Chapter 2

2.1-1
Ae jφ T0 / 2 ⎧ Ae jφ n = m
∫−T0 / 2
j 2π ( m − n ) f 0 t jφ
cn = e dt = Ae sinc( m − n ) = ⎨
T0 ⎩0 otherwise

2.1-2

c0 v(t ) = 0
2 T0 / 4 2π nt T0 / 2 2π nt 2A π n
cn =
T0 ∫
0
A cos
T0
dt + ∫ (− A) cos
T0 / 4 T0
dt =
πn
sin
2

n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
cn 0 2A /π 0 2 A / 3π 0 2 A / 5π 0 2 A / 7π
arg cn 0 ±180° 0 ±180°

2.1-3

c0 = v(t ) = A / 2
2 T0 / 2 ⎛ 2 At ⎞ 2π nt A A
cn =
T0 ∫
0
⎜ A−
⎝ T0 ⎠
⎟ cos
T0
dt =
πn
sin π n −
(π n) 2
(cos π n − 1)

n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
cn 0.5A 0.2A 0 0.02A 0 0.01A 0
arg cn 0 0 0 0

2.1-4

2 T0 / 2 2π t
c0 =
T0 ∫
0
A cos
T0
=0

2-1
 2 A ⎡ sin (π − π n ) 2t / T0 sin (π + π n ) 2t / T0 ⎤
T0 / 2
2 2π t
T0 / 2 2π nt
cn = ∫0 A cos T0 cos T0 dt = T0 ⎢⎣ 4(π − π n) / T0 + 4(π + π n) / T0 ⎥⎦
T0 0

A ⎧A/ 2 n = ±1
= [sinc(1 − n) + sinc(1 + n) ] = ⎨
2 ⎩ 0 otherwise

2.1-5

c0 = v(t ) = 0
2 T0 / 2 2π nt A
cn = − j
T0 ∫0
A sin
T0
dt = − j
πn
(1 − cos π n)

n 1 2 3 4 5
cn 2A /π 0 2 A / 3π 2 A / 5π
arg cn −90° −90° −90°

2.1-6

c0 = v(t ) = 0

2 A ⎡ sin (π − π n ) 2t / T0 sin (π + π n ) 2t / T0 ⎤
T0 / 2
2 T0 / 2 2π t 2π nt
cn = − j
T0 ∫0
A sin
T0
sin
T0
dt = − j ⎢
T0 ⎣ 4(π − π n) / T0
−
4(π + π n) / T0 ⎦ 0
⎥

A ⎧∓ jA / 2 n = ±1
=−j [sinc(1 − n) − sinc(1 + n)] = ⎨
2 ⎩ 0 otherwise

2.1-7
1 ⎡ T0 / 2
v(t ) e − jnω0t dt + ∫ v(t )e− jnω0t dt ]
T0
cn = ∫
T0 ⎢⎣ 0 T0 / 2

∫
T0
v (t )e − jnω0t dt = ∫
T0 / 2
where v(λ + T0 / 2)e− jnω0λ e− jnω0T0 / 2 d λ
T0 / 2 0
T0 / 2
= −e jnπ ∫ v(t )e − jnω0t dt
0

since e jnπ = 1 for even n, cn = 0 for even n

2-2
2.1-8
1⎡ ⎤
T /2 T
1
Total power: PTotal = ∫ = ∫ + ∫ − = A2
2 2 2
v (t ) dt ⎢ A dt ( A) dt ⎥
TT T⎣0 T /2 ⎦
Square wave has odd harmonics, and the amplitudes are given in Table T.2 as
j2 A
cn = − and the coefficients trigonometric Fourier series is 2cn . The power in a
πn
A2
periodic sine wave is Psinewave = m then the sum of the powers of the odd harmonics are
2

2
N
16 A2 ⎛ 1 1
2cn 1 ⎞
Pharmonics = ∑ =
⎜1 + + ... + 2 ⎟
n =0 2 π 2 ⎝ 9 25
2
nodd ⎠
16 A2 ⎛ 1 1 1 ⎞
⎜ 1 + + ... + 2 ⎟
P π 2 ⎝ 9 25
2
nodd ⎠ 8 ⎛ 1 1 1 ⎞
⇒ 90% ⇒ 0.9 = odd = = 2 ⎜1 + + ... + 2 ⎟
Ptotal A 2
π ⎝ 9 25 nodd ⎠
⇒ n = 3 i.e. having the first and 3 harmonic will represent 90% of the signal’s power
rd

and n = 27 will represent 99% (98.553) of the signal’s power.

2.1-9
∞
P = c0 + 2∑ cn = Af 0τ + 2 Af 0τ sinc f 0τ + 2 Af 0τ sinc 2 f 0τ + 2 Af 0τ sinc 3 f 0τ +
2 2 2 2 2 2

n =1

1
where = 4 f0
τ
1 ⎡ A2 2 1 2 1 2 3⎤
f > P= ⎢⎣1 + 2sinc + 2sinc + 2sinc ⎥ = 0.23 A2
τ 16 4 2 4⎦
2 A ⎡
2
2 1 2 1 2 3 2 5 2 3 2 7⎤
f > P= ⎢1 + 2sinc + 2sinc + 2sinc + 2sinc + 2sinc + 2sinc ⎥ = 0.24 A2
τ 16 ⎣ 4 2 4 4 2 4⎦
1 A2 ⎡ 2 1 2 1⎤
f > P= ⎢⎣1 + 2sinc + 2sinc ⎥ = 0.21A2
2τ 16 4 2⎦

2-3
2.1-10
⎧ 0 n even
⎪
cn = ⎨⎛ 2 ⎞ 2
⎪⎜ π n ⎟ n odd
⎩⎝ ⎠
2 2
1 T0 / 2 ⎛ 4t ⎞ 2 T0 / 2 ⎛ 4t ⎞ 1
a) P =
T0 ∫−T0 / 2 ⎜⎝1 − T0 ⎟⎠ dt = T0 ∫0
⎜ 1 − ⎟ dt =
⎝ T0 ⎠ 3
2 2 2
⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞
P′ = 2 ⎜ 2 ⎟ + 2 ⎜ 2 ⎟ + 2 ⎜ 2 ⎟
= 0.332 so P′ / P = 99.6%
⎝π ⎠ ⎝ 9π ⎠ ⎝ 25π ⎠
8 8 8
b) v′(t ) = 2 cos ω 0t + 2 cos 3ω 0t + cos 5ω 0t
π 9π 25π 2

2.1-11
⎧ 0 n even
⎪
cn = ⎨ − j 2
⎪⎩ π n n odd

1 ⎡⎛ 2 ⎞ 2 ⎛ 2 ⎞ 2 ⎛ 2 ⎞ 2 ⎤
∫−T0 / 2 (1) dt = 1 P = 2 ⎢⎢⎜⎝ π ⎟⎠ + ⎜⎝ 3π ⎟⎠ + ⎜⎝ 5π ⎟⎠ ⎥⎥ = 0.933 so P′ / P = 93.3%
T0 / 2
a) P = ′
2

T0 ⎣ ⎦

4 4 4
b) v′(t ) = cos (ω 0t − 90° ) +
cos ( 3ω 0t − 90° ) + cos ( 5ω 0t − 90° )
π 3π 5π
4 4 4
= sin (ω 0t ) + sin ( 3ω 0t ) + sin ( 5ω 0t )
π 3π 5π

2.1-12
2
1 T0 ⎛ t ⎞ 1 ⎧1/ 2 n=0
P=
T0 ∫
0
⎜ ⎟ dt =
⎝ T0 ⎠ 3
cn = ⎨
⎩1/ 2π n n ≠ 0

2-4
 ∞ 4 4
⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛2⎞ ⎛ 1 1 1 ⎞ 1
P = 2∑ ⎜ ⎟ = 2⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 4 + 4 + 4 + ⎟=
n odd ⎝ π n ⎠ ⎝π ⎠ ⎝1 3 5 ⎠ 3

1 1 1 4π 2 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ π 2
Thus, + + + = ⎜ − ⎟=
12 22 32 2 ⎝3 4⎠ 6

2.1-13
2
2 T0 / 2 ⎛ 4t ⎞ 1 ⎧0 n even
P=
T0 ∫0
⎜1 − ⎟ dt =
⎝ T0 ⎠ 3
cn = ⎨
⎩ (2 / π n) n odd
2

∞2 2
⎛1⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ 1 2 ⎛1 1 1 ⎞ 1
P = ⎜ ⎟ + 2∑ ⎜ ⎟ = + 2⎜ 2+ 2+ 2+ ⎟=
⎝2⎠ n =1 ⎝ 2π n ⎠ 4 4π ⎝ 1 2 3 ⎠ 3

1 1 1 π4 1 π4
Thus, + + + = =
14 34 54 2 ⋅ 24 3 96

2.2-1
τ /2πt
V ( f ) = 2∫ cos 2π ft dt
A cos
0 τ
π −2π f τ sin
⎡
⎢ sin τ ( ) (πτ 2π f ) τ2 ⎤⎥ Aτ
+
= 2A⎢ 2+ = [sinc( f τ − 1/ 2) + sinc( f τ + 1/ 2)]
⎢ 2 π
τ − 2π f ( 2 ) (πτ 2π f ) ⎥⎥ 2
+
⎣ ⎦

2.2-2
τ /2 2π t
V ( f ) = − j 2∫ A sin cos 2π ft dt
0 τ
⎡
⎢ sin ( 2τπ −2π f ) τ2 − sin ( 2τπ 2π f ) τ2 ⎤⎥ = − j Aτ sinc( f τ − 1) − sinc( f τ + 1)
+
= − j2 A ⎢
2π 2π f ⎥
[ ]
⎢ 2
⎣
(τ2π −2π f
) 2 ( τ ) ⎥⎦ + 2

2-5
2.2-3
τ⎛ t ⎞ 2 Aτ ⎡ 2 ⎛ ωτ ⎞ ⎤
V ( f ) = 2∫ ⎜ A − A ⎟ cos ω tdt = ⎢ 2sin ⎜ 2 ⎟ − 1 + 1⎥ = Aτ sinc f τ
2
0
⎝ τ ⎠ (ωτ ) 2 ⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦

2.2-4
τ t 2 Aτ
V ( f ) = − j 2 ∫ A sin ω t dt = − j (sin ωτ − ωτ cos ωτ )
0 τ (ωτ ) 2
A
=−j (sinc 2 f τ − cos 2π f τ )
πf

2.2-5

⎛t⎞ ⎛ t ⎞
Π⎜ ⎟ = Π⎜ −3 ⎟
⇔ 1× 10−3 sinc(f 0 × 1× 10−3 ) and we want sinc(x) ≤ 1/30 . We find
⎝τ ⎠ ⎝ 1×10 ⎠
the frequency of the sinc function where the maximum value of the sidelobe is 1/30.

sin π x
V( f ) = =sinc(x) and max values occur at 1.5π , 2.5π , etc.
x
1 1 sin 9.5π
= ⇒ x = 9.5 ⇒ = 0.335 ⇒ f 0 × τ ≈ 9.55
30 π x 9.5π
thus f ×1× 10−3 = 9.55 ⇒ f 0 > 9.55 kHz.

sin(π × 9.55 ×103 ×1× 10−3 )

To check, V ( f 0 = 9.55 ×103 ) = − 0.0392 ≈ 1/ 30
π × 9.55 ×103 ×1× 10−3

2.2-6

We use a strategy similar to Prob. 2.2-5. ⇒ sinc 2 ( x) ≤ 1/ 30 ⇒ sinc( x) ≤ 1/ 30 = 0.183

With x = 1.6 ⇒ sinc(x) = −0.189 and sinc(x = 1.65) = −0.172

⇒ choose x ≥ 1.65 ⇒ f 0 ×τ = 1.65 ⇒ f 0 = 1.65 /1×10−3 ⇒ f 0 ≥ 1.650 kHz.

2-6
2.2-7
1 ⎛ f ⎞
v(t ) = sinc 2Wt ↔ Π⎜ ⎟
2W ⎝ 2W ⎠
2
∞ ∞ 1 ⎛ f ⎞ ∞ 1 1
∫ sinc 2Wt dt = ∫ Π⎜ ⎟ df = ∫−∞ df =
2
−∞ −∞ 2W ⎝ 2W ⎠ 4W 2
2W

2.2-8
A2 A2 A2 2π W
E = ∫ ( Ae ) dt =
∞ W
E = 2∫ 2
− bt 2
′ df = arctan
0 2b 0 b + (2π f ) 2
πb b
E′ 2 2π W ⎧50% W = b / 2π
= arctan =⎨
E π b ⎩84% W = 2b / π

2.2-9
∞ ∞
⎡ ∞ W ( f )e jω t df ⎤dt
∫−∞ v (t ) w(t ) dt = ∫−∞ ⎢⎣ ∫−∞
v (t )
⎥⎦

= ∫ W ( f ) ⎡ ∫ v(t )e − j ( −ω )t dt ⎤ df = ∫ W ( f )V (− f )df
∞ ∞ ∞

−∞ ⎣⎢ −∞ ⎦⎥ −∞
∞ ∞ ∞
V (− f ) = V *( f ) when v(t ) is real, so ∫ v 2 (t )dt = ∫ V ( f )V *( f )df = ∫ V ( f ) df
2
−∞ −∞ −∞

2.2-10
∗ ∗

∫−∞ w (t )e dt = ⎡⎣⎢ ∫−∞ w(t )e dt ⎤⎦⎥ = ⎡⎢⎣ ∫−∞ w(t )e dt ⎤ = W ∗ ( f )

∞ ∞ ∞
∗ − j 2π ft j 2π ft − j 2π ( − f ) t
⎦⎥
Let z (t ) = w∗ (t ) so Z ( f ) = W ∗ (− f ) and W ∗ ( f ) = Z (− f )
∞ ∞
Hence ∫
−∞
v(t ) z (t )dt = ∫ V ( f ) Z (− f )df
−∞

2.2-11
⎛t ⎞ 1 ⎛ f ⎞
Π ⎜ ⎟ ↔ A sinc Af so sinc At ↔ Π ⎜ ⎟
⎝ A⎠ A ⎝ A⎠
2t τ ⎛ fτ ⎞ 2
v(t ) = sinc ↔ V ( f ) = Π ⎜ ⎟ for A =
τ 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ τ

2.2-12
πt ⎛ t ⎞ Bτ
B cos Π⎜ ⎟ ↔ [sinc( f τ − 1/ 2) + sinc( f τ + 1/ 2)]
τ ⎝τ ⎠ 2
Bτ π (− f ) ⎛ − f ⎞ πf ⎛f⎞
so [sinc(tτ − 1/ 2) + sinc(tτ + 1/ 2)] ↔ B cos Π⎜ ⎟ = B cos Π⎜ ⎟
2 τ ⎝ τ ⎠ τ ⎝τ ⎠
Let B = A and τ = 2W ⇒ z (t ) = AW [sinc(2Wt − 1/ 2) + sinc(2Wt + 1/ 2)]

2-7
2.2-13
2π t ⎛ t ⎞ Bτ
B sin Π⎜ ⎟ ↔ − j [sinc( f τ − 1) + sinc( f τ + 1)]
τ ⎝τ ⎠ 2
Bτ 2π (− f ) ⎛ − f ⎞ 2π f ⎛ f ⎞
so − j [sinc(tτ − 1) + sinc(tτ + 1)] ↔ B sin Π⎜ ⎟ = − B sin Π⎜ ⎟
2 τ ⎝ τ ⎠ τ ⎝τ ⎠
Let B = − jA and τ = 2W ⇒ z (t ) = AW [sinc(2Wt − 1) + sinc(2Wt + 1) ]

2.2-14
−b t 2b −2π a t 4π a a /π
e ↔ ⇒e ↔ = 2
b + (2π f )
2 2
(2π a ) + (2π f )
2 2
a + f2
a /π
(e )
2
∞ 2 1 ∞ ⎛a⎞ ∞ df
∫ =∫ ∫
−2π a t
dt = df = 2 ⎜ ⎟
2π a a +f ⎝π ⎠ (a + f 2)
−∞ −∞ 2 2 0 2 2

1 ⎛π ⎞ 1 π
2
∞ dx
Thus, ∫ = ⎜ ⎟ = 3
(a + x2 ) 2 ⎝ a ⎠ 2π a 4a
0 2 2

2.3-1

z (t ) = v(t − T ) + v(t + T ) where v(t ) = AΠ (t / τ ) ↔ Aτ sinc f τ

so Z( f ) = V ( f )e − jωT + V ( f )e jωT = 2 Aτ sinc f τ cos 2π fT

2.3-2

z (t ) = v(t − 2T ) + 2v(t ) + v(t + 2T ) where v(t ) = aΠ (t / τ ) ↔ Aτ sinc f τ

Z ( f ) = V ( f )e − j 2ωT + V ( f ) + V ( f )e j 2ωT = 2 Aτ (sinc f τ )(1 + cos 4π fT )

2.3-3

z (t ) = v(t − 2T ) − 2v(t ) + v(t + 2T ) where v(t ) = aΠ (t / τ ) ↔ Aτ sinc f τ

Z ( f ) = V ( f )e − j 2ωT − 2V ( f ) + V ( f )e j 2ωT = 2 Aτ (sinc f τ )(cos 4π fT − 1)

2-8
2.3-4
⎛ t −T ⎞ ⎛ t −T / 2 ⎞
v(t ) = AΠ ⎜ ⎟ + ( B − A)Π ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2T ⎠ ⎝ T ⎠
V ( f ) = 2 AT sinc 2 fT e − jωT + ( B − A)T sinc fT e − jωT / 2

2.3-5
⎛ t − 2T ⎞ ⎛ t − 2T ⎞
v(t ) = AΠ ⎜ ⎟ + ( B − A)Π ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4T ⎠ ⎝ 2T ⎠
V ( f ) = 4 AT sinc 4 fT e − j 2ωT + 2( B − A)T sinc 2 fT e− j 2ωT

2.3-6
1
Let w(t ) = v(at ) ↔ W ( f ) = V ( f / a)
a
1
Then z (t ) = v[a (t − td / a )] = w(t − td / a ) so Z ( f ) = W ( f )e − jω td / a = V ( f / a )e− jω td / a
a

2.3-7

∞ ∞
F ⎡⎣v(t )e jωct ⎤⎦ = ∫ v(t )e jωct e − jω t dt = ∫ v(t )e− j 2π ( f − fc )t dt =V ( f − f c )
−∞ −∞

2.3-8
⎛t⎞ Aτ
From Ex. 2.3-2, z (t ) = AΠ ⎜ ⎟ cos 2π f c t and Z ( f ) = sinc(f ± f c )
⎝τ ⎠ 2
Using the LPF equivalent, the frequency is then 200 kHz. With

sinc(π x ≤ 0.1 from tables, sinc(2.6) = 0.116 and sinc(2.7)=0.095

⇒ choose x ≥ 2.7 ⇒ 2.7 = 200 kHz × τ ⇒ τ =13.5μs

2.3-9

Using the same strategy as Prob. 2.3-8, we have

sinc(π x ≤ 0.1 or sinc(π x ≤ 0.316 from tables, sinc(0.7)==0.378 and sinc(0.8)=0.234

2

⇒ choose x ≥ 0.75 ⇒ 0.75 = 200 kHz × τ ⇒ τ =3.75μs

2-9
2.3-10

A system is linear if proportional changes in the input give the same proportional changes
in the output.

y = f ( x) = 2 x + 10 ⇒ if x = 1 ⇒ y = 12
but if we double input x to x = 2 ⇒ y = 14
Not linear since doubling the input did not cause the output to double.

2.3-11

y = f ( x) = x 2 ⇒ x = 1 ⇒ y = 1
With x = 2 ⇒ y = 4 ⇒ not linear since doubling input caused output to increase
by factor of 4

2.3-12
x2

y = ∫ 2 xdx ⇒ y = x 2 if we double the input, or

x1
x2

y = ∫ 2(2 x)dx ⇒ y = 2 x 2 ⇒ output also doubles ⇒ linear

x1

2.3-13

10 cos(20π t + π / 5) = 10 cos[20π (t + 1/100)] ⇒ an advance of 1/100 seconds

2.3-14

xc (t ) = 10 cos(2π × 7 × 106 t ) and xR (t ) = 10 cos(2π × 7 × 106 t − π / 6)

The second signal is delayed by π /6 radians
⇒ xR (t ) = 10 cos[2π × 7 × 106 (t − 1.19 × 10−8 )]

Time delay is

td = 1.19 × 10−8 s = 11.9 ns. With speed of light = 3 × 108 m/s

⇒ minimum path delay = 1.19 × 10−8 s × 3 × 108 m/s=3.55 m ≈ 11.9 ft

Signal can also be delayed by multiples of the period of the signal or

n
td' =2π n + π / 6 = = 1.43 ×107 s ⇒ distance=1.43 × 107 s × 3 ⊗ 108 m/s=42.86m
7 × 107
⇒ possible path delays = (42.86n + 3.55) meters

2-10
2.3-15

Δt = (30 − 10) ns = 20ns ⇒ Δdistance = 20 × 10-9 × 3 ×108 = 6 meters ⇒ minimum path difference
Given period =1/ 7 ×106 ⇒ distance=1/ 7 × 106 × 3 × 108 = 42.86 meters
⇒ possible path lengths are multiples of the signal's period or 42.86n + 6 meters

2.3-16

v(t ) = AΠ (t / τ ) cos ω c t with ω c = 2π f c = π / τ

Aτ Aτ Aτ
V( f ) = sinc( f − f c )τ + sinc( f + f c )τ = [sinc( f τ − 1/ 2) + sinc( f τ + 1/ 2)]
2 2 2

2.3-17

v(t ) = AΠ (t / τ ) cos(ω ct − π / 2) with ω c = 2π f c = 2π / τ

e − jπ / 2 e jπ / 2
V( f ) = Aτ sinc( f − f c )τ + Aτ sinc( f + f c )τ
2 2
Aτ
=−j [sinc( f τ − 1) − sinc( f τ + 1)]
2

2.3-18
−t 2A
z (t ) = v(t ) cos ω c t v(t ) = Ae ↔
1 + (2π f ) 2
1 1 A A
Z ( f ) = V ( f − fc ) + V ( f + fc ) = +
2 2 1 + 4π ( f − f c ) 1 + 4π ( f + f c ) 2
2 2 2

2.3-19
A
z (t ) = v(t ) cos(ω ct − π / 2) v(t ) = Ae −t for t ≥ 0 ↔
1 + j 2π f
e − jπ / 2 e jπ / 2 − jA / 2 jA / 2
Z( f ) = V ( f − fc ) + V ( f + fc ) = +
2 2 1 + j 2π ( f − f c ) 1 + j 2π ( f + f c )
A/ 2 A/ 2
= −
j − 2π ( f − f c ) j − 2π ( f + f c )

2-11
2.3-20
A ⎛t ⎞
v(t ) = t z (t ) z (t ) = Π⎜ ⎟ ↔ 2 A sinc 2 f τ
τ ⎝τ ⎠
d d ⎡ sin 2π f τ ⎤ 2A
Z( f ) = 2A ⎢ ⎥ = ⎡(2πτ ) 2 f cos 2π f τ − 2πτ sin 2π f τ ⎤⎦
2 ⎣
df df ⎣ 2π f τ ⎦ (2π f τ )
1 d − jA
V( f ) = Z( f ) = ( sinc 2 f τ − cos 2π f τ )
− j 2π df πf

2.3-21
2 Ab
z (t ) = tv(t ) v(t ) = Ae −b t ↔
b + (2π f ) 2
2

1 d ⎡ 2 Ab ⎤ j8π Abf
Z( f ) = ⎢ 2⎥
=
− j 2π df ⎣ b + (2π f ) ⎦ ⎡b 2 + (2π f ) 2 ⎤ 2
2
⎣ ⎦

2.3-22
A
z (t ) = t 2 v(t ) v(t ) = Ae −t for t ≥ 0 ↔
b + j 2π f
1 d ⎡ A ⎤ 2A
Z( f ) = ⎢ b + j 2π f ⎥ =
( − j 2π f ) ⎦ [b + j 2π f ]
2 3
df ⎣

2.3-23
1
v(t ) = e −π (bt ) ↔ V ( f ) = e−π ( f / b )
2 2

b
d j 2π f −π ( f / b )2
(a) v(t ) = −2π b 2te −π (bt ) ↔
2
e
dt b
1 d f
(b) te −π (bt ) ↔ V ( f ) = e −π ( f / b )
2 2

− j 2π df jb
Both results are equivalent to bte −π (bt ) ↔ − jf e−π ( f / b )
2 2

2.4-1
1
v(t ) ⇔ V ( f ) and cos(2π f c ) ⇔ [δ ( f − fc ) + δ ( f + fc )]
2
1
With v(t ) cos 2π f c t ⇔ V ( f ) ∗ [δ ( f − fc ) + δ ( f + fc )] We use superposition so
2

2-12
 ∞
1 1
V ( f ) ∗ δ ( f − f c ) = ∫ V ( f − λ )δ (λ − f c )d λ = V ( f − f c )
2 −∞
2
only a value at λ =f − f c

and
∞
1 1
V ( f ) ∗ δ ( f + f c ) = ∫ V ( f − λ )δ (λ + f c )d λ = V ( f + f c )
2 −∞
2
only a value at λ =f + f

Therefore
1
v(t ) ∗ cos 2π f ct ⇔ [V ( f − f c ) + V ( f + fc )]
2
2.4-2

y (t ) = 0 t<0
2
t At
= ∫ Aλ d λ = 0<t<2
0 2
2
= ∫ Aλ d λ = 2 A t>2
0

2.4-3

y (t ) = 0 t < 0, t > 5
t At 2
= ∫ Aλ d λ = 0<t <2
0 2
2
= ∫ Aλ d λ = 2 A 2<t <3
0
2 A
= ∫ Aλ d λ = ⎡ 4 − (t − 3) 2 ⎤⎦ 3 < t < 5
t −3 2⎣

2-13
2.4-4

y (t ) = 0 t < 0, t > 3
t At 2
= ∫ Aλ d λ = 0 < t <1
0 2
t A
= ∫ Aλ d λ = (2t − 1) 1< t < 2
t −1 2
2 A
= ∫ Aλ d λ = ⎡⎣ 4 − (t − 1) 2 ⎤⎦ 2 < t < 3
t −1 2

2.4-5

y (t ) = 0 t<4
t
= ∫ 2 Ad λ = 2 At − 8 A 4 ≤ t ≤ 6
4
8
= ∫ 2A dλ = 4A t>6
6

2.4-6

y (t ) = 0 t<0
t
= ∫ 2e −2 λ d λ = 1 − e−2t 0≤t ≤2
0
t
= ∫ 2e −2 λ d λ = e−2t ⎡⎣e 4 − 1⎤⎦ t>2
t −2

2-14
2.4-7

y (t ) = 0 t < −1, t ≥ 3
t
= ∫ 2(1 + λ )d λ = t 2 + 2t + 1 −1 ≤ t < 0
−1
0 t
= ∫ 2(1 + λ )d λ + ∫ 2(1 − λ ) d λ = −t 2 + 2t + 1 0 ≤ t < 1
−1 0
0 1
= ∫ 2(1 + λ ) d λ + ∫ 2(1 − λ ) d λ = −t 2 + 2t + 1 1 ≤ t < 2
t −2 0
1
= ∫ 2(1 − λ ) d λ = t 2 − 6t + 9 2≤t <3
t −2

2.4-8
y (t ) = 0 t≤0
t
= ∫ Ae − aλ Be −b (t −λ ) d λ =[ AB /(a − b)][e− bt − e− at ] t > 0
0

2.4-9
j jπ t j − jπ t
v(t ) = Ae − at w(t ) = sin π t =
e − e = B1e −b1t + B2 e− b2t
2 2
y (t ) = v ∗ w1 (t ) + v ∗ w2 (t ) = [ AB1 /(a − b1 )][e− b1t − e− at ] + [ AB2 /(a − b2 )][e− b2t − e− at ]
Let B1 = j / 2, b1 = − jπ , B2 = − j / 2, b2 = jπ and simplify

2.4-10
∞
v ∗ w(t ) = ∫ v(λ )w(t − λ )d λ let μ = t − λ
−∞
−∞ ∞
= − ∫ v(t − μ ) w( μ )d μ = ∫ w( μ )v(t − μ )d μ = w ∗ v(t )
∞ −∞

2.4-11
∞
Let y (t ) = ∫ v(λ ) w(t − λ )d λ where v(−t ) = v (t ), w(−t ) = w(t )
−∞
∞ ∞
y (−t ) = ∫ v(λ ) w(−t − λ ) d λ = ∫ v(λ ) w(t + λ ) d λ
−∞ −∞
∞ ∞
= − ∫ v(− μ ) w(t − μ ) d μ = ∫ v( μ ) w(t − μ ) d μ = y (t )
−∞ −∞

2.4-12
∞
Let y (t ) = ∫ v(λ ) w(t − λ )d λ where v(−t ) = −v(t ), w(−t ) = − w(t )
−∞

2-15
 ∞ ∞
y (−t ) = ∫ v(λ ) w(−t − λ ) d λ = − ∫ v(λ ) w(t + λ ) d λ
−∞ −∞
∞ ∞
= ∫ v(− μ ) w(t − μ ) d μ = ∫ v( μ ) w(t − μ ) d μ = y (t )
−∞ −∞

2.4-13

Let w(t ) = v ∗ v(t ) = τΛ (t / τ )

0 t +τ / 2 3
v ∗ w(t ) = ∫ (τ + λ ) d λ + ∫ (τ − λ ) d λ = τ 2 − t 2 0 ≤ t <τ /2
t −τ / 2 0 4
2
τ 1⎛ 3 ⎞
=∫ (τ − λ ) d λ = ⎜ t − τ ⎟ τ / 2 ≤ t < 3τ / 2
t −τ / 2 2⎝ 2 ⎠
⎧ 3 2 2
⎪ 4τ −t t <τ /2
⎪
⎪1 ⎛
2
3 ⎞
Thus v ∗ v ∗ v(t ) = ⎨ ⎜ t − τ ⎟ τ / 2 ≤ t < 3τ / 2
⎪2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎪ 0 t ≥ 3τ / 2
⎪
⎩

2.4-14

F {v(t ) ∗ [ w(t ) ∗ z (t )]} = V ( f ) [W ( f ) Z ( f ) ] = [V ( f )W ( f ) ] Z ( f )

so v(t ) ∗ [ w(t ) ∗ z (t )] = F −1 {[V ( f )W ( f )]Z ( f )} = [v(t ) ∗ w(t )] ∗ z (t )

2.4-15
1 ⎛ f ⎞
V ( f ) = Π ⎜ ⎟ W ( f ) = 4Π (2 f )
4 ⎝4⎠
Y ( f ) = V ( f )W ( f ) = Π (2 f ) ↔ y (t ) = (1/ 2) sinc(t / 2)

2-16
2.5-1
⎛t⎞ Aτ Aτ
z (t ) = AΠ ⎜ ⎟ cos ω ct Z ( f ) = sinc( f − f c )τ + sinc( f + f c )τ
⎝τ ⎠ 2 2
As τ → 0 the cosine pulse z (t ) gets narrower and narrower while maintaining height A.
This is not the same as an impulse since the area under the curve is also getting smaller.
As τ → 0 the main lobe and side lobes of the spectrum Z ( f ) get wider and wider, however
the height gets smaller and smaller. Eventually the spectrum will cover all frequencies with
almost zero energy at each frequency. Again this is different from what happens in the case
of an impulse.

2.5-2
⎡ ⎤
W ( f ) = v( f )e − j 2π ftd = ⎢ ∑ cv (nf 0 )δ ( f − nf 0 ) ⎥ e − j 2π ftd
⎣ n ⎦
= ∑ ⎡⎣cv (nf 0 )e − j 2π nf0td ⎤⎦δ ( f − nf 0 ) ⇒ cw ( nf 0 ) = cv (nf 0 )e − j 2π nf0td
n

2.5-3
⎡ ⎤
W ( f ) = j 2π fV ( f ) = j 2π f ⎢ ∑ cv (nf 0 )δ ( f − nf 0 ) ⎥ = ∑ [ j 2π nf 0 cv (nf 0 ) ]δ ( f − nf 0 )
⎣ n ⎦ n
⇒ cw (nf 0 ) = j 2π nf 0 cv (nf 0 )

2.5-4
1 1⎡ ⎤
W( f ) = [V ( f − mf 0 )] = ⎢∑ cv (nf 0 )δ ( f − kf0 − mf 0 ) + ∑ cv (nf 0 )δ ( f − kf0 + mf0 ) ⎥
2 2⎣ n n ⎦
1⎡ ⎤
= ⎢ ∑
2⎣ k
cv [(k − m) f 0 ]δ ( f − kf 0 ) + ∑ cv [(k + m) f 0 ]δ ( f − kf 0 ) ⎥
k ⎦
1
=∑ {cv [(n − m) f0 ] + cv [(n + m) f 0 ]} δ ( f − nf 0 )
n 2
1
so cw (nf 0 ) = {cv [(n − m) f0 ] + cv [(n + m) f 0 ]}
2

2-17
2.5-5

v(t ) = Au (t ) − Au (t − 2τ )
⎧ 1 1 ⎡ 1 1 ⎤ ⎫
V ( f ) = A⎨ + δ(f )−⎢ + δ ( f ) ⎥ e − j 4π f τ ⎬
⎩ j 2π f 2 ⎣ j 2π f 2 ⎦ ⎭
− j 4π ft
But δ ( f )e = e δ ( f ), so
− j0

V( f ) =
A
j 2π f
(1 − e − j 4π f τ ) = 2 Aτ sinc 2 f τ e− j 2π f τ

⎛ t −τ ⎞ − j 2π f τ
Agrees with v(t ) = Π ⎜ ⎟ ↔ 2 Aτ sinc 2 f τ e
⎝ 2τ ⎠

2.5-6

v(t ) = A − Au (t + τ ) + Au (t − τ )
⎧ ⎡ 1 1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 1 ⎤ ⎫
V ( f ) = A ⎨δ ( f ) − ⎢ + δ ( f ) ⎥ e j 2π f τ − ⎢ + δ ( f ) ⎥ e − j 2π f τ ⎬
⎩ ⎣ j 2π f 2 ⎦ ⎣ j 2π f 2 ⎦ ⎭
But δ ( f )e j 2π f τ = δ ( f )e − j 2π f τ = e j 0δ ( f ), so
⎡ ⎤
V ( f ) = A ⎢δ ( f ) −
1
j 2π f
( e j 2π f τ − e − j 2π f τ ) ⎥ = Aδ ( f ) − 2 Aτ sinc 2 f τ
⎣ ⎦
Agrees with v(t ) = A − AΠ (t / 2τ ) ↔ Aδ ( f ) − 2 Aτ sinc 2 f τ

2.5-7

v(t ) = A − Au (t + T ) − Au (t − T )
⎧ ⎡ 1 1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 1 ⎤ ⎫
V ( f ) = A ⎨δ ( f ) − ⎢ + δ ( f ) ⎥ e j 2π fT − ⎢ + δ ( f ) ⎥ e− j 2π fT ⎬
⎩ ⎣ j 2π f 2 ⎦ ⎣ j 2π f 2 ⎦ ⎭
But δ ( f )e j 2π fT = δ ( f )e − j 2π fT = e j 0δ ( f ) = δ ( f ), so
−A −A
V( f ) =
j 2π f
( e j 2π fT + e − j 2π fT ) =
jπ f
cos 2π fT

−A
If T → 0, v(t ) = − A sgn t ↔ V ( f ) = , which agrees with Eq. (17)
jπ f

2-18
2.5-8

V ( f ) = sinc f ε and V (0) = 1, so

sinc f ε 1
W( f ) = + δ(f )
j 2π f 2
1 1
If ε → 0, w(t ) = u (t ) and W ( f ) = + δ ( f ), which agrees with Eq. (18)
j 2π f 2

2.5-9
1/ ε
V( f ) = and V (0) = 1, so
1/ ε + j 2π f
1/ ε 1
W( f ) = + δ(f )
( j 2π f )(1/ ε + j 2π f ) 2
1 1
If ε → 0, w(t ) = u (t ) and W ( f ) = + δ ( f ), which agrees with Eq. (18)
j 2π f 2

2.5-10

z (t ) = AΠ ( t / τ ) ∗ [δ (t − T ) + δ (t + T )]
so Z( f ) = ( Aτ sinc f τ ) ( e− jωT + e jωT ) = 2 Aτ sinc f τ cos 2π fT

2.5-11

z (t ) = AΠ ( t / τ ) ∗ [δ (t − 2T ) + 2δ (t ) + δ (t + 2T ) ]
so Z ( f ) = ( Aτ sinc f τ ) ( e − jω 2T + 2 + e jω 2T ) = 2 Aτ sinc f τ (1 + cos 4π fT )

2.5-12

z (t ) = AΠ ( t / τ ) ∗ [δ (t − 2T ) − 2δ (t ) + δ (t + 2T ) ]
so Z ( f ) = ( Aτ sinc f τ ) ( e − jω 2T − 2 + e jω 2T ) = 2 Aτ sinc f τ (cos 4π fT − 1)

2-19
2.5-13

n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
sin(π t )δ (t − 0.5n) 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
v(t ) 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4

2.5-14

n -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0
cos(2π t )δ (t − 0.1n) 1 0.81 0.31 -0.31 -0.81 -1 -0.81 -0.31 0.31 0.81 1
v(t ) 1 1.81 2.12 1.81 1 0 -0.81 -1.12 -0.81 0 1
v(t ) for n = 1,10 1.81 2.12 1.81 1 0 -0.81 -1.12 -0.81 0 1

2.6-1

Recall for a rectangular pulse train, with amplitude, frequency and period A, f 0 and T0
∞ ∞ 2π nt
1 1 −j
cn = ∫ v(t )e − j 2π nf0t dt = ∫ v(t )e T0
dt
T0 0 T0 0

With sampling v(t ) ⇒ v(k Δt ) and with Ts = Δt ⇒ v(t ) ⇒ v(kTs ).

With N samples ⇒ T0 = NTs
Putting this back into the above integral, we have

∞ 2π nkTs ∞ 2π nk
1 −j 1 −j

NTs ∫0 ∫
cn ,k = v ( k ) e T0
dt = v ( k ) e N
dt .
NTs 0

With

dt ≈ Δt = Ts we can replace the integral by a summation and dt → Ts giving

N 2π nk N 2π nk
1 1 −j 1 −j
cn ,k =
NTs
∑
k = 0 NTs
v ( k ) e N
Ts ⇒ cn =
N
∑ v ( k )e
k =0
N

N 2π kn
−j
With If x (k ) were a rectangular pulse then the DFT [ x ( k )] = X (k ) = ∑ x(k )e
' ' ' N

k =0

Thus cn = NX (k )

2.6-2

If output is average of present and past 3 inputs then

1 1 1 1
y (k ) = x(k ) + x(k − 1) + x(k − 2) + x(k − 3)
4 4 4 4

2-20
Using superposition of the input with a set of delayed impulses, we get
1 1 1 1
h(k ) = δ (k ) + δ (k − 1) + δ (k − 2) + δ (k − 3)
4 4 4 4

N −1 2π kn 7 2π kn 3 π kn
−j −j −j
H ( n) = ∑ h( k )e N
= ∑ h( k )e 8
= ∑ h( k )e 4

k =0 k =0 k =0

1 1 1 1
= + [cos(π n / 4) − j sin(π n / 4)] + [cos(2π n / 4) − j sin(2π n / 4)] + [cos(3π n / 4) − j sin(3π n / 4)]
4 4 4 4
1 1 j
= + [cos(π n / 4) + cos(2π n / 4) + cos(3π n / 4)] − [sin(π n / 4) + sin(2π n / 4) + sin(3π n / 4)]
4 4 4
H (0) = 1, H (1) = [0.25 − j 0.604], H (2) = 0.0, H (3) = [0.25 − j 0.104]

2.6-3

If the outputs are the sum of the weighted inputs, then

8 4 3 1
y (k ) = x(k ) + x(k − 1) + x(k − 2) + x(k − 3)
16 16 16 16

Using superposition of the input with a set of delayed impulses, we get

8 4 3 1
h(k ) = δ (k ) + δ (k − 1) + δ (k − 2) + δ (k − 3)
16 16 16 16
N −1 2π kn 7 2π kn 3 π kn
−j −j −j
H ( n) = ∑ h( k )e N
= ∑ h( k )e 8
= ∑ h( k )e 4

k =0 k =0 k =0

1 1 3 1
= + [cos(π n / 4) − j sin(π n / 4)] + [cos(2π n / 4) − j sin(2π n / 4)] + [cos(3π n / 4) − j sin(3π n / 4)]
2 4 16 16
1 ⎡1 3 1 ⎤ ⎡1 3 1 ⎤
= + ⎢ cos(π n / 4) + cos(2π n / 4) + cos(3π n / 4) ⎥ − j ⎢ sin(π n / 4) + sin(2π n / 4) + sin(3π n / 4) ⎥
2 ⎣4 16 16 ⎦ ⎣4 16 16 ⎦
H (0) = 1, H (1) = [0.63 − j 0.41], H (2) = 0.31 − j 0.19, H (3) = [0.37 − j 0.033]

2.6-4

(a) X R (n) = [6, 0, 0, 4, 0, 4, 0, 0] and X I = [0, 0, −1, 0, 0,1, 0, 0]

1 N
1⎡N 2π nk 2π nk ⎤
x(k ) =
N
∑ X (n)e j 2π nk / N =
n=0
⎢ ∑
N ⎣ n=0
X R (n) cos
N
+ jX I (n) sin
N ⎥⎦

Because of symmetry

2-21
 X (0) 2 N / 2−1 2π nk 2π nk
x ( n) =
N
+ ∑
N n =1
X R (n) cos
N
+ jX I (n) sin
N
X (0) 6π n 2π n
= + 4 cos + j sin
8 8 8
= 0.75 + 4 cos 0.75π n − j sin 0.5π n

(b) with t → kTs = k /160 ⇒ k = 160t ⇒

x(t ) = 0.75 + 4 cos(0.75π × 160t ) − j sin(0.5π × 160t )
⇒ x(t ) = 0.75 + 4 cos120π t − j sin 80π t

(c) DC value = 0.75

(d) f n = f1 = 160 / 8 = 20 Hz

2.6-5
N −1 N −1
x(k ) = [3,1,1, 0], X (n) = ∑ x(k )e − j 2π kn / N = x(0) + ∑ x(k )[cos 2π kn / N − j sin 2π nk / N ]
k =0 k =1
3
N = 4 ⇒ X (n) = x(0) + ∑ x(k )[cos 2π kn / 4 − j sin 2π nk / 4]
k =1
X (0) = 5, X (1) = 2 − j , X (2) = 3, X (3) = 2 + j

2.6-6

W = 20 MHz ⇒ f s ≥ 40 MHz
n
We want Δf = f j +1 − f j = 0.01 MHz and f1 =
NT
1
⇒ 0.01×106 = ⇒ N ≥ 4000
N ×1/ 40 × 106

To reduce computation speed, we want to use the FFT ⇒ N = 4096

2.6-7

N1 = 4 and N 2 = 7 ⇒ make N1 = N 2 by padding x1 (k ) with zeros so that N ≥ (2 N1 − 1)

⇒ N = 13

2.6-8

(a) Number of multiplications for standard DFT is N 2 ⇒ (256) 2 × 10 × 10−9 = 655.4 μ s

(b) Number of multiplications for FFT is

2-22
 N 256
log 2 N ⇒ log 2 (256) × 10 × 10−9 = 10.24 μ s
2 2
2.6-9

(a) Number of multiplications for standard DFT is N 2 ⇒ (4096) 2 × 10 ×10−9 = 168 ms

(b) Number of multiplications for FFT is

N 4096
log 2 N ⇒ log 2 (4096) × 10 × 10−9 = 0.246 ms
2 2

2-23