Socio. Model - 2

Sociology Test-2
Syllabus Covered :
4. Sociological Thinkers :
(c) Max Weber (d) Talcott Parsons
(e) Robert K. Merton (f) Mead
5. Stratification and Mobility
6. Works and Economic Life
NOTE : The purpose of the following content is to provide the students with the hints and not a model answer. It has been
designed to give information and directions regarding how to cover maximum dimensions . The knowledge and
information provided is all indicative, as it is only a hint to the answers. The aim is to bring as much as objectivity and novelty
in your answers as possible because that is what UPSC requires.
.
YOU HAVE ALL FREEDOM TO WRITE NOVEL EXPLANATIONS AND OBSERVATIONS & EXAMPLES. THE MODEL HINT
BOOKLET WILL PROVIDE REFERENCE POINTS. Feel free in writing contextual answers from your knowledge base.
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Q1. Write Short Answer of the following in about 150 words each : 10 x 5 = 50
Q1.(a) Discuss class, caste and gender as principles of social stratification.
Ans.: Hints – Points to Think :
CLASS, CASTE AND GENDER forms a basis of social stratification in society. Caste is particularly seen in India or south Asia.
While other two are broadly present everywhere barring few exceptions. Class as principle of stratification involves
achievement criteria for position and mobility. While caste and gender as principle of stratification involves ascription
criteria.
 Class as a principal basis of social stratification found specially in the modern civilised countries.
 A social class as defined by Maclver and Page, “is any portion of a community forked off from the rest by social
status”. A structure of social class involves (1) a hierarchy of status groups, (2) the recognition of the superior –
inferior positions and (3) some degree of permanency of the structure.
 For KARL MARX, in any particular regime of production, there are many people who would stand in the same
relationship to one another. In the productive process, people either work, or own the means of production. Those
people in the same position on one side of this divide were in the same class. In other words group of People sharing
the same relationship to the means of production comprise a class. Let us understand it through an example –all
labourers have a similar relationship with the landowners. On the other hand all the landowners, as a class have a
similar relationship with the land and labourers. In this way labourers on one hand and land owners on the other
hand could be seen as classes. The pattern of this divide not only exists in the economic sphere, but also
obtains across all areas of life. Life in society, even in those areas most remote from physical production,
is class divided, class based. Hence the concept of class is wider than the analysis of economic relations
alone; it involves the analysis of the structure of society as a whole.
 MAX WEBER defines the class as a group of individual who share a similar position in market economy and by
virtue of that fact received similar economic rewards. Thus a person’s class situation, which is a market situation,
which further shows his life chances. In this way Weber says that apart from two major classes, there is one more
class who, though does not have the ownership of means of production, But the members receives high salaries
because of their demand for services. The four classes are: Propertied Upper class (Bourgeoisie); Propertiless
white collar workers; Petty Bourgeoisie; Manual worker class
 Where a society is composed of social classes, the social structure looks like a truncated pyramid. At the
base of the structure lies the lowest social class arranged in a hierarchy of rank. Individuals composing a particular
class stand to each other in the relation of equality and are marked off from other classes by accepted standards of
superiority and inferiority. A class system involves inequality, inequality of status.
 Caste as principle of Social stratification, refers to hierarchy of individual’s ranked and ordered on the basis of birth.
Their accompanying rights and obligations are ascribed on the basic of birth in to a particular group. A Caste
involves shared understandings, mutual recognition among its members and, of course, acknowledgement from its
superiors and inferiors of its standing in the general scale of social position.
 Thus there is mutual awareness and some—at least diffusely—co-ordinated action integral to the very existence of
a Caste. The mechanism of such a group’s existence is closure. It includes some and excludes others; it takes steps
to ensure that those who are not equals are kept out.
 From an economic point of view, Caste is defined in terms of consumption, not production. What makes someone
an equal is how he or she lives, the lifestyle. For example, to lead the life of an educated, cultured and leisured person
might be the basis for mutual acknowledgement. In the end the Caste is dependent upon economic inequality
because the capacity to lead a certain kind of life presupposes the wealth to fund it. It is not the wealth as such,
however, that is decisive.
 Caste attempt to preserve its existence and identity through closure characteristically involves economic intervention
in attempts to restrain the operation of the market in order to prevent the hallmarks of a lifestyle becoming available
to mere purchase (which would directly link them to wealth).
 According to Weber The Indian caste system is the extreme case of a status group system, where the operation of
the market has been restricted to such an extent that even jobs are retained within the various caste groups through
inheritance.
 Caste in Indian society related with social stability—which is why they occupy such prominence in India. In
situations of rapid social and economic change, social class possesses greater prominence and caste looses strength.
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 Each class is subdivided in to sub castes,which in total number many thousands. The Brahmins or priests, members
of the highest caste, personifypurity, sanctity and holiness. They are the sources of learning, wisdom and truth.At
the other extreme, untouchables are defined as unclean and impure, a status which affects all othersocial relationships.
They must be segregated from members of other castes and live on the outskirts ofthe villages; In general the
hierarchy of prestige based on notions of ritual purity is mirrored by thehierarchy of power. The Brahmins were
custodian of law and the legal system which they administeredwas based largely on their pronouncements.
Inequalities of wealth were usually linked to those of prestigeand power.
 Gender as principle of stratification; Gender refers to the socially constructed and culturally determined role
that men and women play in their day-to-day lives. It is a matter of social ascription, a socio-cultural construction
and provided a deeper analysis of inequalities existing between male and female. It refers to the social
institutionalization of sexual difference.
 In feminist literature gender is not a value free concept rather a value loaded term and has acquired new
dimensions. It is a conceptual tool for analysis and is used to highlight different structural relationships of
inequality between men and women. As a socially constructed differences and relations between males and females
it very from time to time and from place to place.
 Like caste and class, gender is another kind of social stratification system. Gender, perhaps is the oldest and
permanent source of social differentiation. But within the broad hierarchy of caste and class, gender cuts across
caste andclass.
IN PRESENT DAY INDIAN SOCIETY caste, class and gender are dynamic phenomena which vary between groups, communities
and regions.Thus, class, caste and gender form an amalgamated basis of stratification where both ascriptions as well as
achievements play dynamic role. The “life chances” of individual are decided on the basis of these three major principle status
particularly in India.
(b) R. K. Merton argued, “The social and cultural structures generate pressure for socially deviant behavior upon
people variously located in the structure.”Elaborate the argument.
R.K. Merton begins with the premise that deviance results from the culture and structure of society. Merton starts from
the functionalist premise that for smooth functioning of society, VALUE CONSENSUS among the members is
essential. However, since member of society are placed in different position in social structure,for example
they differ in terms of class position; they do not have this same opportunity of realizing the shared values.
This situation can generate deviance.
 Merton states that a state of anomie exist in the social structure. One form of anomie is that there might be lack
of co-ordination between CULTURALLY APPROVED GOALS (CAG) and STRUCTURALLY PERMITTED MEANS
(SPM) to attain these goals. The members of society placed variously in the social structure may adapt differently
to this anomic situation.
 Merton outlines five possible responses to this state of anomie.
- FIRST first response is CONFORMITY. Where culturally approved goals and structurally permitted means are in
consonance. So they strive for success through accepted channel.
- SECOND possible response is INNOVATION. Here culturally approved goals are there but structurally permitted
means are absent. For example, a poor boy living in slum and working as helper in rich house may have CAG to be
rich like his employer but due to lack of access to quality education, social and economic capital he do not have SPM
to succeed. Hence he may go for innovations such as crime, smuggling etc.
- THIRD response according to Merton is RITUALISM where member cling to structurally permitted means rather
than aiming for goals. There occupation provides less opportunity to success compared to others.
- FOURTH type of response as RETREATISM. Where member denies both CAG and SPM. It applies to psychotics,
vagabond, tramps, chronic drunkards and drug addicts.
- FIFTH response is REBELLION. These members not only reject CAG and SPM but they provide alternative to replace
them. They wish to create new society with these CAG and SPM. For example, Lenin can be categorized into such
group.
Therefore location of member at various position in social structure defines his/her access to SPM and it decides the way
person responds to this pressure. The acute poverty, lack of access to education(former untouchables in India), low or
no social mobility due to rigidity of structure e.g. caste system in India generate pressure on individual to be deviant
and adapt to situation. Hence anomie is rooted in social structures of society.
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Thus, Merton through theory of conformity and deviance tries to analyze the causes of deviant behavior of individuals.
And come to conclusion that deviance is cause of social structure. Where structure allows low mobility of individuals and
groups.Therefore he explains deviance in terms of society rather than individual. Here Merton points finger on functionalist
argument of conformity. And gives hint to change in social structural arrangement of society.
Q1(c) ‘Social systems have a self-adjustive and self-maintaining quality’, according to Talcott Parsons, discuss.
SOCIAL SYSTEMS, Parsons argues, have a self-adjustive and self-maintaining quality.These adjustment processes which
maintain the SOCIAL SYSTEM internally and through its boundary conditions are called functions. Functions are processes of
system’s self-maintenance.
Tere are certain functions without which a SOCIAL SYSTEM cannot subsist: these are called ‘functional prerequisites’ by
Talcott parsons.
1. Adaptation, 2. Goal attainment, 3. Integration, and 4. Latency
The scope of functioning of these functional prerequisites is further defined in terms of whether they deal with processes
external or internal to the system. They are also defined in terms of the nature of interaction as such, whether it is
Consummatory or whether it is instrumental. Consummatory is where the emphasis is on achieving some desired end and
instrumental is where the emphasis is on the acquisition and incorporation of means to achieve ends.
 Adaptation: Adaptation as a functional prerequisite implies generation and acquisition of resources from outside
the system, its external environment and to effect its distribution in the system. External environment in this case
means land, water, etc. As AN EXAMPLE we can mention the economic system, which involves resource utilization,
production and distribution in the society. Adaptation is oriented to factors external to the system and it has an
instrumental character.
 Goal-Attainment: Involves; firstly, the determination of goals, secondly, the motivating of members of the system
of attain these goals, and thirdly, the mobilizing of the members and of their energies for the achievement of these
goals. Its processes are Consumma tory in character although it does involve external interaction. The organization
of the power and authority structure in a social system is an example of an institution where goal attainment is the
primary thrust. The political processes are its examples. It needs to be goal attainment is related to the ideological
and organisation set up of the social system. FOR EXAMPLE, Democratic Political System in India guide our
goal attainment.
 Integration:Functional prerequisite which helps to maintain coherence, solidarity and coordination in the system.
In the social system this function is mainly performed by culture and values. Integration ensures continuity, coordination
and solidarity within the system; it also helps in safeguarding the system from breakdown or disruption. This
functional prerequisite is internal to the system and has a Consummatory character. FOR EXAMPLE, legal system
(constitution).
 Latency: Functional prerequisite of the social system which stores organizes and maintains the motivational
energy of elements in the social system. Its main functional are pattern maintenance and tension management
within the system. This function is performed by the socialisation process of the members of the social system. Its
main functions are pattern maintenance and tension management within the system.Parsons’s view the function of
tension management must take place internally in all institutions. FOR EXAMPLE, Education system, religious
system.
For Parsons social system is like “moving equilibrium”. He argues that change in one will produce responses in the others.
For example, a change in the adaptation system will result in a disturbance in the social system as whole. The other parts of
the system will operate to return it to a state of equilibrium. This reaction will lead to some degree of change however small,
in the system as whole.
Thus, Parsons views Social System as self correcting and self adujustive system. In which total equilibrium may not exist but
certain minimum level of equilibrium does exist. It is exercised through the Functional Prerequisite(AGIL) required to maintain
that equilibrium.
Q1.(d) Discuss concepts and forms of legitimate domination? How Weber has applied these concept and forms to
explain domination in society?
Domination is the probability that certain specific commands will be obeyed by a given group of persons. Every
genuine form of domination (authority) implies a minimum of voluntary compliance, that is, an interest in obedience. The
German word “Herrschaft” (authority), used by Weber, has been variously translated. Herrschaft is situation in which a ‘Herr’
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or master dominates or commands others.
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Obedience is the action of the person obeying follows in essentials such a course that the content of the command
may be taken to have become the basis of action for its own sake.The rule over large numbers of people requires a staff,
a special group which can be trusted to execute the commands and policies.There may be various motives for obedience by
a staff to the “chief”(economic motives, material interests, affectual ties, etc.). But more importantly, there is another element,
the belief in legitimacy of domination.
This concept of legitimate domination Weber applies in society to explain the types of Four legitimate domination i.e.
authority.
According to Weber are three systems of legitimation. It is these systems of legitimation which as designated as the types of
authority. They are as follows;
1. Traditional Legitimation:This system of legitimation flows from traditional action. In other words, it is based on
customary law and the sanctity of ancient traditions. It is based on the belief that a certain authority is to be
respected because it has existed since time immemorial. In traditional authority, rulers enjoy personal authority by
virtue of their inherited status. Their commands are in accordance with customs and they also possess the right to
extract compliance from the ruled. Often, they abuse their power. The persons who obey them are ‘subjects’ in the
fullest sense of the term. They obey their master out of personal loyalty or a pious regard for his time-honoured
status.
2. Charismatic Authority: Charisma means an extraordinary quality possessed by some individuals. This gives
such people unique powers to capture the fancy and devotion of ordinary people. Charismatic legitimation is
based on extraordinary devotion to an individual and to the way of life preached by this person. The legitimacy of
such authority rests upon the belief in supernatural or magical powers of the person. The charismatic leader
‘proves’ his her power through miracles, military and other victories or the dramatic prosperity of the disciples. As
long as charismatic leaders continue to prove ‘their miraculous powers in the yes of their disciples, their authority
stays intact.
3. Rational-legal Authority: The term refers to a system of legitimation which is both, rational and legal. It is vested
in a regular administrative staff who operate in accordance with certain written rules and laws. Those who exercise
authority are appointed to do so on the basis of their achieved qualifications which are prescribed and codified.
Those in authority consider it a profession and are paid a salary. Thus, it is a rational system.
It is legal because it is in accordance with the laws of the land which people recognize and feel obliged to obey. The people
acknowledge and respect the legality of both, the ordinance and rules as well as the positions or titles of those who implement
the rules. It is the reflection of the process of rationalization. Example of rational-legal authority- We obey the tax collector
because we believe in the legality of the ordinances he enforces.
Thus, Max Weber dwells on concept of herrschaft i.e. domination. He typically differentiate between domination and legitimate
domination i.e. authority. For application of this concepts in society he further propounds Four ideal types of authority. Where
combination of any of they may exist in reality. This concept of weber has helped many social scientists in early period to
study the power.
Q1(e) How do Talcott Parsons and Max Weber differ in their conceptualizations of social action. Elucidate.
Max Weber has his interpretation of individual actions in the social environment along with their interactions in that
environment. Weber addresses social action from a interpretative approach. Talcott Parsons addresses these topics from a
functionalist perspective. It is important to provide a thoughtful comparison on how the topic of social action is interpreted
by Weber and Parsons.
For Weber “Action is social, in so far as, by virtue of subjective meaning attached to it by the acting individual, it takes
account of the behavior of others and is thereby oriented in its course.”
Weber categorises social action into three ideal types of action based on goal and values attached to it;
 Zweckrational action or rational action in relation to a goal: The actor determines the goal and chooses his
means purely in terms of their efficiency of attaining the goal. For Example, action of the bureaucrats.
 Wert rational action or rational action in relation to a value: Here means are chosen for their efficiency but the
ends are determined by value. For Example, The action of a captain who goes down with the sinking ship or that of
a gentleman who allows himself to be killed rather than yield in a duel are examples.
 Affective for emotional action: Here emotion or impulse determines the ends and means of action as in the case of
a mother who slaps her child or a player who throws a punch at a partner in a game.
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 Traditional actions where both ends and means are determined by customs. For Example Rituals, ceremonies
and practices of tradition fall in this category.
Action, according to Parson does not take place in isolation. It is not empirically discrete but occurs in constellations which
constitute system. The concept of action, according to Parson, is derived from behavior of human beings as living organisms.
As living organisms they interact (orientate) with outside reality as well as within their own mind.
Behaviour becomes action when four conditions are present:
- It is oriented to attainment of ends or goals or other anticipated affairs,
- It occurs in situations,
- It is regulated by norms and values of society, and
- It involves in investment of ‘energy’ or motivation or effort.
For Example: a lady driving an automobile to go to a temple. She is probably going to offer prayers. In this case then the
offering of the prayer is her end or goal to which she is oriented. Her situation is the road on which she is driving and the car
in which she is sitting. Moreover, her behaviour is regulated by social norms or values in which the offering of prayers is
recognized as desirable. In addition, she is applying her intelligence in the skill of driving which is learnt from society. Finally,
the very act of driving the car implies expenditure of energy, holding the wheel, regulating the accelerator and skilful negotiation
of energy, holding the wheel, regulating the accelerator and skilful negotiation through the traffic on the road. When behaviour
is seen in this analytical context, it can be defined as action.
Orientation of action can be divided into two components: the motivational orientation and the value orientation.
- Motivational orientation refers to a situation in which action takes place taking into account needs, external
appearances and plans.
- Value orientation is based on considerations of standard of values, aesthetics, morality and of thinking.
As mentioned earlier, action according to Parsons does not occur in isolation but occurs in constellations: These constellations
of action constitute system. These systems of action have three modes of organization which Parsons describes as the
personality system, the cultural system and the social system.
Q2(a) “An action is a social when it has meaning and oriented towards others in society”. With regard to the
statement of Max Weber; give his explanation of Social Action and elaborate its types seen in Indian
society.
Weber defined sociology as “a science which attempts the interpretive understanding of social action in order thereby to
arrive at a causal explanation of its course and effect”. For Weber, the combined qualities of ‘action’ and ‘meaning’ were the
‘central facts’ for sociology’s scientific analysis. The technical category of ‘action’ described in Weber’s work is all human
behavior to which an actor attaches subjective meaning.
For Weber “Action is social, in so far as, by virtue of subjective meaning attached to it by the acting individual, it takes
account of the behavior of others and is thereby oriented in its course.” The refinement and utilization of this technical
category of ‘action’ provided Weber with an objective fact necessary to apply his other subjective category called ‘meaning,’ a
term which refers to the rationalized reasons put forth by an individual as explanation for specific action.
What intrigued Weber was the actually assigned ‘reason’ for identifiable behavior given by actors themselves. These behavior
complexes, oriented by individuals within specifiable socio-historical settings, were the subjects of sociological analysis. In
the absence of assigned ‘meanings’ by the individuals, the actions are meaningless and thus outside the purview of sociology.
Weber states four types of social action.
Further, applying those type in Indian society gives us following ;
 Zweckrational action or rational action in relation to a goal: The actor determines the goal and chooses his
means purely in terms of their efficiency of attaining the goal. In India this action is seen in livelihood decisions. For
example building up of a structure by an engineer, actions done in bureaucracy, actions done by modern man in a
planned way for his bright future. In modern era, the importance of this action his substantially increased because,
in Weber’s words, the world is tending towards more and more bureaucratization, which means our dependency of
bureaucracy, is thoroughly increasing day by day.
 Wertrational action or rational action in relation to a value: Here means are chosen for their efficiency but the
ends are determined by value. In India the religious values influence a lot of actions. The ‘Jihadi’ acts according to
religious values but s/he chooses the rational and modern means of automatic rifles, organized network and bombs
to achieve his/her objective.
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 Affective for emotional action: Here emotion or impulse determines the ends and means of action. In India,
multiple languages are spoken. Every individual holds her/his mother tongue dear to her/his emotions. So any
threat to language or imposition of other language for its utility is seen through lenses of affection. And hence
intensely resisted. Here end as well as means are based on affections rather than rational utility of language.
 Traditional actions where both ends and means are determined by customs. Rituals, ceremonies and practices
of tradition fall in this category. In India guests are regarded as god replica. Hence the tradition guides the actions to
treat guests. Whatever guests intention, they are fed well and given shelter for period as they wish.
As Max Weber says that these are four types of social action. Hence combination of these action exists in real society. Today
in India modernity and traditions coexist side by side. The caste plays role in rational action of political election where caste
constellations are formed to obtain power. While in the same place most of the time people vote to their caste person or
Traditional Jajman due to values attached to caste system.
According to Weber “A correct causal interpretation of a concrete course of action is arrived at when the overt action and the
motives have both been correctly apprehended and at the same time their relation has become meaningfully comprehensible”.
Such approach helps to understand the various social actions in Indian society. For Example, to study voting behavior, cults,
sects, communal riots and many more.
Thus, Max weber uses interpretative approach to understand the Social Action in society. His types of social action are
useful in understanding the meaning and motives attached by individual and how it is directed towards society. India with its
traditions and modernity has all the combinations of social action. Where Weber’s model can help to understand the social
actions.
Q2(b) “Despite possessing formal equality with men, women still experience a number of inequalities in the
labour market”. Elaborate the statement.
Women’s participation in the paid labour force has risen more or less continuously over the last century. One major
influence was labour shortage experienced during the First World War. Women take many jobs which were earlier
regarded as exclusive sphere of men. The democratization process after 1950s, especially after 70s (women’s
movement) has led to equal legal rights for women in social, political and economic spheres. In contemporary
society along with maturity of capitalism, the work is central to human life and employment is almost always a
prerequisite for living an independent life. In recent times women have made great strides towards parity with men;
increased economic activity has been central to this process.
Despite possessing such formal equality with men women still experience a number of inequalities in the labour
market.
 Occupational segregation: women workers have traditionally been concentrated in poorly paid, routine
occupations. Many of these jobs are highly gendered i.e. they are commonly seen as women’s works. Secretarial and
caring jobs (such as nursing, social work and child care) are overwhelmingly held by women and generally regarded
as feminine occupations. Occupational gender segregation refers to fact that men and women are concentrated
in different types of jobs, based on prevailing understanding of what is appropriate male and female work.
 Concentration in part time work: although increasing numbers of women now work full time outside the home,
a large number are concentrated in part-time employment. In recent decades, opportunities for part-time work
have grown enormously, partly as result of labor market reforms to encourage flexible employment
policies and partly due to the expansion of the service sector. Part time jobs are seen as offering much greater
flexibility for employees than full-time work. For this reason they are often favored by women who are attempting
to balance work and family obligations. In many cases this can be done successfully and women, who might
otherwise forgo employment, become economically active. Yet part time work carries certain disadvantages,
such as low pay, job insecurity and limited opportunities for advancement.
 The wage gap: the average pay of employed women in India is well below that of men, although the difference is
narrowed somewhat in recent years. Several processes have affected these trends. One significant factor is
that more women are moving into higher-paying professional positions than was earlier the case. Young
women with good qualification are now as likely as their male counterparts to land in lucrative jobs. Yet
this progress is at the top of the occupational category. There is still increasing number of women in low paid
part time jobs within the rapidly expanding service sector. Occupational segregation by gender is one of the
main factors in persistence of wage gap between men and women. Women are over-represented in the low paid,
informal and casual work. Recent trends of feminization of agriculture in India indicate to this gendered gap.
 Discrimination at work place: women are allotted work on the prejudice that they have less capacity to work.
Women are generally not allowed to work in night shifts. Though legislations are changing the scenario but
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still social pressure does not allow them to work in nights. Moreover maternity benefits and concept of paternity
leave is still absent in many formal organization. If present then it is of very low period and value. Employers
discriminate in times of hiring and firing by looking at maternity benefits. Women are first to go if there is any
job cut. Women also suffer from mental and sexual harassment at work place. They have to undergo double repression
of work by taking care of domestic work as well as job. Absence of crèches is another problem.
 Women in armed forces are still opposed by political bureaucratic male elites. Women’s are not considered fit for
combat role due to their gender.
Thus, though women have been liberated from domestic spheres. They have work places to exploit them. Nevertheless there
is constant pressure, building up upon organizations and generally on society for equality of women in all spheres. The
reforms and legislations are going on but still there needs to be better explanation of women’s equal importance in work and
benefits. Society must understand women’s not only economic but social and political importance.
Q2(c) Critically analyze the contribution of G.H. Mead to ‘symbolic interactionism’.
The central theme of symbolic interactionism is that human life is lived in the symbolic domain. Symbols are culturally
derived social objects having shared meanings that are created and maintained in social interaction. Through
language and communication, symbols provide the means by which reality is constructed. Reality is primarily a
social product, and all that is humanly consequential—self, mind, society and culture emerges from and is
dependent on symbolic interactions for its existence.
Mead’s View of the Self
 The human mind—which Mead termed the self—develops in and through the process of symbolic interaction,
enabling an individual to acquire a sense of “HIMSELF OR HERSELF” as an individual. The individual is not, of
course, merely a body, but an identity, a person with a distinct core of psychological character, which mead terms
‘the self’. It is the basis of, the driving force for, an individual’s conduct.
 Mead refers to ‘the social self’ to emphasize that the self develops in interaction with and is modeled on
other people and their ways of acting. The child, for example, learns first by imitation, by copying the behavior
of others in playful form, acting now like the postman, now the shopkeeper, then the mother, and so on. In this way,
the individual learns what is involved in social roles, i.e. learns what people expect of one another.
 Two types of others are critical in the development of the self. The significant other refers to people who are
important to an individual, whose opinions matter. The generalized other refers to a conception of the community,
group, or any organized system of roles (e.g., a baseball team) that are used as a point of reference from which to
view the self.
However, mead’s such conception of symbolic interaction and subsequent development of human mind is criticized on
various grounds by sociologists;
 G H Mead have often been accused of examining human interaction in a vacuum. He has tended to focus on small-
scale face to face interaction with little concern for its historical or social settings. He concentrated on particular
situations and encounters with little reference to the historical events which led up to them or the wider social
framework in which they occur.
 While GH Mead’s symbolic interactionism provides a corrective to the excesses of societal determinism, many
critics have argued that it has gone too far in this direction. Though they claim that action is not determined by
structural norms, interactionists do admit the presence of such norms. However, they tend to take them as given
rather than explaining their origin.
 GH Mead’s Interactionism fail to explain ‘why people consistently choose to act in given ways in certain situations,
instead of in all the other ways they might possibly have acted’. In stressing the flexibility and freedom of human
action the interactionism tend to downplay the constraints on action. This is due to the fact that ‘interactionism
consistently fails to give an account of social structure’. In other words it fails to adequately explain how standardized
normative behavior comes about and why members of society are motivated to act in terms of social norms.
 Marxists have argued that the meanings which operate in face to face interaction situations are largely the product
of class relationships. From this viewpoint, interactionists have failed to explain the most significant thing about
meanings: the source of their origin.
Thus, though symbolic interaction suffers from some criticism, it certainly has merits. As Mead brings out the psycho-social
relationship to understand the society which was new to infant discipline of sociology.
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Q3(a) How would you distinguish between the stratified and the unstratified social Positions? Do you think
that innovations in work has affected stratified social positions in Indian society? (20 marks)
Social Stratification: Social stratification is when people are divided and categorized into different groups based on their income,
wealth, occupation, status and similar factors.
Unstratified social positions involves no such categorization and division. Differentiation may be on the basis of Factors such
as biology, age, income categories for social security benefits etc. For example Blue/Pink/Red Ration Card holders,Orange
Ration Card holders,Yellow Ration Card holders;children, Adolescents, young, adult old etc.
Innovations in work has defenitely transformed these stratified social positions.
(i) In India, women are considered inferior to men. But due to innovation in Information Technology, automation etc., woman
can work in office, have flexible timings to work from home hence their social position is rising.
(ii) Due to innovation, some work have become more respectable than earlier. For example., being an Uber Driver v/s Taxi
driver.
(iii) Similarly catering, cooking etc., have become more respectable due to hotel management courses and cash nexus. Today’s
Startup culture has transformed doing business in India and its social consequences are visible on social stratification.
(iv) Modern industries is recognizes merit and achievement orientation and facilitates the social mobility. Innovation in
work organisation after Globalization has diversified the occupations and new occupations in service Industry has
provided equal opportunities across the social groups. for eg. Dalits Enterpreneurship, Dalits Venture Fund, Dalit
Capitalism etc.,
(v) Economic mobilization of Dalits, Tribals, OBC’s facilitateded the rise of social elites class within these social groups.
Thus, Innovation is work and work organisation has affected the traditional stratified positions. However; old position
still reflect is new hierarchical order.
Q3(b) How do Karl Marx and Max Weber differ in terms of their analysis of social stratification. Elucidate.
(20 marks)
The term stratification refers to a process by which individuals and groups are ranked in a more or less enduring hierarchy of
status. Social stratification ranks people on the basis of certain social characteristics. Karl Marx and Max Weber have put forth
their analysis of social stratification on two distinct approaches. Though Weber has taken inputs from Marx’s analysis of
stratification but he had critical view of Marxian perspective.
Marxists regard social stratification as a means through which the group in the upper rungs exploits those in the lower rungs.
Here the system of stratification is based on therelationship of social groups to the forces of production.
 According to Karl Marx in all stratified societies there are two major social groups: a ruling class (Haves) and a
subject class (Have nots). The ruling class derives its power from its ownership and control of the forces of
production. The ruling class exploits and oppresses the subject class. As a result there is a basic conflict of interest
between the two classes. The various institutions of society such as the legal and political system are instruments
of ruling class domination and serve to further its interests. Marx believed that western society developed through
four main epochs-primitive communism, ancient society, feudal society and capitalist society.
 More clearly stated Marxists identify two major strata in society: one that controls the forces of production (Bourgeoisie)
hence rules over others, second that works for the ruling class (Proletariat). Form Marxian standpoint, economic
Power governs political power. The ruling class derives its power form ownership and control over forces of
production. The relations of production prevail over major institutions, values and belief systems. Evidently the
political and legal system pursues the interests of the ruling class. The ruling class oppresses the serving class.
Thus, stratification in society serves to foster exploitation and hostility betweenthe two major strata.
 Primitive communism is represented by the societies of pre-history and provides the only example of the classless
society. From then all societies are divided into two major classes - master and slaves in ancient society, lords and
serfs in feudal society and capitalist and wage labourers in capitalist society.
 While on other hand, differs from this Marxian view of social stratification. In Weberian perspective social
stratification is based on Class, Status and Power. Class is based on market situation i.e. Individuals position in the
market. Those who share common market situation also share similar life chances. They constitute a strata.
 The crucial characteristics of class are;
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– Individuals share a particular causal facet of their lives;
– These facets are represented exclusively by economic drive in the possession of goods and opportunities fo rproperty
accrual, and
– Class situation is essentially a market situation.
Weber identified four groups in a capitalist society;
– The propertied upper- class
– The property- less, white collar worker class
– The petty bourgeoisie and
– The manual working class.
Weber did agree with Marx on the significance of the economic dimension of stratification. He, however,added the
aspects of prestige (Status) and Power (Party) to the understanding of social stratification.
 Weber was convinced that differences in status led to differences in lifestyles. “As distinguished from the
consequences of property differences for life chances, status differences, according to Weber, lead to differences in
life styles which form an important element in the social exclusiveness of various status groups. Status groups
acquire honour primarily by usurpation. They claim certain rewards and act out their claims in terms of certain
manners and styles of behavior and certain socially exclusive activities. Status groups are usually communities.
Status situation is determined by a specific, positive or negative, social estimation of honor; it is not necessarily
linked with class situation. The highest prestige in particular social group does not always belong to the richest.
Status symbols, special attire, exclusive clubs and unique lifestyles distinguish the status groups.
 Weber also laid stress on party which often represents interests determined through ‘class situation and status
situation. According to Weber, the economic aspect is crucial in classes, honour is crucial in status groups, and
power is crucial in parties. Party arise form the nature of domination which is present in one form or another in all
the societies
Thus , Weber analytically distinguished there orders within society—economic, social and party—and
corresponding to these, identified three dimensions of stratification: class, status and power. On the fundamentals,
there was little difference between Weber and Marx in defining class. Denying that a unified theory of social
stratification was even possible, Weber went beyond a critical rejection of Marx’s simplistic unilinear theory of
class.
Q3(c) “Employee behaviour depends primarily on the social and organisational circumstances of work”. Explain
the statement with an insight of research of Human relations school. (20 Marks)
Research carried out by Elton Mayo at the General Electric Company in Chicago which was named by him as ‘Hawthorne
experiment’ concluded that Group Relationships and Management-Worker Communication were far more important in
determining employee behaviour than physical conditions (e.g. lighting and noise) and the working practices imposed by
management. Also, wage levels were not the dominant motivating factor for most workers. In many respects this work paved
the way for the volume of research that followed, looking at employee behaviour, motivation and so on.
Further research of mayo established the following propositions of the human relations school;
 Employee behavior depends primarily on the social and organizational circumstances of work. Leadership style,
group cohesion and job satisfaction are major determinants of the outputs of the working group.
 Employees work better if they are given a wide range of tasks to complete.
 Standards set internally by a working group influence employee attitudes and perspectives more than standards set
by management.
 Individual workers cannot be treated in isolation, but must be seen as members of a group.
 Monetary incentives and good working conditions are less important to the individual thanthe need to belong to a
group.
 Informal or unofficial groups formed at work place have a strong influence on thebehavior of those workers in a
group.
 Managers must be aware of these ‘social needs’ and cater for them to ensure that employees collaborate with the
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official organization rather than work against it.
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The usefulness of the human relations approach:
 The school explicitly recognized the role of interpersonal relations in determining workplace behaviour, and it
demonstrated that factors other than pay can motivate workers.
 However, the approach possibly overestimates the commitment, motivation and desire to participate in decision
making of many employees.
Therefore, human relations schools approach emphasizes more on social conditions inside as well as outside the
organization. The class, status group (caste in case of India) do matter in employees behavior. Joshi has pointed out
that in British period, workers used to exercise the caste rules on shop floor.
Today, such ascriptive associations have been largely vanished except in few pockets of industry. Nevertheless, the
informal groups, teams created for purposes of projects exercise more control over employees behavior in
organization. We can observe such groups in government bureaucracy also.
Thus, to establish emotional bond with employees, today organizations arrange cultural festivals, sports etc.
human relations school contributed in understanding sociology inside organization. This helped to evolve the
management theories which led to efficient and sustainable manager-employee relations.
Q4. Answer the following question in about 150 words each. (10 x 5 = 50)
Q4(a) Explain the formal categorisation of informal or unorganized labour force.
Informal or unorganized labour force is characterized by low level of skills, low paid employment, easy entry, unseasonal
work, immigrant labour etc. W. Arthur Lewis developed theory that, with development of modern industry, the vast
pool of unorganized labour will be absorbed in formal sector.
However, evidence of such progress is not seen moreover, the informal labour force itself is getting categorized into formal
one.
 Indeed, the informal sector is not a separate and closed circuit of work and labour. There is the interaction, between
the formal and informal sectors, and dependence of the latter on the former and even its subordination to it.
 We do not need to assume that informal labour is unskilled; only need to recognize that its skills are acquired outside
the formal education system. And all the more in the context of the neo-liberal economic policies of hire and fire
where THE ORGANIZED SECTOR ITSELF IS GETTINGINFORMALISED through CONTRACTUALISATION,
ACTUALIZATION, and OUTSOURCING OF LABOUR, there are workers who are equally or even more educated and
skilled, work better and even longer in so many of the organized sectors; but for no labour rights, wage, job or social
security protection and for very dismal wages. For example, the electricians, air-conditioner servicepersons or
cleaners are contractulised in formal work organizations such as MNCs. Though they work in formal organization,
they do not get any social benefits as formal employee.
 With the advent of GLOBALIZATION and resultant reorganization of production chains led to a situation where
production systems are becoming increasingly atypical and non-standard, involving flexible workforce, engaged in
temporary and part-time employment, which is seen largely as a measure adopted by the employers to reduce labour
cost in the face of stiff competition. For example, recent labour reports shows that there is increase in employees
working from home at high levels. These professional suffer from unseasonality of work, lacks all the social
security benefits as they work on short terms contracts.
 No doubt, it obviously indicates that these flexible workers in the new informal economy are highly
vulnerable in terms of job security and social protection, as they fail to derive any of the social protection
measures stipulated in the existing labour legislations. The insecurities and vulnerabilities of these modern
informal sector labourer on the rise, as there is a visible absence of worker mobilization and organized collective
bargaining in these segments owing to a multitude of reasons. The alarming expansion of informal sector, in
recent times, has adversely affected employment and income security for the larger majority of the
workforce, along with a marked reduction in the scale of social welfare / security programme.
 The lack of registration, organization and protection does not have its origin in the free play of social forces, but
it’s the deliberate product of economic interests that benefit from the state of informality in which a wide range of
activities in all branches of the economy are kept, systematically and on a large scale, through evasion of labour
laws and taxation.
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Thus, the informal labour force is not only working in informal sector but under very aegis of formal sector also.
This process of categorization of informal labour force into formal one is led by globalization, neo-liberal economic
policies and strategies as well as development of technology.
(Give example of Vending Act, Aam Aadmi Bima Yojna for people working in unorganised sector.)
Q4(b) In our society, Hierarchical relations are influenced by both, vertical mobility as well as horizontal
mobility. Explain how?
Social mobility is the movement of a person or persons from one social status to another. W.P Scott has defined sociology as
the movement of an individual or group from one. In Other words, Social mobility is movement across the social structure.
 A distinction is made between HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL SOCIAL MOBILITY. The former refers to change of
occupational position or role of an individual or a group without involving any change in its position in the social
hierarchy, the latter refers essentially to changes in the position of an individual or a group along the social hierarchy.
When a rural laborer comes to the city and becomes an industrial worker or a manager takes a position of manager in
another company there are no significant changes in their position in the hierarchy. Those are the examples of
horizontal mobility. Horizontal mobility is a change in position without the change in status. It indicates a change in
position within the range of the same status. But if an industrial worker becomes a business man or lawyer he has
radically changed his position in the stratification system. This is an example of vertical mobility.
These horizontal and vertical mobility influence hierarchical relations in following ways;
 THE VERTICAL MOBILITY resulting due to positional change in MARKET SITUATION changes the hierarchical
status as well as role of individual or social group. FOR EXAMPLE, when farmer’s son becomes engineer, then he
moves hierarchically upward on status ladder.
 Structural mobility refers to mobility which is brought about by changes in stratification hierarchy itself. It
is a vertical movement of a specific group, class or occupation relative to others in the stratification system. It is a
type of forced mobility for it takes place because of the structural changes and not because of individual attempts.
FOR EXAMPLE, historical circumstances or labor market changes may lead to the rise or decline of an occupational
group within the social hierarchy. An influx of immigrants may also alter class alignments -especially if the new
arrivals are disproportionately highly skilled or unskilled.
 The intergenerational and intra-generational mobility as type of vertical mobility influences hierarchical
relations to great extent. FOR EXAMPLE, promotions in employments, changes in occupation decide the social
status of individual i.e. the group with which s/he will enjoy etc.
 At the same time particularly in India, when a son of scheduled caste person becomes an engineer his
economic status changes however his social status remains the same except some mini changes. This points
out that positional/occupational change amounts to changes in economic hierarchy but does not leads to changes in
social hierarchy.
 Andre Beteille points out that such occupational changes amount to dilution of caste based interaction rules. A poor
low caste person suffers more social discrimination than a rich low caste person. This shows that horizontal
mobility influences the hierarchical relations.
Nevertheless the VERTICAL MOBILITY has greater role in influencing hierarchy compared to horizontal mobility. A Dalit is
a village becomes as IAS officer it brings the status-inconstancy and influence the existing hierarchies relations of caste
society. Increased labour force participation of women have changed their social status within family marriage and society.
The downward mobility among Dalits and Muslims has made them close to each other despite the barriers of religion.
Horizontal mobility and hierarchical relations. The distress migration and geographical mobility from villages to Metros have
impacted traditional village hierarchical relatives.
Q4(c) Elucidate ethnicity as a dimension of social stratification.

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Eethnic stratification refers systems of inequality in which some fixed groups membership, such as race, religion, or
national origin is a major criterion for ranking social positions and their differential rewards.
Ethnicity provides a tangible set of common identifications – in language, food, music, names – when other social roles become
more abstract and impersonal.
 In support of Ethnic Inequality and Conflict, Glazer and Moynihan argues- “As against class-based forms of social
identification and conflict-which of course continue to exist – we have been surprised by the persistence of ethnic
based forms of social identification and conflict”.
 The Concept of ethnicity has passed into everyday discourse, and become central to the political group differentiation
and advantage, in the culturally diverse social democracies of Europe and North America. The obscenity of ethnic
cleansing’ stands shoulder to shoulder with earlier euphemism such as ‘racial hygiene’ and ‘the final solution’.
 Weber also perceived Ethnic group as status group. A status group may be rooted in perceptions of shared religion,
language of culture. Members of the group on the basis of shared community tend to form ‘monopolistic social
closure’ – that is they refuse to let others enter their exclusive domain. Every member of the group knows what is
expected of him in “situations of collective participation”. They also function together to protect each other’s honour
and dignity. It is on these perceptions that ‘suicides quads’ operate in political struggles.
 People who share the same ethnic identity may have different nationality. Ethnicity has been based upon
the practices of the representation and shows social discrimination. FOR EXAMPLE, India is a multiethnic
country which can be differentiated on linguistic and the ethnic groups. Its limited natural and the political resources
are quietly unequally divided between different collectivities of the people. Ethnicity has been based upon the practices
of under-representation and serves social discrimination.
 Further local caste group also serve as ethnic groups. The caste system itself is stratified hence ethnicity imitates
that stratification. Moreover such caste based ethnic identity is promoted for social or political mobility. The
resemblance of culture, rituals; endogamous ties and political opportunities fortifies such ethnic identification. The
government policy of protective discrimination and welfare benefits are some of reason for caste based ethnic
mobilisations in India.
Concludingly, ethnicity forms a group identity. It is shaped in relation to other groups. Generally element of relative deprivation
is present in formation of such group identity. Hence ethnicity involves element of stratification.
Q4(d) “No society can either be absolutely open or absolutely closed.” Comment.
In closed system individuals are ascribed their position in the social structure on the basis of ascriptive criteria like age,
birth, sex. Considerations of functional suitability or ideological notions of equality of opportunity are irrelevant in deciding
the positions of individuals to different statuses.
While In the open systems individuals are assigned to different positions in the social structure on the basis of their merit or
achievement. In such systems the norms are prescribed and encourage mobility.
 Open systems mobility is generally characterized with occupational diversity, a flexible hierarchy, differentiated
social structure and rapidity of change.
 Eastern societies are generally considered as example of closed systems. The Chinese society with its Confucius
Doctrine was considered as closed society. India with its caste system is considered as closed society. Generally caste
system is considered as characteristic of closed system while class system is considered as characteristic of open
system.
 However, considering caste system as absolutely closed will be flawed. Because caste in India has been undergoing
changes from long period. Especially after independence caste has become unit of political mobility. Phenomenon
like sanskritization, westernization allowed positional mobility of caste groups. Moreover modernization, rise of
market economy has reduced degree of closeness.
On other hand, western societies which are considered open suffer from many element of closeness. Class system as
structure of stratification does not allow the mobility all the time.
 The status situation decides the chances of opportunity. FOR EXAMPLE, there is high probability of children from
higher social status families will get high profile jobs.
 C. W. Mills argue that power elites in American society are typically drawn from certain family backgrounds and
localities. They close the doors of opportunity for others to come to those positions. Dynastic succession and
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politics can be best example certain degree of closeness in west.
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 Further, Race and Ethnicity plays major role in instilling closeness. The blacks, Hispanics. Mexican are found in
large number in low wage occupations.
 Marxist sociologists have pointed out that accessibility to quality education and healthcare is restricted due to issue
of affordability which in turn fortifies the inequality of opportunity. The class which gets quality education automatically
fills the high value posts in organizations.
Thus, the notion of societies as absolutely close or open societies is flawed. The interplay between polity, economy and
society destroys as well as creates walls in social structure. Hence we can say degree of mobility can be said to be different in
different societies. In words of Andre Beteille, “ no society is absolutely closed or absolutely open, the openness or closeness
is of degree rather than kind”.
Q4 (e). In what way relative Deprivation and reference group concepts are related ?
A reference group is one to which a person always refer in order to evaluate her/his achievements, her/his role-performance,
her/his aspirations and ambitions. It is only a reference group that tells a person whether s/he is right or wrong, whatever s/
he is doing; s/he is doing badly or well. Relative deprivation is the lack of resources to sustain the diet, lifestyle, activities and
amenities that an individual or group are accustomed to or that are widely encouraged or approved in the society to which they
belong. Relative deprivation may also emphasise the individual experience of discontent when being deprived of something to
which one believes oneself to be entitled.
R. K. Merton’s understanding of relative deprivation is closely tied to his treatment of reference group and reference group
concepts. Essentially, Merton speaks of relative deprivation while examining the
findings of ‘The American Soldier’. In this work an attempt was made to examine how the American soldiers looked at
themselves and evaluated their role-performance, career achievements, etc.
 “Comparing himself with his unmarried associates in the Army, the married man could feel that their induction in
army demanded greater sacrifice; and comparing himself with the married Soldiers, he could feel that he had been
called on for sacrifices which unmarried soldiers were escaping altogether”. Here we find the kernel of what Merton
called relative deprivation.
 Happiness or deprivation is not absolutes: they depend on the scale of measure as well as on the frame of
reference. The distance from reference group also decides the extent of relative deprivation one undergoing.
 Generally the individual suffering from relative deprivation is not member of the group which s/he holds as
reference group. S/he tries to imitate the ways and practices of reference group. Hence s/he dissociates from
membership group. However if s/he is unsuccessful in getting membership of reference group then s/he was
despised by her/his former group members. Merton calls this situation as ‘marginal man’.
 Merton also points out that there may be positive as well as negative reference group. In negative reference group the
members of relatively deprived group generates counter culture to the mobility if social structures does not allow
adequate chances of mobility. They hold the reference group as reference for non-mobility. For example, Dalit culture
developed in India against Brahmin caste as reference group.
 In India, M. N. Srinivas in his concept of sanskritization points that the twice born castes especially Brahmin and
kshatriya castes are reference group for lower and middle castes. The relative deprivation suffered by them necessitates
them to go for positional group mobility where they claim higher caste status in hierarchy.
Thus, concepts of relative deprivation and reference groups helps us understand the currents of mobility in society. Often the
role models from these reference groups becomes reference models for individual aspirants.These concepts also helps to
understand the social movements caused by relative deprivation and the aspirations and demands of that group. For e.g. the
demand of separate state like Vidharbha, Gorkhaland etc.; the demand for protective discrimination by Marathas, Jats, Patidar
in India.
Q5(a) Ideal types are a ‘methodological device’conceived by Max Weber. Investigate and examine relationship
between religion and economy established by him using ideal type.
To Weber, ideal type is a Mental construct, like a model, for the scrutiny and systematic characterization of a concrete
situation. Indeed, he used ideal type as a methodological tool to understand analyzes social reality. Max Weber was particularly
concerned with the problem of objectivity in social sciences. Hence he used ideal type as a methodological tool that looks at
reality objectively. It scrutinizes, classifies, systematizes and defines social reality without subjective bias. Its function, as a
research tool, is for classification and defines social reality without subjective bias. To quote Max Weber: “the ideal typical
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concept will develop our skill in research. it is not a description of reality but it aims to give unambiguous means of
expression to such description”.
Weber’s construction of ideal type in his study “protestant ethics and spirit of capitalism” gives us insights into his
methodology of using ideal type as tool of investigation. Weber constructed IDEAL TYPE OF CAPITALISM by selecting a
certain number of traits from the historical whole to constitute intelligible entity. This was to show that there was a spiritual
affinity between CALVINISM AND THE ECONOMIC ETHICS of modern capitalist activity.
For this he identified those components of Calvinist doctrine which he considered as of particular and significant
importance for the formation of capitalist spirit.
 The essence of capitalism according to Weber is embodied in those enterprises whose aim is to make maximum
profit or to accumulate more and more. These are based on the rational organization of work and production. It is the
conjunction of desire for profit and rational discipline which constitutes the historically unique feature of western
capitalism. The desire for profit is satisfied not by speculation or conquest or adventure, but by discipline and
rationality. This is possible with the help of legal administration of the modern state or rational bureaucracy. Hence
capitalism defined as an enterprise working towards unlimited accumulation of profit and functioning according to
bureaucratic rationality.
 Weber tried to show that there was a close affinity between this type of economic activity and elements of Calvinist
doctrine. According to the Calvinist ethic, God is all powerful and abovec ommon man. Man has to work for God’s
glory on earth and this can be done through handwork and labour which are rational, regular and constant. The calling
of the individual is to fulfill his duty to God through the moral conduct of his day to day life whether he is rich or poor.
For him work is worship and there is no room for idleness and laziness. This specific character of Calvinistic belief
accounted for the relation between Calvinist doctrine and the spirit of capitalism which was characterized by a
unique devotion to the earning of wealth through legitimate economic activity. This is rooted in a beliefin the value
of efficient performance in the chosen vocation as a duty and a virtue.
Comparative Study of other Religion by using Ideal type
 Now having established the essential harmony between protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism, Weber
turned to other religions to see if there is in them a discernible cluster of values comparable to protestant
ethic that is favorable to the rise of capitalism. He found a variety of non-religious social and economic conditions
conducive to the development of capitalism in china and India but the ethical system of Confucianism and the
doctrine of karma in Hinduism were not particularly favorable. Moreover, the combination of religious values that
constituted the protestant ethic was unique: an unusual blend of two apparently inconsistent notions; namely limitless
accumulation of wealth and abstention from enjoyment.
 The followers of Hinduism did not have any interest in material and worldly success. For the same reason, the
followers of Hindu religion stood first in the world for spiritual progress, instead of worldly progress. Hindu religion
is based on the doctrine of (dharma karma and punar janama). The principle of karma says that man gets the fruit of
sin and piety in the next birth. but to get rid of cycle of birth and rebirth he will have to devote to religion and to god
at maximum. in this way, Hinduism stresses on other worldly asceticism.
 Similarly Islam has been emphasized proper use of wealth in that no single people can havethe disproportion to
property. In Confucianism or Buddhism there is a focus on right knowledge through right action and right mediation.
It says that only right knowledge will solve all kinds of problems and related with life and not the wealth which will
do so.
Therefore, Weber while refuting Marxian notion of material life as basis for the entire social superstructure tried to
establish the causal pluralism between religion and economy. For that he constructed his own tools and applied a
new methodology. However he does not come to firm conclusion instead he argues that if there is phenomenon A then there
will be establishment of trend B.
Q5(b) “Stratification system in our society denotes existence of inequality between different groups of society”.
Examine the statement and give reasons for it.
Social stratification is a society’s categorization of people into socioeconomic strata, based upon
their occupation and income, wealth and social status or derived power (social and political). Social stratification
implies social inequality; if some groups have access to more resources than others; the distribution of those
resources is inherently unequal. Societies can be stratified on any number of dimensions. Social stratification denotes
existence of inequality based on a variety of forms or interpenetrating principles such as class, caste ,gender, estate, occupation,
administrative hierarchy or income level etc. The stratification system with varying degree of mobility denotes existence
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of inequality.
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 The functionalists such as Talcott parsons believed that order and stability depends upon the value consensus in
the society. Individuals who conduct themselves in accordance with these values are ranked above others. A successful
business executive would be ranked above others in a society which values individual achievement while individuals
who fight battles and wars would be ranked above others in a society which values bravery and gallantry. Functionalists
uphold that relationship between social groups in society is one of cooperation and interdependence. Parsons
explains that in a highly specialized industrial society, some people specialize in organization and planning
while others follow their directives. Certain positions are functionally more important in society than
others. These are often ranked higher in the social hierarchy and fetch greater rewards than others. This inevitability
leads to inequality in distribution of power and prestige.
 Kinsley Davis and Wilbert Moor discussed the issues of functional necessity of stratification. They explained that
unequal distribution rights and perquisites making for social inequality provides the motivation to people to perform
duties associated with a given position and to achieve position that affords more prestige and esteem. Social
inequality therefore ensures that “the most important positions are conscientiously filled by the most qualified
persons. Hence every society, no matter how simple or complex, must differentiate persons in terms of both prestige
and esteem, and must therefore possess a certain amount of institutionalized inequality”. The positions that carry the
best reward and highest rank are those that are excessively important for society, and require greatest training or
talent. Therefore, social inequality among different strata in the amounts of scarce and desired goods, and
the amounts of prestige and esteem which they receive, is both positively functional and inevitable in any
society.
 Further, Marxists identify two major strata in society: one that controls the forces of production (Bourgeoisie) hence
rules over others, second that works for the ruling class (Proletariat). From Marxian standpoint, economic Power
governs political power. The ruling class derives its power form ownership and control over forces of production.
The relations of production prevail over major institutions, values and belief systems. Evidently the political and
legal system pursues the interests of the ruling class. The ruling class oppresses the serving class. Thus, stratification
in society serves to foster exploitation and hostility between the two major stratas.
Today due to industrialization and urbanization, modern legal systems and education this system has transformed
into disharmonic system. i.e. disposed inequalities. There are, several factors responsible for these inequalities.
(1) Failure of land redistribution except Kerala, West Bengal has perpetuated the existing inequalities is our
society. About 65% Dalit agricultural labour households are landless.
(2) Globalization ltd jobless growth has resulted into internal differentiation of caste and class studies about
1% of top Indians hold 58% of total Indian wealth.
(3) IHDS Survey is Haryana among Jat Caste found that 67% wealth is appropriated try top 23% Jats and
bottom 25% Jats have percapita income of about 11,000 half to that of Dalits in Haryana.
(4) Socio-Economic Caste Census 2011 Measures depreciation and inequality in terms of households, access
to education, drinking waters health is Rural Indian
Consequences
(1) Regional class inequalities, interstate, intra-state inequalities among different social groups manifests is
the form of social conflict. E.g. demand of Reservation by Dominant Castes Jats, Patidars etc.,
(2) Rise of right-wing ideology based groups and politics.
Thus, stratification system denotes inequality in society. The matter of concern is the rate of mobility. Anthony Giddens
suggests that if the rate of social mobility is low, class solidarity and cohesion will be high. Most individuals will remain in
their class of origin and this will ‘provide for the reproduction of common life experiences over generations’. Hence the
equality of opportunity should take place of permanent inequalities for well functioning of societies.
Q5(c) Critically discuss Taylorism and Fordism as new innovations in work organisations in Industrial Society.
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Taylor’s approach to what he called ‘scientific management’ involved the detailed study of industrial processes in order to
break them down into simple operations that could be precisely timed and organized. (Scientific management came to be called
as Taylorism). In particular, Taylor’s time-and motion studies wrested control over knowledge of the productions process
from the worker and placed such knowledge firmly in the hands of management, eroding the basis on which cart or traditional
workers maintained autonomy from their employers. (As such, Taylorism has been widely associated with the deskilling and
degradation of labour.)
 The principles of Taylorism were appropriated by the industrialist Henry Ford. One of Ford’s most significant
innovations was the introduction of the assembly line industry. Each worker on Ford’s assembly line was assigned a
specialized task, such as fitting the left side door handles as the car bodies moved along the line. Fordism is the name
given to designate the system of mass production tied to the cultivation of mass markets. In certain contexts, the term
has a more specific meaning, referring to a historical period in the development of post-second world War capitalism,
in which mass production was associated with stability in labour relations and high degree of unionization.
 Under Fordism, firms made long term commitments to workers, and wages were tightly linked to productivity
growth. As such, collective bargaining agreements formal agreements negotiated between firms and unions that
specified working conditions such as wages, seniority rights, and benefits and so on- closed a virtuous circle that
ensured worker consent to automated work regimes and sufficient demand for mass-produced commodities. This
system is generally understood to have broken down in the 1970s, giving rise to greater flexibility and insecurity in
working conditions.
Nevertheless, principles of fordism and taylorism are criticized on the grounds that;
 The system can only be applied successfully in those industries, such as car manufacture that produce standardized
produces for large markets. To set up mechanized production lines is enormously expensive, and once a
Fordist system is established, it is quite rigid; to alter a product, for example substantial reinvestment is
needed.
 Fordist production is easy to copy if sufficient funding is available to set up the plant. But firms in countries
where labour power is expensive find it difficult to compete with those where wages are cheaper. This was one of the
factors originally leading to the rise of the Japanese car industry (although Japanese wage levels today are no longer
low) and subsequently that of South Korea.
 Fordism and Taylorism are what some industrial sociologists call low-trust system. Jobs areset by management
and are geared to machines. Those who carry out of the work tasksare closely supervised and are allowed little
autonomy of action. In order to maintain discipline and high- quality production standards, employees are con-
tenuously monitored through various surveillance systems
 This constant supervision, however, tends to produce the opposite of its intended result. The commitment and
morale of workers is often eroded because they have little say in the nature of their jobs or in how they are carried out.
In workplace with many low-trust positions, the level of worker dissatisfaction and absenteeism is high, and industrial
conflict is common. (A high-trust system, by contrast, is one in which workers are permitted to control the pace, and
even the content, of their work, within overall guidelines. Such systems are usually concentrated at the higher levels
of industrial organizations. As we shall see, high trust systems have become more common in many work places in
recent decades, transforming the very way we think about the organization and execution of work.)
 The human relations school has criticized the Fordism for its superficial behaviourial understanding. Eltan mayo in
his howthorne experiment tries empirically establish the role of social groups of shop floor on employeesbehaiour is
more than salary, work conditions etc.
 In recent decades, flexible practices have been introduced in a number of spheres, including product development
style, the working environment, employee involvement and marketing. Some commentators have suggested that,
taken collectively, these changes represent a radical departure from the principles of Fordism; they contend that we
are no operating in a period that can best by understood as post Fordism.
Thus taylorism and fordism were invented in the decades of war when technology was nascent. Today vast development in
technology and changes in organization work makes these methods redundant however the modified principles and techniques
are still abundantly used in industries. Especially in nascent developing economies.
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Rank-742-CSE-16
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Sociology Test-2

Q4(c) Elucidate ethnicity as a dimension of social stratification.

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