RESEARCH STRATEGIES AND VALIDITY

Quantitative And Qualitative Research

Quantitative research method is a method used to answer research problems related to
data in the form of numbers and statistical programs. To be able to describe well the
approach and type of research, population and samples, research instruments, data
collection techniques, and data analysis in a proposal and / or research report, a good
understanding of each of these concepts is needed. This is important to ensure that the types
of research up to the data analysis as outlined in the proposal and research report are in
accordance with the rules of writing scientific work required.
A qualitative approach is one in which the inquirer often makes knowledge claims
based primarily on constructivist perspectives (i.e. the multiple meanings of individual
experiences, meanings socially and historically constructed, with an intent of developing a
theory or pattern) or advocacy/ participatory perspectives (i.e. political, issue-oriented,
collaborative or change oriented) or both.
Quantitative research is an approach for testing objective theories by examining the
relationship among variables. These variables, in turn, can be measured, typically on
instruments, so that numbered data can be analyzed using statistical procedures.
Qualitative research is a type of research whose findings are not obtained through
quantification procedures, statistical calculations, or other forms of numerical measures.
Qualitative means something related to the quality, value or meaning aspects that are
behind the facts. Quality, value or meaning can only be expressed and explained through
linguistics, language, or words. Therefore, the form of data used is not in the form of
numbers, numbers, scores or values; rank or frequency; which are usually analyzed using
mathematical or statistical calculations.
Research that uses qualitative research aims to understand objects that are studied in
depth. Qualitative research aims to build ideographics of the body of knowledge, so that it
tends to be done not to find laws and not to make generalizations, but to make an in-depth
explanation or extrapolation of the object.
 Qualitative research aims to explore the behavioral meanings that lie behind human
actions. The interpretation of the meaning of this behavior cannot be explored through
verification of the theory as an empirical generalization, as is done in quantitative research.
In other words, qualitative research intends to understand the object, but not to make
generalizations but to extrapolate the meaning behind the object. Qualitative researchers
express and explain the reality of the overall meaning behind the object being studied,
which is formed from the connection of various life values and beliefs, not from extractions
or derivatives from the context of a comprehensive understanding

Strategies for Quantitative Research

A research Strategies is a general approach to research determined by the kind of question
that the research study hopes to answer. Quantitative research has involved experiments
with complex variables and treatments. Quantitative research strategies also include
structural equation models that are a bit complicated, usually incorporating causality
methods and identifying the strength of multiple variables. Quantitative research is divided
into two types of research, namely experimental research and non-experimental research.
Experimental research includes pure experimental, quasi-experimental, weak experimental
and research involving only one subject. While non-experimental research includes
descriptive, comparative, correlational, survey, facto exposures and action research.
The Descriptive Research Strategy
The Descriptive Research Strategy is intended to answer question about the current state
of individual variables for a specific group of individuals.
Relationships between Variables
 Most research is intended to examine the relationships between variables.
 If there is a relationship between variables, then changes in one variable are
consistently and predictably accompanied by changes in another variable.

For example, figure six shows the general relationship between self-esteem and gender for
adolescent; when gender change from male to female, self-esteem also changes from
relatively high to relatively low (Kling, Hyde, & Buswell, 1999).

The correlational Research Strategy: Measuring Two Variables foe Each Individuals
Researcher have found a relationship between GPA and sleep habits, specifically, wake-
up time for college student (Trockel, Barners , & Egget, 2000).

The non-experimental research strategies

The non-experimental research strategies is intended to demonstrate a relationship between

variables but is does not attempt to explain the relationship.

The experimental research strategies

Experimental Research Strategy is to demonstrate cause and effect relationships between

variables. In an experiment we accomplish this by showing that changes in one variable
are directly responsible for changes in another variable.

The Quasi experimental research strategies

 Explain what quasi-experimental research is and distinguish it clearly from both

experimental and correlational research.

 Describe three different types of quasi-experimental research designs

(nonequivalent groups, pretest-posttest, and interrupted time series) and identify
examples of each one.

Comparing Two or More Sets of Strategies: The experimental research strategies,

non-experimental research strategies and quasi experimental research strategies

Experimental, quasi-experimental and non-experimental research strategies. For example,

one group of student is selected from high-income families and a second group is selected
from low income families. The second variables, each student grade average, is then
measured to obtain a score for each individual. An example of the resulting data is shown
in table 6.1.

Research Strategy Summary

Three broad categories of research strategy summary

1. Strategies that examine individual variables instead of relationship between

variables.
 2. Strategies that examine relationship between variables by measuring two or more
variables for each participant.
3. Strategies that examine relationship between variables by comparing two or more
variables group of scores.

Data Structures and Statistical Analysis

Structured data analysis is the statistical data analysis of structured data. This can arise
either in the form of an a priori structure such as multiple-choice questionnaires or in
situations with the need to search for structure that fits the given data, either exactly or
approximately. This structure can then be used for making comparisons, predictions,
manipulations

Internal and External Validity

External validity is the validity of applying the conclusions of a scientific study outside
the context of that study. In other words, it is the extent to which the results of a study can
be generalized to and across other situations, people, stimuli, and times. In
contrast, Internal Validity is the validity of conclusions drawn within the context of a
particular study. Because general conclusions are almost always a goal in research, external
validity is an important property of any study. Mathematical analysis of external validity
concerns a determination of whether generalization across heterogeneous populations is
feasible, and devising statistical and computational methods that produce valid
generalizations.

Validity and Quality of a Research Study

The value or quality of any research study is determined by the extent to which the study
satisfies the criteria of internal and external validity.

Internal Validity

Internal validity refers to how well an experiment is done, especially whether it

avoids confounding (more than one possible independent variable (cause) acting at the
same time). The less chance for confounding in a study, the higher its internal validity is.
Therefore, internal validity refers to how well a piece of research allows you to choose
among alternate explanations of something. A research study with high internal validity
lets you choose one explanation over another with a lot of confidence, because it avoids

(many possible) confounds.

External Validity

External validity is the validity of applying the conclusions of a scientific study outside
the context of that study. In other words, it is the extent to which the results of a study can
be generalized to and across other situations, people, stimuli, and times. In
contrast, Internal Validity is the validity of conclusions drawn within the context of a
particular study. Because general conclusions are almost always a goal in research, external
validity is an important property of any study. Mathematical analysis of external validity
concerns a determination of whether generalization across heterogeneous populations is
feasible, and devising statistical and computational methods that produce valid
generalizations.

Threats to external validity

Threats to external validity are any factors within a study that reduce
the generalisability (or generality) of the results. Dissertations can suffer from a wide
range of potential threats to external validity. In this section, four of the main threats to
external validity that you may face in your research are discussed with associated
examples. These include: (a) selection biases; (b) constructs, methods and
confounding; (c) the 'real world' versus the 'experimental world'; and (d) history
effects and maturation. In the sections that follow, each of these threats to external
validity are explained with accompanying examples.

Threat to Internal Validity

 History: Did some unanticipated event occur while the experiment was in progress
and did these events affect the dependent variable? History is a threat for the one
group design but not for the two group design. In the one group pre post -test design,
 the effect of the treatment is the difference in the pre-test and post-test scores. This
difference may be due to the treatment or to history.
 Maturation: Were changes in the dependent variable due to normal developmental
processes operating within the subject as a function of time? Is a threat to for the
one group design. Is not a threat to the two group design, assuming that participants
in both groups change (“mature”)at same rate.

References
A, S., & J, C. (1990). Qualitative Research; Grounded Theory Procedure and Techniques.
London: Sage Publication.
Creswell, J. W. (2003). Research Design: qualitative, quantitative and method approached.
California: Sage Publication.
Kling, K. C., Hyde, J. S., & Buswell, B. N. (1999). Gender Difference in Self-esteem : A meta
analysis. Pshycological buletin.
Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic Inquiry. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications .
Trockel, M. T., Barners , & Egget. (2000). Health-related variables and academic performance
among first-year college students: Implications for sleep and other behavior. Journal of
American College Health, 49,.