by all purchasers over a given period
of time
Also called ‘aggregate demand’, this is significant in economic theory, par-
ticularly in Keynesianism, in which deliberate adjustments to demand are
advocated to maintain a stable economy and unemployment.
[economics, Keynesianism]

totalitarianism
See autocracy

total wage
A term adopted in wage fixing by the Australian Conciliation and Arbitra-
tion Commission—a forerunner of the Industrial Relations Commission
The term has significance as the commission officially accepted the con-
cept that a wage rate should be a minimum wage plus a margin for skill.
[arbitration, Australian Conciliation and Arbitration Commis-
sion, Industrial Relations Commission]

trade union
An organisation of employees with the aim of achieving good rates of pay
and working conditions
In Australia, trade unions and their peak organisations, such as the Aus­
tralian Council of Trade Unions (ACTU), negotiate with employers,
present cases before the Industrial Relations Commission and sometimes
go on strike. Trade unions have been a continuing influence within the
Australian Labor Party, while conservative political parties have been
opposed to the unbridled power of the trade unions.
[arbitration, enterprise bargaining, industrial relations, Indus-
trial Relations Commission, strike]

Trade Union Defence Committee (TUDC)

A former faction within the Labor Party in Victoria with historical
significance
The TUDC was a dominant force within the ALP in Victoria from 1955 to
1970 and the forerunner of the Socialist Left faction.
[factions—Australian Labor Party]

treason
Extreme forms of disloyalty to one’s own country
Examples traditionally identified as treason would include assassination of
the country’s leader, assistance to an enemy in time of war, and civil war
against the established government. Not all such actions have been judged
214 treasurer

acts of treason, as some have been in revolt against tyranny and thus have
been regarded as legitimate actions in a struggle for freedom.
[sedition]

treasurer
The title of the minister in charge of the government’s economic policy
and its revenue and expenditure
The term applies in federal and state governments. It is one of the most
important ministries, affecting the economy and other ministries by con-
trolling their spending. The treasurer presents the budget to parliament
and, together with the debate that follows, this is one of the most impor-
tant parliamentary events in each year.
[budget, economy (of a nation), Treasury]

Treasury
The department responsible for the implementation of a country’s eco-
nomic policy and the management of government revenue and expenditure
The Treasury is reputed to be the most important department, not only
because a country’s welfare is closely tied to its economic condition but
also because the Treasury has a big influence on the other departments by
its control of finance.
[budget, economy (of a nation)]

treasury benches
The seats in a parliament occupied by the government members
The expression ‘occupying the treasury benches’ means being in govern-
ment. The opposition benches are directly opposite.
[cross benches, opposition benches]

treaty
A formal agreement between two or more nations
Treaties can deal with defence, non-aggression and limitation of arma-
ments, trade and other economic matters. They can be made on the basis
of friendship, or made between potential enemies aiming at continued
peace. Some are imposed without agreement upon a nation defeated in
war.
[foreign policy, protocol (treaty)]

tree huggers
A derisory term for conservationists, especially those concerned about
forests

tribunals
See industrial tribunals
 trickle-down effect 215

trickle-down effect
The assertion or belief that wide disparities in wealth do not disadvantage
those on low incomes
Those supporting the trickle-down effect argue that spending by the rich
creates work and income for those lower down the ladder. President Rea-
gan famously asserted this in 1981 when he drastically reduced the taxation
rate on the top income bracket. Critics of the theory contend that, apart
from questions of fairness, the very rich spend only a part of their income
while the less affluent people quickly spend most of theirs and so create
more business activity and jobs.
[economics, economic welfare, taxation]

triple bottom line

An expression that implies businesses should bear responsibility for the
environmental and social impacts of their activities, as well as aiming for
profit
The principle that these three factors should be valued and taken into
account concurrently has developed as a result of greater public concern
over climate change and human wellbeing. This is in strong contrast with
the assertion that financial profit is the sole criterion to be considered.
[civil rights and responsibilities, commerce, environmentalism,
ethics]

two-party-preferred vote
The votes allocated to the two major parties after preference votes have
been distributed
In a close election, the preference votes are distributed to determine the
result. The number of votes for each candidate after the distribution of
all the preferences is the ‘two-party-preferred vote’. If it is not necessary to
distribute preference votes to decide the result, the scrutineers can assess
the preferences with reasonable accuracy by closely watching the ballot
papers as they are counted.
[preferential voting, scrutineers]

two-party system
A system in which there are two major parties and one of them will be able
to govern without bargaining with smaller parties
The system in Australia is close to a two-party one: the Labor Party on
one side and, usually, an alliance between the Liberal and National parties
on the other. The stable nature of Australian government is sometimes
compromised or complicated when a balance of power is held by a smaller
party, or a group of independents, or a combination of both. This is more
likely to happen in the Senate and in other houses with members elected
by a proportional representation system of voting.
[balance of power, proportional representation]
U
UAP
See United Australia Party

umbrella organisation
One form has separate bodies as members and is sometimes called a peak
organisation; the other form has a wide range of individual members
The major political parties are examples of the second type. They tolerate
much diversity of opinion among their members to avoid fragmentation,
and the members usually tolerate policies not always to their liking out of
loyalty to the party.
[party discipline, peak organisation]

unconstitutional
Beyond the powers granted to the Commonwealth parliament by the Aus-
tralian Constitution
The powers of the Commonwealth parliament are defined very briefly in
the Constitution and consequently it can be difficult to decide whether a
proposed law is within the parliament’s power to legislate. A bill that has
gone through the parliamentary process and has been approved by both
houses of parliament can then be challenged before the High Court. It
may be rejected on the grounds of being outside the powers granted to
the Commonwealth parliament by the Constitution. In other words, it is
judged to be unconstitutional.
[Constitution of Australia, High Court]

unemployment payments
Regular payments from the government to people who remain unem-
ployed for a substantial period
Applicants must meet strict conditions before payments commence and
eligibility must be confirmed at intervals. Regular financial assistance to
 unicameral system 217

the unemployed has had a number of official names and unofficially is

sometimes disparagingly called the ‘dole’.
[social services, welfare state]

unicameral system
A system of government with a single house of parliament
The system has the advantage of simplicity and the opportunity of pass-
ing laws without delay. It has the disadvantage that legislation can be
rushed through parliament with little opportunity for public expression
of opinion, although this also applies to a bicameral system when one
party has a majority in both houses. The state of Queensland and the
mainland territories of the ACT and the Northern Territory have uni-
cameral systems.
[bicameral system, upper house]

uniform taxation
The taxes paid in Australia, including income tax and sales tax, and col-
lected by the Commonwealth government at uniform rates throughout
the country
Uniform taxation began during World War II with the Commonwealth
taking over tax collection from the states and making grants to them to
compensate for their loss of direct tax revenue. The system has continued
ever since, despite some uncertainty over its constitutional validity.
[sales tax, taxation]

Union of Australian Women

A long-established organisation working for women’s rights
Formed in 1950, it is involved in issues such as rates of pay, conditions of
employment, pensions, health, child care and housing. It is also interested
in cooperating with women in other countries and in world peace.
[affirmative action, feminism]

unitary system
The political system in a country that has a central government and no other
New Zealand has just one parliament and is an example of a country with
a unitary system. Australia has a Commonwealth government and several
state governments and is an example of a federated system of government.
[centralism, Federation]

United Australia Party (UAP)

The major conservative party from 1931 to 1944
This was the successor to the Nationalist Party, which was defeated in
the 1929 election. The first leader of the UAP was J.A. Lyons, who had
been a minister in the Scullin Labor government from 1929 to 1931. The
218 United Nations (UN)

UAP became the government in 1932 with Lyons as prime minister and
it remained in power, either alone or in coalition with the Country Party,
until 1941, when the Labor Party became the government with John Cur-
tin as prime minister. The Liberal Party of Australia was formed from
elements of the United Australia Party in 1944.
[Liberal Party (of Australia), Nationalist Party]

United Nations (UN)

An international organisation whose chief aim is to maintain world peace
Originally the ‘United Nations Organisation’, its name has become the
‘United Nations’ and is often referred to by its initials. It is regarded as the
successor to the League of Nations, which existed between the two world
wars, but it has a much wider membership. It has more than 160 members,
including the world’s most powerful nations. Australia has been a member
of the UN since it was founded and an Australian, Dr H.V. Evatt, was the
president of the UN General Assembly in 1948–49. Its headquarters are
in New York. In addition to its work for world peace the United Nations
maintains several specialised agencies, such as the World Health Organis­
ation (WHO) and the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF).
[diplomacy (international), League of Nations, veto]

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

A formal United Nations document declaring that certain rights are
‘un­alienable and inviolable rights of all members of the human family’
A resolution of the United Nations General Assembly of December 1948,
the declaration includes 30 separate articles proclaiming freedoms and
rights such as life and liberty, a fair trial, freedom of movement, social
se­curity, and the right to work and to education. The Universal Declaration
of Human Rights is not enforceable by international law but has consider-
able influence, having been accepted by many nations. It was reaffirmed at
the Second World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna in 1993.
[civil liberties, civic rights and responsibilities]

universal franchise
See adult franchise (or suffrage)

unparliamentary language
Words or phrases judged to be unacceptable in parliamentary debate
There is no precise set of rules governing acceptable language and the
presiding officer has the responsibility of deciding what is acceptable. If
judged as unacceptable the offending words must be ‘withdrawn’, and they
will not be printed in Hansard. Precedent is a guide to unparliamentary
language and if words have once been condemned they are unlikely to be
allowed on later occasions.
[order, presiding officer]
 upper house 219

Reproduced courtesy of Ron Tandberg

upper house
One of the two houses in a bicameral parliamentary system, sometimes
described as a ‘house of review’
Parliaments in Australia, except those in Queensland and in the mainland
territories, have two houses. The federal upper house is the Senate; the
state upper houses are called legislative councils. Upper houses can serve
a useful purpose by re-examining proposed legislation that has passed
through the lower houses and by proposing amendments. Alternatively,
they can retard or obstruct legislation for party-political tactical reasons.
Upper houses in Australia are now elected on adult franchise, although the
ideal of ‘one vote–one value’ does not apply in all of them, the Senate being
an outstanding example.
[bicameral system, one vote–one value, property vote]
V
value judgement
An important element in political and other forms of decision-making
which deals with factors that cannot be measured objectively
Value judgements often depend on the decision-maker’s personal
background and priorities, including social, political, religious and philo-
sophical values, perhaps modified by pragmatism.
[ideology, pragmatism]

veto
Rejection of a proposal by a body or person having the power to do so
The British monarch and the governor-general and state governors in
Australia have this constitutional power in Australia. The five permanent
members of the Security Council of the United Nations each has the right
of veto over proposed action by the council. They are China, France, Rus-
sia, the United Kingdom and the United States.
[disallowance, reserve powers, United Nations]

vice-regal
An indication that the person so described is a monarch’s representative
In Australia, the term is used in connection with the formal activities of the
governor-general and state governors.
[Constitution of Australia, monarchy]

visitors gallery
See public gallery

voluntary association
A not-for-profit organisation formed by a group of people for a specific
purpose
Local sports clubs and senior citizens associations are examples. Govern-
ments legally regulate such bodies, and rules governing them vary from
 Voluntary Euthanasia Society 221

state to state in Australia. Many become legally incorporated to safeguard

members against financial loss that might arise, for example, from a seri-
ous accident on club premises. Some theorists argue that the decline of
voluntary associations in recent decades has led to reduced social capital
and to lower levels of individual and institutional trust.
[social capital]

Voluntary Euthanasia Society

See Dying with Dignity

voluntary student unionism (VSU)

The colloquial term for legislation debarring the charging of compulsory
fees to be paid by students for non-academic facilities, amenities or services
Students and universities have criticised VSU, contending that it reduces
the services for students available on campuses. Some also see its intro­
duction as an ideologically motivated decision based on a misapprehension
that student unions are analogous with trade unions.

voting systems
There are two main types: ‘preferential voting’ and ‘first-past-the-post’.
Electorates are either ‘single member’ or ‘multi-member’
Preferential voting gives a better indication of the wishes of voters. It is also
less open to manipulation than the first-past-the-post system but is more
complicated for the voters and for the electoral authorities. Multi-member
electorates have been adopted for some elections in Australia, such as for
the Senate, and give a better chance for smaller parties to have a candidates
elected.
[electoral systems, first-past-the-post system, multi-member
electorates, preferential voting]
W
wage indexation
Adjustment of rates of pay in accordance with changes in the purchasing
power of money
Wage indexation has operated in Australia intermittently, the first period
beginning in 1921. In 1987 a different basis for official wage fixing was
introduced by agreement between the government and trade unions.
[Accord, arbitration, industrial relations]

Wall Street
A metonym that stands for top-level economic activity in the United States
that is likely to have worldwide influence
The term is frequently seen in Australian publications and is sometimes
used in conjunction with ‘Main Street’, a term that represents small busi-
nesses and their customers.
[big end of town, macroeconomics, Main Street, microeconomics]

Washminster system
A term sometimes used to describe the Australian form of government
and to emphasise its hybrid nature
The neologism ‘Washminster’ is an abbreviated mixture of ‘Washington’
and ‘Westminster’. It is intended to indicate that the Australian Consti-
tution and system of government are based partly on both British and
American political traditions.
[democracy (Australian), democracy (differing forms), Westmin-
ster system]

wealth
In traditional economic terms, wealth consists of goods and services that
have monetary value, sometimes defined as ‘marketable wealth’
Other factors are also important to the quality of life and are part of the broader
definition of ‘wealth’, even though they cannot be quantified in money terms.
 weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) 223

Reproduced coursey of Jon Kudelka

These matters, such as civil rights, working conditions, the quality of the envi-
ronment, security and confidence in the future may also be considered as a
form of wealth when economic decisions are being made or debated.
[economics, fair go, politics of envy, quality of life, triple bottom
line]

weapons of mass destruction (WMDs)

Chemical warfare agents once believed to have been hidden by Saddam
Hussein’s regime in Iraq
Combined military forces led by the USA and including Britain and
Australia attacked Iraq in 2003 because it was (mistakenly) believed that
Saddam’s regime possessed WMDs.

wedge politics
A tactic to exploit differences of opinion among supporters of an opposing
party
Although most large political parties have a diverse membership they
try to present a united front to the electorate. But members or support-
ers of the same party may have different opinions on some contentious
issues—for example, those relating to national security, race or religious
ideology—and these can be manipulated and exploited to cause dissen-
sion. In Australia, those engaging in wedge politics often use ‘dog-whistle’
tactics, with messages that seem innocuous but are recognised by those
with strong opinions on the matters mentioned.
[dirty tricks campaign, dog-whistle politics, push polling]
224 WEL

WEL
See Women’s Electoral Lobby

welfare state
A nation with an extensive system of welfare services
The services include pensions, unemployment benefits, public housing,
health care and other forms of assistance. The term ‘welfare state’ is some-
times applied to countries with some government-funded services, even
though they may be far from comprehensive.

Westminster system
The traditional British system of government in which the elected parlia-
ment has the supreme power
In this system the parliament makes the laws and the ministers are selected
from parliament and are answerable to it. The judicial system is independ-
ent from politics. The Australian system of government is largely based on
the Westminster system but the Commonwealth parliament is not supreme,
as the monarch and the governor-general can disallow legislation.
[arms of government, responsible government, Washminster
system]

Wets (faction)
A less well known name for one of the groups within the Liberal Party, also
called ‘small-l Liberals’ or ‘moderates’
The term originated in the United Kingdom, where Margaret Thatcher
used it as an expression of scorn for her factional opponents within the
Conservative Party. They held more liberal views than her own faction,
which became known as the ‘Dries’. The term ‘Wets’ is seldom used in Aus-
tralia but is an alternative name for the small-l Liberals.
[Dries, small-l Liberals]

whip
A member of Parliament who organises party colleagues to take part in
debates and other parliamentary duties
There is a government whip and an opposition whip. They ensure that
party members attend the chamber whenever it is important, and that they
act as a team in parliamentary tactics and debate.

White Australia policy

A former policy of restricting immigration on racial grounds, which per-
sisted until the 1960s
The ‘White Australia policy’ was the commonly used term, although not an
official one. The policy was the result of a combination of racism and the
defence of wage rates and working conditions. It developed in the middle
 whiteboard 225

of the nineteenth century as a consequence of racial friction on the gold-

fields, where there were large numbers of Chinese immigrants, and gained
force when Pacific Islanders, spoken of as ‘Kanakas’, were brought into
Australia to work for low wages in the Queensland sugarcane fields. The
term was already in use in the 1880s and was emphasised by W.M. Hughes,
who in 1901 named the Labor Party’s immigration policy ‘White Australia’.
Popular support for the White Australia policy gradually fell away and this
was reflected in immigration policy.
[immigration, multiculturalism, racism]

whiteboard
See pork-barrelling

white-collar union
A trade union whose members are engaged in a professional or clerical
occupation rather than a manual one
The term has become common since the adoption of unionism among
workers such as bank employees, clerks, engineers, journalists and teachers.
[blue-collar union, chardonnay socialist, trade union]

Wik decision
The High Court decision that native title and a pastoral lease could co-exist
The decision was the outcome of a case brought before the High Court by
the Wik peoples from the Cape York Peninsula in which they claimed that
native title existed on certain pastoral leases. In 1996 the High Court found
that native title and pastoral leases could co-exist but that a pastoral lease
would take precedence in the case of a conflict between the two interests.
[land rights, Mabo case, Native Title Act]

Wobblies
See One Big Union

Women’s Electoral Lobby (WEL)

A group formed in 1972 to campaign for women’s rights
It has similar aims to those of other women’s rights movements, and is
characterised by its use of modern techniques and carefully aimed politi-
cal pressure.

women’s lib(eration)
Action to achieve equal opportunity and freedom from discrimination
The term overlaps ‘women’s movement’ but ‘women’s lib’ applies par-
ticularly to the establishment and activity of organisations pressing for
women’s rights since World War II. Substantial improvements have been
the result, including recognition of women’s competence in trades and
226 women’s movement

professions, exemplified in greatly increased participation at the highest

levels of government.
[affirmative action, equal opportunity, Union of Australian Women]

women’s movement
A movement promoting the recognition of the equality of women and
freedom from discrimination, together with action to achieve these aims
It is closely related to ‘women’s lib’ but has a longer history. In the late
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries the women’s suffrage movement
campaigned for the right to vote. In the 1960s and 1970s women’s cam-
paigns focused on women’s inequality before the law and in the workplace.
The women’s movement has continued with concern for improvement in
women’s lives through cultural change, education, expanded job oppor-
tunities, equal pay for equal work, paid maternity leave and access to
affordable child care.
[adult franchise (or suffrage), feminism, suffragettes, sweated
labour]

Work Choices
The name given to industrial legislation introduced by the Howard gov-
ernment in 2003
The laws embodied substantial changes and reduced some established
employee benefits such as the extent of unfair dismissal laws. Most com-
mentators considered that the new legislation contributed to the defeat
of the Howard government in 2007, as the ALP promised to revoke the
unpopular features of the legislation if it won the election.
[industrial relations]

working families
A phrase without a clear definition, but repeatedly used by Labor poli­
ticians to appeal to middle Australia
The term has been overworked during election campaigns, when both
sides of politics claimed to understand the problems of working families
and to have the policies to solve them. Broadly cognate with terms such as
‘battler’, this term excludes singles, a growing section of Australian society.
[battlers, forgotten people, motherhood statement]

work–life balance
A problem that has grown in importance because of the competing
demands on parents’ time at work and at home
There has been continuing debate in Australia about the increasing time
spent by many at work and the needs of children and family life. Effective
handling of the problem involves the cost and availability of child care,
rates of pay and the provision of paid maternity and paternity leave.
[battlers, working families]
 World Economic Forum (WEF) 227

Reproduced courtesy of Cathy Wilcox

World Economic Forum (WEF)

An independent, not-for-profit, international organisation committed to
improving the state of the world
Supervised by the Swiss Federal Government, the World Economic Forum
meets annually in Davos, Switzerland. It brings together industry and busi-
ness leaders, academics and politicians from around the world to develop
solutions to global problems.

World Trade Organisation (WTO)

The direct successor to GATT with the aim of assisting international trade
The WTO was established in January 1995 to administer the trade agree-
ments established at the end of the ‘Uruguay Round’, the name given to a
long series of trade negotiations. The WTO claims to be more global than
GATT and has a wider scope, including trade in services and intellectual
property. By 2008 it had more than 150 members.
[free trade, GATT/WTO, protection]

Worm, the
A graphic device used to indicate to TV viewers the reaction of the studio
audience to speakers and their policies in pre-election televised debates
Uncommitted voters in the studio audience use individual electronic
devices to immediately respond positively or negatively to the content
228 writs

and performance of the speakers as the debate continues. The Worm first
appeared in 1993 in Australia during a Paul Keating–John Hewson tel-
evised debate. Some politicians have been reluctant to debate with the
Worm in operation, especially since it clearly registered the audience’s dis-
approval of the GST tax in the debate of 2001. In the 2007 election the
then prime minister, John Howard, famously refused to allow the debate
to go ahead if the Worm was used. The network used it anyway and its live
coverage of the debate was cut twice amidst great controversy.

writs
Written official commands—in relation to politics, the documents that
formally require elections to be held
Important requirements and information given in the writs include the
date by which nominations of candidates must be made and the date on
which the election is to be held.
[issue of writs]
X
xenophobia
An unhealthy or extreme fear of strangers or foreigners, or a hatred of
them
Xenophobia can cause personal and social difficulties and hostility. It is an
element in racist movements and in the attitudes of some extremist politi-
cal parties.
[ethnic affairs, lunar right, multiculturalism, racism]
Z
zero tolerance
A term used by political leaders and others to assert that strong action will
be taken against particular types of criminal or anti-social behaviour
The implementation of such a policy is likely to be the allocation of more
police or other resources to the particular problem and strict application
of the relevant laws and regulations.