Brushless DC electric motor

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

A brushless DC motor (BLDC) is an AC synchronous electric motor that from a

modeling perspective looks very similar to a DC motor. Sometimes the difference is
explained as an electronically controlled commutation system, instead of a mechanical
commutation system, although this is misleading, as physically the two motors are
completely different. (The rest of this article assumes the reader is familiar with the
principles of electrical motors.)

A BLDC motor powering a micro remote-controlled airplane. The motor is connected to

a microprocessor-controlled BLDC controller. This 5-gram motor produces more thrust
than twice the weight of the entire plane. Being an outrunner, the rotor-can containing the
magnets spins around the coil windings on the stator.

Three subtypes exist:

• The three-phase AC synchronous motor type has three electrical connections

• The stepper motor type may have more poles on the stator.
• The reluctance motor.

In a conventional (brushed) DC motor, the brushes make mechanical contact with a set of
electrical contacts on the rotor (called the commutator), forming an electrical circuit
between the DC electrical source and the armature coil-windings. As the armature rotates
on axis, the stationary brushes come into contact with different sections of the rotating
commutator. The commutator and brush system form a set of electrical switches, each
firing in sequence, such that electrical-power always flows through the armature coil
closest to the stationary stator (permanent magnet).

In a BLDC motor, the electromagnets do not move; instead, the permanent magnets
rotate and the armature remains static. This gets around the problem of how to transfer
current to a moving armature. In order to do this, the brush-system/commutator assembly
is replaced by an intelligent electronic controller. The controller performs the same power
distribution found in a brushed DC motor, but using a solid-state circuit rather than a
commutator/brush system.

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Comparison with brushed DC motors

• 2 Controller implementations
• 3 Variations on construction
• 4 Applications
• 5 Power Supplies AC vs DC
• 6 Model aircraft scene
• 7 See also

• 8 External links

[edit] Comparison with brushed DC motors

Because of induction of the windings, power requirements, and temperature management

some glue circuitry is necessary between digital controller and motor.

BLDC motors offer several advantages over brushed DC motors, including higher
efficiency and reliability, reduced noise, longer lifetime (no brush erosion), elimination of
ionizing sparks from the commutator, and overall reduction of electromagnetic
interference (EMI). The maximum power that can be applied to a BLDC motor is
exceptionally high, limited almost exclusively by heat, which can damage the magnets.
BLDC's main disadvantage is higher cost, which arises from two issues. First, BLDC
motors require complex electronic speed controllers to run. Brushed DC motors can be
regulated by a comparatively trivial variable resistor (potentiometer or rheostat), which is
inefficient but also satisfactory for cost-sensitive applications. Second, many practical
uses have not been well developed in the commercial sector. For example, in the RC
hobby scene, even commercial brushless motors are often hand-wound while brushed
motors use armature coils which can be inexpensively machine-wound.

BLDC motors are considered to be more efficient than brushed DC motors. This means
that for the same input power, a BLDC motor will convert more electrical power into
mechanical power than a brushed motor, mostly due to the absence of friction of brushes.
The enhanced efficiency is greatest in the no-load and low-load region of the motor's
performance curve. Under high mechanical loads, BLDC motors and high-quality
brushed motors are comparable in efficiency.

[edit] Controller implementations

Because the controller must direct the rotor rotation, the controller needs some means of
determining the rotor's orientation/position (relative to the stator coils.) Some designs use
Hall effect sensors or a rotary encoder to directly measure the rotor's position. Others
measure the back EMF in the undriven coils to infer the rotor position, eliminating the
need for separate Hall effect sensors, and therefore are often called "sensorless"
controllers. Like an AC motor, the voltage on the undriven coils is sinusoidal, but over an
entire commutation the output appears trapezoidal because of the DC output of the
controller.

The controller contains 3 bi-directional drivers to drive high-current DC power, which

are controlled by a logic circuit. Simple controllers employ comparators to determine
when the output phase should be advanced, while more advanced controllers employ a
microcontroller to manage acceleration, control speed and fine-tune efficiency.
Controllers that sense rotor position based on back-EMF have extra challenges in
initiating motion because no back-EMF is produced when the rotor is stationary. This is
usually accomplished by beginning rotation from an arbitrary phase, and then skipping to
the correct phase if it is found to be wrong. This can cause the motor to run briefly
backwards, adding even more complexity to the startup sequence.

[edit] Variations on construction

The poles on the stator of a two-phase BLDC motor. This is part of a computer cooling
fan; the rotor has been removed.

Schematic for delta and wye winding styles. (This image does not illustrate a BLDC
motor's inductive and generator-like properties)

BLDC motors can be constructed in several different physical configurations: In the

'conventional' (also known as 'inrunner') configuration, the permanent magnets are
mounted on the spinning armature (rotor.) Three stator windings surround the rotor. In
the 'outrunner' configuration, the radial-relationship between the coils and magnets is
reversed; the stator coils form the center (core) of the motor, while the permanent
magnets spin on an overhanging rotor which surrounds the core. The flat type, used
where there are space or shape limitations, uses stator and rotor plates, mounted face to
face. Outrunners typically have more poles, set up in triplets to maintain the 3 groups of
windings, and have a higher torque at low RPMs. In all BLDC motors, the stator-coils are
stationary.

There are also two electrical configurations having to do with how the wires from the
windings are connected to each other (not their physical shape or location). The delta
configuration connects the three windings to each other in a triangle-like circuit, and
power is applied at each of the connections. The wye ("Y"-shaped) configuration,
sometimes called a star winding, connects all of the windings to a central point and power
is applied to the remaining end of each winding.

An engine with windings in delta configuration gives low torque at low rpm, but can give
higher top rpm. Wye configuration gives high torque at low rpm, but not as high top rpm.
[1]
Although efficiency is greatly affected by the motor's construction, the wye winding is
normally more efficient. At any given time, two-thirds of the windings in a delta
configuration are running at half the voltage of the other, which is an impact on
efficiency. The wye winding always powers only two windings in series, so higher
voltages (or lower-resistance windings) can be used.

From a controller standpoint, the two styles of windings are treated exactly the same,
although some less expensive controllers need to read voltage from the common center of
the wye winding.

[edit] Applications
BLDC motors can potentially be deployed in any field-application currently fulfilled by
brushed DC motors. Cost and control complexity prevents BLDC motors from replacing
brushed motors in most common areas of use. Nevertheless, BLDC motors have come to
dominate many applications: Consumer devices such as computer hard drives, CD/DVD
players, and PC cooling fans use BLDC motors almost exclusively. Low speed, low
power brushless DC motors are used in direct-drive turntables. High power BLDC
motors are found in electric vehicles and some industrial machinery. These motors are
essentially AC synchronous motors with permanent magnet rotors.

The Honda Civic hybrid car uses a BLDC motor to supplement the output of the internal
combustion engine when the extra power is needed. It is also used to start the engine
versus a conventional starter and solenoid method.

The Segway Scooter also used BLDC technology.

A number of electric bicycles use BLDC motors that are sometimes built right into the
wheel hub itself, with the stator fixed solidly to the axle and the magnets attached to and
rotating with the wheel. The bicycle wheel hub is the motor. This type of electric bicycle
also has a standard bicycle transmission with pedals, gears and chain that can be pedaled
along with, or without, the use of the motor as need arises.

[edit] Power Supplies AC vs DC

Although BLDC motors are practically identical to permanent magnet AC motors, the
controller implementation is what makes them DC. While AC motors feed sinusoidal
current simultaneously to each of the legs (with an equal phase distribution), DC
controllers only approximate this by feeding full positive and negative current to two of
the legs at a time. The major advantage of this is that both the logic controllers and
battery power sources operate on DC, such as in computers and electric cars.

Vector drives are DC controllers that take the extra step of converting back to AC for the
motor. The DC-to-AC conversion circuitry is usually expensive and less efficient, but
they have the advantage of being able to run smoothly at very low speeds or completely
stop in a position not directly aligned with a pole. Motors used with a vector drive are
typically called AC motors.

[edit] Model aircraft scene

Recently, an increase in the popularity of electric-powered model aircraft has spurred
demand for high-performance BLDC motors. Many hobbyists have begun salvaging
BLDC motors from scrap CD/DVD-ROM drives, refurbishing them for use in radio
controlled planes. This has led to increased direct consumer-availability of DIY (do-it-
yourself) motor kits, for use in radio-controlled vehicles. BLDC motors sold as parts kits
allow the buyer to save money through additional assembly work.

[edit] See also

[hide]
v•d•e

Electric motors
Broad Motor Categories Synchronous motor • AC motor • DC Motor
Conventional Electric Motors Induction • Brushed DC • Brushless DC •
Stepper • Linear • Unipolar • Reluctance
Novel Electric Motors Ball bearing • Homopolar • Piezoelectric •
Ultrasonic • Electrostatic
Motor Controllers Adjustable-speed drive • Direct Torque
Control • Direct on line starter • Electronic
speed control • Variable-frequency drive
See also Barlow's Wheel • Nanomotor • Traction motor
• Lynch motor • Mendocino motor •
Repulsion motor • Inchworm motor • Booster
(electric power) • Brush (electric)

Electrical generator

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

This article is about machines that produce electricity. For other uses, see Generator.
“Dynamo” redirects here. For other uses, see Dynamo (disambiguation).
Early 20th century alternator made in Budapest, Hungary, in the power generating hall of
a hydroelectric station

In electricity generation, an electrical generator is a device that converts kinetic energy

to electrical energy, generally using electromagnetic induction. The reverse conversion of
electrical energy into mechanical energy is done by a motor, and motors and generators
have many similarities. The source of mechanical energy may be a reciprocating or
turbine steam engine, water falling through a turbine or waterwheel, an internal
combustion engine, a wind turbine, a hand crank, or any other source of mechanical
energy.

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Historic developments
o 1.1 Faraday
o 1.2 Dynamo
o 1.3 Jedlik's dynamo
o 1.4 Gramme dynamo
o 1.5 MHD generator
• 2 Concepts
• 3 Excitation
• 4 Terminology
• 5 Equivalent circuit
o 5.1 Maximum power
• 6 Vehicle-mounted generators
• 7 Engine-generator
o 7.1 Hand portable emergency generators
o 7.2 Mid-size stationary engine-generator
• 8 Patents
• 9 See also

• 10 External links

[edit] Historic developments

Electrostatic generators are used for scientific experiments requiring high voltages.
Because of the difficulty of insulating machines producing very high voltages,
electrostatic generators are made only with low power ratings and are never used for
generation of commercially-significant quantities of electric power. Before the
connection between magnetism and electricity was discovered, generators used
electrostatic principles. The Wimshurst machine used electrostatic induction or
"influence". Some electrostatic machines (such as the more modern Van de Graaff
generator) uses either of two mechanisms:

• Charge
transferred from a
high-voltage
electrode
• Charge
created by the
triboelectric effect
using the separation
of two insulators (the
belt leaving the
lower pulley)

[edit] Faraday

Portable generator side view showing gasoline engine.

In 1831-1832 Michael Faraday discovered that a potential difference is generated

between the ends of an electrical conductor that moves perpendicular to a magnetic field.
He also built the first electromagnetic generator called the 'Faraday disc', a type of
homopolar generator, using a copper disc rotating between the poles of a horseshoe
magnet. It produced a small DC voltage, and large amounts of current.

[edit] Dynamo

The Dynamo was the first electrical generator capable of delivering power for industry.
The dynamo uses electromagnetic principles to convert mechanical rotation into an
alternating electric current. A dynamo machine consists of a stationary structure which
generates a strong magnetic field, and a set of rotating windings which turn within that
field. On small machines the magnetic field may be provided by a permanent magnet;
larger machines have the magnetic field created by electromagnets.

The first dynamo based on Faraday's principles was built in 1832 by Hippolyte Pixii, a
French instrument maker. It used a permanent magnet which was rotated by a crank. The
spinning magnet was positioned so that its north and south poles passed by a piece of iron
wrapped with wire. Pixii found that the spinning magnet produced a pulse of current in
the wire each time a pole passed the coil. Furthermore, the north and south poles of the
magnet induced currents in opposite directions. By adding a commutator, Pixii was able
to convert the alternating current to direct current.

Unlike the Faraday disc, many turns of wire connected in series can be used in the
moving windings of a dynamo. This allows the terminal voltage of the machine to be
higher than a disc can produce, so that electrical energy can be delivered at a convenient
voltage.

Two dynamos acting on each other to balance power differences between two loads. The
two separate dynamos can be merged together into a single frame.

The relationship between mechanical rotation and electric current in a dynamo is

reversible; the principles of the electric motor were discovered when it was found that
one dynamo could cause a second interconnected dynamo to rotate if current was fed
through it.

The transformative ability of a dynamo to change energy from electrical power to

mechanical power and back again could be exploited as a current-compensation and
balancing device to even out power distribution on interconnected, unbalanced circuits.

[edit] Jedlik's dynamo

Ányos Jedlik's single pole electric starter (dynamo) (1861)

In 1827, Hungarian Anyos Jedlik started experimenting with electromagnetic rotating

devices which he called electromagnetic self-rotors. In the prototype of the single-pole
electric starter (finished between 1852 and 1854) both the stationary and the revolving
parts were electromagnetic. He formulated the concept of the dynamo at least 6 years
before Siemens and Wheatstone. In essence the concept is that instead of permanent
magnets, two electromagnets opposite to each other induce the magnetic field around the
rotor.

[edit] Gramme dynamo

Both of these designs suffered from a similar problem: they induced "spikes" of current
followed by none at all. Antonio Pacinotti, an Italian scientist, fixed this by replacing the
spinning coil with a toroidal one, which he created by wrapping an iron ring. This meant
that some part of the coil was continually passing by the magnets, smoothing out the
current. Zénobe Gramme reinvented this design a few years later when designing the first
commercial power plants, which operated in Paris in the 1870s. His design is now known
as the Gramme dynamo. Various versions and improvements have been made since then,
but the basic concept of a spinning endless loop of wire remains at the heart of all modern
dynamos.

[edit] MHD generator

A magnetohydrodynamic generator directly extracts electric power from moving hot

gases through a magnetic field, without the use of rotating electromagnetic machinery.
MHD generators were originally developed because the output of a plasma MHD
generator is a flame, well able to heat the boilers of a steam power plant. The first
practical design was the AVCO Mk. 25, developed in 1965. The U.S. government
performed substantial development, culminating in a 25Mw demonstration plant in 1987.
MHD generators operated as a topping cycle are currently (2007) less efficient than
combined-cycle gas turbines.

[edit] Concepts
The generator moves an electric current, but does not create electric charge, which is
already present in the conductive wire of its windings. It is somewhat analogous to a
water pump, which creates a flow of water but does not create the water inside. Other
types of electrical generators exist, based on other electrical phenomena such as
piezoelectricity, and magnetohydrodynamics. The construction of a dynamo is similar to
that of an electric motor, and all common types of dynamos could work as motors.

[edit] Excitation
A generator that does not contain any permanent magnets but instead uses field coils
requires a current flow to be present in the field coils for the generator to be able to
produce any power at all. If the field coils are not powered, the rotor can spin without the
generator producing any usable electrical energy.

For older and very large power generating equipment, it has been traditionally necessary
for a small separate exciter generator to be operated in conjunction with the main power
generator. This is a small permanent-magnet generator which produces the current flow
necessary for the larger generator to function.

Most modern generators with field coils feature a capability known as self-excitation
where some of the power output from the rotor is diverted to power the field coils.
Additionally the rotor or stator contains a small amount of magnetizable metal, which
retains a very weak residual magnetism when the generator is turned off. The generator is
turned on with no load connected, and the initial weak field creates a weak flow in the
field coils, which in turn begins to slightly affect the rotor to begin to produce current that
then further strengthens the field. This feedback loop continues to increase field voltage
and output power until the generator reaches its full operating output level.

This initial self-excitation feedback process does not work if the generator is started
connected to a load, as the load will quickly dissipate the slight power production of the
initial field buildup process.

It is additionally possible for a self-exciting generator either turned off or started with a
load connected to result in dissipation of the residual magnetic field, resulting in
complete non-function of the generator. In the case of a 220v portable generator
commonly used by consumers and construction contractors, this loss of the residual field
can usually be remedied by shutting down the generator, disconnecting all loads, and
connecting what are normally the high-voltage/amperage generator outputs to the
terminals of a common 9-volt battery. This very small current flow from the battery (in
comparison with normal generator output) is enough to restore the residual self-exciting
magnetic field. Usually only a moment of current flow, just briefly touching across the
battery terminals, is enough to restore the field.

[edit] Terminology
The parts of a dynamo or related equipment can be expressed in either mechanical terms
or electrical terms. Although distinctly separate, these two sets of terminology are
frequently used interchangeably or in combinations that include one mechanical term and
one electrical term. This causes great confusion when working with compound machines
such as a brushless alternator or when conversing with people who working on a machine
that is configured differently than the machines that the speaker is used to.

Mechanical

• Rotor: The
rotating part of an
alternator, generator,
dynamo or motor.
• Stator: The
stationary part of an
alternator, generator,
dynamo or motor.

Electrical

• Armature:
The power-
producing
component of an
alternator, generator,
dynamo or motor.
The armature can be
on either the rotor or
the stator.
• Field: The
magnetic field
component of an
alternator, generator,
dynamo or motor.
The field can be on
either the rotor or the
stator and can be
either an
electromagnet or a
permanent magnet.

[edit] Equivalent circuit

Equivalent circuit of generator and load.
G = generator
VG=generator open-circuit voltage
RG=generator internal resistance
VL=generator on-load voltage
RL=load resistance

The equivalent circuit of a generator and load is shown in the diagram to the right. To
determine the generator's VG and RG parameters, follow this procedure: -

• Before starting
the generator,
measure the
resistance across its
terminals using an
ohmmeter. This is its
DC internal
resistance RGDC.
• Start the
generator. Before
connecting the load
RL, measure the
voltage across the
generator's terminals.
This is the open-
circuit voltage VG.
• Connect the
load as shown in the
diagram, and
measure the voltage
across it with the
generator running.
This is the on-load
voltage VL.
• Measure the
load resistance RL, if
you don't already
know it.
• Calculate the
generator's AC
internal resistance
RGAC from the
following formula:
Note 1: The AC internal resistance of the generator when running is generally slightly
higher than its DC resistance when idle. The above procedure allows you to measure both
values. For rough calculations, you can omit the measurement of RGAC and assume that
RGAC and RGDC are equal.

Note 2: If the generator is an AC type (distinctly not a dynamo), use an AC voltmeter for
the voltage measurements.

[edit] Maximum power

The maximum power theorem applies to generators as it does to any source of electrical
energy. This theorem states that the maximum power can be obtained from the generator
by making the resistance of the load equal to that of the generator. However, under this
condition the power transfer efficiency is only 50%, which means that half the power
generated is wasted as heat and Lorentz force or back emf inside the generator. For this
reason, practical generators are not usually designed to operate at maximum power
output, but at a lower power output where efficiency is greater.

[edit] Vehicle-mounted generators

Early motor vehicles tended to use DC generators with electromechanical regulators.
These were not particularly reliable or efficient and have now been replaced by
alternators with built-in rectifier circuits. These power the electrical systems on the
vehicle and recharge the battery after starting. Rated output will typically be in the range
50-100 A at 12 V, depending on the designed electrical load within the vehicle - some
cars now have electrically-powered steering assistance and air conditioning, which places
a high load on the electrical system. Commercial vehicles are more likely to use 24 V to
give sufficient power at the starter motor to turn over a large diesel engine without the
requirement for unreasonably thick cabling. Vehicle alternators do not use permanent
magnets and are typically only 50-60% efficient over a wide speed range. Motorcycle
alternators often use permanent magnet stators made with rare earth magnets, since they
can be made smaller and lighter than other types. See also hybrid vehicle.

Some of the smallest generators commonly found power bicycle lights. These tend to be
0.5 ampere, permanent-magnet alternators supplying 3-6 W at 6 V or 12 V. Being
powered by the rider, efficiency is at a premium, so these may incorporate rare-earth
magnets and are designed and manufactured with great precision. Nevertheless, the
maximum efficiency is only around 60% for the best of these generators - 40% is more
typical - due to the use of permanent magnets. A battery would be required in order to use
a controllable electromagnetic field instead, and this is unacceptable due to its weight and
bulk.
Sailing yachts may use a water or wind powered generator to trickle-charge the batteries.
A small propeller, wind turbine or impeller is connected to a low-power alternator and
rectifier to supply currents of up to 12 A at typical cruising speeds.

[edit] Engine-generator

Engine - generator for a radio station (Dubendorf museum of the military aviation). The
generator worked only when sending the radio signal (the receiver could operate on the
battery power)

Hand-driven electric generator for a radio station (Dubendorf museum of the military
aviation)

An engine-generator is the combination of an electrical generator and an engine mounted

together to form a single piece of equipment. This combination is also called an engine-
generator set or a gen-set. In many contexts, the engine is taken for granted and the
combined unit is simply called a generator.

In addition to the engine and generator, engine-generators generally include a fuel tank,
an engine speed regulator and a generator voltage regulator. Many units are equipped
with a battery and electric starter. Standby power generating units often include an
automatic starting system and a transfer switch to disconnect the load from the utility
power source and connect it to the generator.

Engine-generators are often used to supply electrical power in places where utility power
is not available and in situations where power is needed only temporarily. Small
generators are sometimes used to supply power tools at construction sites. Trailer-
mounted generators supply power for temporary installations of lighting, sound
ampliification systems, amusement rides etc.

Standby power generators are permanently installed and kept ready to supply power to
critical loads during temporary interruptions of the utility power supply. Hospitals,
communications service installations, sewage pumping stations and many other important
facilities are equipped with standby power generators.

Small and medium generators are especially popular in third world countries to
supplement grid power, which is often unreliable. Trailer-mounted generators can be
towed to disaster areas where grid power has been temporarily disrupted.

The generator can also be driven by the human muscle power (for instance, in the field
radio station equipment).

The generator voltage (volts), frequency (Hz) and power (watts) ratings are selected to
suit the load that will be connected.

Engine-generators are available in a wide range of power ratings. These include small,
hand-portable units that can supply several hundred watts of power, hand-cart mounted
units, as pictured above, that can supply several thousand watts and stationary or trailer-
mounted units that can supply over a million watts. The smaller units tend to use gasoline
(petrol) as a fuel, and the larger ones have various fuel types, including diesel, natural gas
and propane (liquid or gas).

There are only a few portable three-phase generator models available in the US. Most of
the portable units available are single phase power only and most of the three-phase
generators manufactured are large industrial type generators.

Portable engine-generators may require an external power conditioner to safely operate

some types of electronic equipment.

[edit] Hand portable emergency generators

Hand-held direct current generators supply energy to discharged car batteries. They are
called emergency vehicle generators and includes batteries, to store energy.

A prefered hand-held generator is one that has an inverter. They are the smallest, quietest,
and most fuel-efficient generators. Small portable generators have a standard A.C.
alternator and run at a faster R.P.M. to generate power. Inverter models can run at slower
RPMs to generate the power that is necessary, thus reducing the noise of the engine and
making it more fuel-efficient. Inverter generators are best to power sensitive electronic
devices such as computers and lights that use a ballast. The power output of an inverter is
more stable and is equal to or better than household electrical power. Regular generators
that do not have AVR (Automatic Voltage Regulation) can damage electronics such as
computers and sound systems due to their varying voltage.
[edit] Mid-size stationary engine-generator

Side view of a large Perkins diesel generator, manufactured by F&G Wilson Engineering
Ltd. This is a 100 kVA set.

The mid-size stationary engine-generator pictured here is a 100 kVA set which produces
415 V at around 110 A per phase. It is powered by a 6.7 litre turbocharged Perkins Phaser
1000 Series engine, and consumes approximately 27 litres of fuel an hour, on a 400 litre
tank. Diesel engines in the UK run on red diesel and rotate at 1500 rpm. This produces
power at a frequency of 50 Hz, which is the frequency used in the UK. In areas where the
power frequency is 60 Hz (United States), generators rotate at 1800 rpm or another even
multiple of 60. Diesel engine-generator sets operated at their peak efficiency point can
produce between 3 and 4 kilowatthours of electrical energy for each litre of diesel fuel
consumed, with lower efficiency at part load.

[edit] Patents
• U.S. Patent
222,881 -- Magneto-
Electric Machines :
Thomas Edison's
main continuous
current dynamo. The
device's nickname
was the "long-legged
Mary-Ann". This
device has large
bipolar magnets. It is
inefficient.
• U.S. Patent
373,584 -- Dynamo-
Electric Machine :
Edison's improved
dynamo which
includes an extra coil
and utilizes a field of
force.
• U.S. Patent
359,748 -- Dynamo
Electric Machine -
Nikola Tesla's
construction of the
alternating current
induction motor /
generator.
• U.S. Patent
406,968 -- Dynamo
Electric Machine -
Tesla's "Unipolar"
machine (i.e., a disk
or cylindrical
conductor is
mounted in between
magnetic poles
adapted to produce a
uniform magnetic
field).
• U.S. Patent
417,794 -- Armature
for Electric
Machines -Tesla's
construction
principles of the
armature for
electrical generators
and motors. (Related
to patents numbers
US327797,
US292077, and
GB9013.)
• U.S. Patent
447,920 -- Method
of Operating Arc-
Lamps - Tesla's
alternating current
generator of high
frequency
alternations (or
 pulsations) above the
auditory level.
• U.S. Patent
447,921 --
Alternating Electric
Current Generator -
Tesla's generator that
produces alternations
of 15000 per second
or more.

[edit] See also

Energy Portal

• Alternator
• Solar cell
• Radioisotope
thermoelectric
generator
• Thermogenera
tor
• Welding sets.
• Wind turbine

Wind turbine

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

Wind turbine This article is about the machine for converting the kinetic
History energy in the wind into mechanical energy. For other tall
structures used for electricity power generation, see
Design Energy tower (disambiguation).
Manufacturers
Special turbines
Horizontal-axis wind turbine, the Enercon model E-66 wind energy converter, in
Germany. The tower is 98 meters high, with a rotor diameter of 70 meters and a peak
output of 2 MW.

A wind turbine is a machine that converts the kinetic energy in wind into mechanical
energy. If the mechanical energy is used directly by machinery, such as a pump or
grinding stones, the machine is usually called a windmill. If the mechanical energy is
then converted to electricity, the machine is called a wind generator.

This article discusses the energy-conversion machinery. See the broader article on wind
power for more on turbine placement, economics, public concerns, and controversy: in
particular, see the wind energy section of that article for an understanding of the temporal
distribution of wind energy and how that affects wind-turbine design. See environmental
concerns with electricity generation for discussion of environmental problems with wind-
energy production.

For a machine that generates wind, see Fan (mechanical). For an unusual way to induce a
voltage using an aerosol of ionised water, see vaneless ion wind generator.

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Types of wind turbines

o 1.1 Horizontal axis
 1.1.1 Cyclic stresses and vibration
o 1.2 Vertical axis
o 1.3 Offshore
o 1.4 Near-shore
o 1.5 Onshore
• 2 Turbine design and construction
• 3 Advantages of vertical wind turbines
• 4 Disadvantages of vertical wind turbines
• 5 Advantages of horizontal wind turbines
• 6 Disadvantages of horizontal wind turbines
• 7 Horizontal-axis wind turbine aerodynamics
• 8 Special wind turbines
• 9 History
• 10 Records
• 11 See also
• 12 References

• 13 External links

[edit] Types of wind turbines

Small-scale wind power in Marshall County, Indiana.

Wind turbines can be separated into two types based on the axis about which the turbine
rotates. Turbines that rotate around a horizontal axis are more common. Vertical-axis
turbines are less frequently used.

Wind turbines can also be classified by the location in which they are to be used.
Onshore, offshore, or even aerial wind turbines have unique design characteristics, which
are explained in more detail in the section on turbine design and construction.

Wind turbines may also be used in conjunction with a solar collector to extract the energy
due to air heated by the Sun and rising through a large vertical solar updraft tower.

[edit] Horizontal axis

Horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT) have the main rotor shaft and electrical generator
at the top of a tower, and must be pointed into the wind. Small turbines are pointed by a
simple wind vane, while large turbines generally use a wind sensor coupled with a servo
motor. Most have a gearbox, which turns the slow rotation of the blades into a quicker
rotation that is more suitable for generating electricity.

Since a tower produces turbulence behind it, the turbine is usually pointed upwind of the
tower. Turbine blades are made stiff to prevent the blades from being pushed into the
tower by high winds. Additionally, the blades are placed a considerable distance in front
of the tower and are sometimes tilted up a small amount.

Downwind machines have been built, despite the problem of turbulence, because they
don't need an additional mechanism for keeping them in line with the wind, and because
in high winds, the blades can be allowed to bend which reduces their swept area and thus
their wind resistance. Because turbulence leads to fatigue failures and reliability is so
important, most HAWTs are upwind machines.

There are several types of HAWT:

Doesburger windmill, Ede, The Netherlands
Windmills
These four- (or more) bladed squat structures, usually with wooden shutters or
fabric sails, were developed in Europe. These windmills were pointed into the
wind manually or via a tail-fan and were typically used to grind grain. In the
Netherlands they were also used to pump water from low-lying land, and were
instrumental in keeping its polders dry. Windmills were also located throughout
the USA, especially in the Northeastern region.

Modern rural windmill in Germany.

Modern Rural Windmills
These windmills, invented in 1876 [1] by Griffiths Bros and Co (Australia [2]), were
used by Australian and later American farmers to pump water and to generate
electricity. They typically had many blades, operated at tip speed ratios (defined
below) not better than one, and had good starting torque. Some had small direct-
current generators used to charge storage batteries, to provide a few lights, or to
operate a radio receiver. The American rural electrification connected many farms
to centrally-generated power and replaced individual windmills as a primary
 source of farm power in the 1950's. Such devices are still used in locations where
it is too costly to bring in commercial power.

Wind turbines near Aalborg, Denmark. A standard doorway can be seen at the base of the
pylon, for scale.
Common modern wind turbines
Usually three-bladed, sometimes two-bladed or even one-bladed (and
counterbalanced), and pointed into the wind by computer-controlled motors. The
rugged three-bladed turbine type has been championed by Danish turbine
manufacturers. These have high tip speeds of up to 6x wind speed, high
efficiency, and low torque ripple which contributes to good reliability. This is the
type of turbine that is used commercially to produce electricity. The blades are
usually colored light gray to blend in with the clouds and range in length from 20
to 40 metres (60 to 120 feet) or more.

[edit] Cyclic stresses and vibration

Cyclic stresses fatigue the blade, axle and bearing material, and were a major cause of
turbine failure for many years. Because wind velocity often increases at higher altitudes,
the backward force and torque on a horizontal-axis wind turbine (HAWT) blade peaks as
it turns through the highest point in its circle. The tower hinders the airflow at the lowest
point in the circle, which produces a local dip in force and torque. These effects produce
a cyclic twist on the main bearings of a HAWT. The combined twist is worst in machines
with an even number of blades, where one is straight up when another is straight down.
To improve reliability, teetering hubs have been used which allow the main shaft to rock
through a few degrees, so that the main bearings do not have to resist the torque peaks.

When the turbine turns to face the wind, the rotating blades act like a gyroscope. As it
pivots, gyroscopic precession tries to twist the turbine into a forward or backward
somersault. For each blade on a wind generator's turbine, precessive force is at a
minimum when the blade is horizontal and at a maximum when the blade is vertical. This
cyclic twisting can quickly fatigue and crack the blade roots, hub and axle of the turbine.

[edit] Vertical axis

12 m Windmill with rotational sails in the Osijek Croatia

Vertical-axis wind turbines (or VAWTs) have the main rotor shaft running vertically.
Key advantages of this arrangement are that the generator and/or gearbox can be placed
at the bottom, near the ground, so the tower doesn't need to support it, and that the turbine
doesn't need to be pointed into the wind. Drawbacks are usually pulsating torque that can
be produced during each revolution and drag created when the blade rotates into the
wind. It is also difficult to mount vertical-axis turbines on towers, meaning they must
operate in the often slower, more turbulent air flow near the ground, resulting in lower
energy extraction efficiency.

Windmill with rotational sails

This is a new invention. This windmillstarts making electricity above a windspeed
of 2m/s. Its sails contract and expand as the wind speed changes. This windmill
has three sails of variable surface area. The speed is controlled through a magnetic
rev counter that expands or contracts the sails according to windspeed. A
(microprocessor type) control unit controls the sails either manually or
automatically. In case of a control unit failure, strong winds would tear the sails,
but the frame would remain intact.

Neo-AeroDynamic
This has an airfoil base designed to harness the kinetic energy of the fluid flow
via an artificial current around its center. It is differentiated from others by its
capability to unitize most of the air mass passing through redirecting it to flow
over the upper chamber of the airfoils, and causing a lift force all around. It is
applicable not only to wind, but also to a variety of hydroelectric applications,
including free-flow (rivers, creeks), tidal, oceanic currents and wave motion, via
ocean wave surface currents. Views of Hydro model, :Portable aero model
30 m Darrieus wind turbine in the Magdalen Islands
Darrieus wind turbine
"Eggbeater" turbines. They have good efficiency, but produce large torque ripple
and cyclic stress on the tower, which contributes to poor reliability. Also, they
generally require some external power source, or an additional Savonius rotor, to
start turning, because the starting torque is very low. The torque ripple is reduced
by using 3 or more blades which results in a higher solidity for the rotor. Solidity
is measured by blade area over the rotor area. Newer Darrieus type turbines are
not held up by guy wires but have an external superstructure connected to the top
bearing.

Giromill
A type of Darrieus turbine, these lift-type devices have vertical blades. The
cycloturbine variety have variable pitch to reduce the torque pulsation and are
self-starting [1]. The advantages of variable pitch are: high starting torque; a wide,
relatively flat torque curve; a lower blade speed ratio; a higher coefficient of
performance; more efficient operation in turbulent winds; and a lower blade speed
ratio which lowers blade bending stresses. Straight, V, or curved blades may be
used.

Savonius wind turbine

These are drag-type devices with two- (or more) scoops that are used in
anemometers, the Flettner vents (commonly seen on bus and van roofs), and in
 some high-reliability low-efficiency power turbines. They always self-starting if
there are at least three scoops. They sometimes have long helical scoops to give a
smooth torque. The Banesh rotor and especially the Rahai rotor improve
efficiency with blades shaped to produce significant lift as well as drag.

Windstar turbines
These lift-type devices made by Wind Harvest have straight, extruded aluminum
blades attached at each end to a central rotating shaft and are operated as Linear
Array Vortex Turbine Systems (LAVTS). Vertical-axis rotors each with their own
50-75kW generator are placed in three to any number of rotors in linear arrays
with each rotor’s blades passing within two feet of its neighbor. In this
configuration, the center rotors gain an increase in output and efficiency (reaching
the high efficiencies of HAWTs). This increased efficiency is protected under
patent (number 6784566) as the "vortex effect". Each rotor unit has a dual braking
system of pneumatic disc brakes and blade pitch. The newest Windstar LAVTS
stand 50 feet tall, have 1500 and 3000 square feet of swept area per rotor and are
designed to be placed in the turbulent winds within the understory of wind farms.

[edit] Offshore

Offshore wind turbines near Copenhagen

Offshore wind development zones are generally considered to be ten kilometers or more
from land. Offshore wind turbines are less obtrusive than turbines on land, as their
apparent size and noise can be mitigated by distance. Because water has less surface
roughness than land (especially deeper water), the average wind speed is usually
considerably higher over open water. Capacity factors (utilisation rates) are considerably
higher than for onshore and near-shore locations which allows offshore turbines to use
shorter towers, making them less visible.

In stormy areas with extended shallow continental shelves (such as Denmark), turbines
are practical to install — Denmark's wind generation provides about 25-30% of total
electricity demand in the country, with many offshore windfarms. Denmark plans to
increase wind energy's contribution to as much as half of its electrical supply.
Locations have begun to be developed in the North American Great Lakes - with one
project by Trillium Power approximately 20 km from shore and over 700 MW in size.
Ontario, Canada is aggressively pursuing wind power development and has many
onshore wind farms and several proposed near-shore locations but presently only one
offshore development.

In most cases offshore environment is more expensive than onshore. Offshore towers are
generally taller than onshore towers once the submerged height is included, and offshore
foundations are more difficult to build and more expensive. Power transmission from
offshore turbines is generally through undersea cable, which is more expensive to install
than cables on land, and may use high voltage direct current operation if significant
distance is to be covered — which then requires yet more equipment. The offshore
environment can also be corrosive and abrasive in salt water locations but locations such
as the Great Lakes are in fresh water and do not have many of the issues found in the
ocean or sea. Repairs and maintenance are usually much more difficult, and generally
more costly, than on onshore turbines. Offshore wind turbines are outfitted with extensive
corrosion protection measures like coatings and cathodic protection however some of
these measures may not be required in fresh water locations.

While there is a significant market for small land-based windmills, offshore wind
turbines have recently been and will probably continue to be the largest wind turbines in
operation, because larger turbines allow for the spread of the high fixed costs involved in
offshore operation over a greater quantity of generation, reducing the average cost. For
similar reasons, offshore wind farms tend to be quite large—often involving over 100
turbines—as opposed to onshore wind farms which can operate competitively even with
much smaller installations.

There are some conceptual designs that might make use of the unique offshore
environment. For example, a floating turbine might orient itself downwind of its anchor,
and thus avoid the need for a yawing mechanism. One concept for offshore turbines has
them generate rain, instead of electricity. The turbines would create a fine aerosol, which
is envisioned to increase evaporation and induce rainfall, hopefully on land.[3]

[edit] Near-shore

Near-shore turbines are generally considered to be within a zone that is on land three
kilometers of a shoreline and on water within ten kilometers of land. Wind speeds in
these zones share wind speed characteristics of both onshore wind and offshore wind.
Issues that are shared within near-shore wind development zones are ornithological
(including bird migration and nesting), aquatic habitat, transportation (including shipping
and boating) and visual aesthetics.

Sea shores also tend to be windy areas and good sites for turbine installation, because a
primary source of wind is convection from the differential heating and cooling of land
and sea over the course of day and night. Winds at sea level carry somewhat more energy
than winds of the same speed in mountainous areas because the air at sea level is denser.
Near-shore wind farm siting can sometimes be highly controversial as coastal sites are
often picturesque and environmentally sensitive (for instance, having substantial bird
life).

[edit] Onshore

Wind turbines near Walla Walla in Washington

Onshore turbine installations in hilly or mountainous regions tend to be on ridgelines

generally three kilometers or more inland from the nearest shoreline. This is done to
exploit the topographic acceleration where the hill or ridge causes the wind to accelerate
as it is forced over it. The additional wind speeds gained in this way make large
differences to the amount of energy that is produced. Great attention must be paid to the
exact positions of the turbines (a process known as micro-siting) because a difference of
30 m can sometimes mean a doubling in output. Local winds are often monitored for a
year or more with anemometers and detailed wind maps constructed before wind
generators are installed.

For smaller installations where such data collection is too expensive or time consuming,
the normal way of prospecting for wind-power sites is to directly look for trees or
vegetation that are permanently "cast" or deformed by the prevailing winds. Another way
is to use a wind-speed survey map, or historical data from a nearby meteorological
station, although these methods are less reliable.

Wind farm siting can sometimes be controversial, particularly as the hilltop, often coastal
sites preferred are often picturesque and environmentally sensitive (for instance, having
substantial bird life). Local residents in a number of potential sites have strongly opposed
the installation of wind farms, and political support has resulted in the blocking of
construction of some installations.[4]

[edit] Turbine design and construction

Main article: Wind turbine design

[edit] Advantages of vertical wind turbines

• Easier to
maintain because
most of their moving
parts are located near
the ground. This is
due to the vertical
wind turbine’s shape.
The airfoils or rotor
blades are connected
by arms to a shaft
that sits on a bearing
and drives a
generator below,
usually by first
connecting to a
gearbox.
• As the rotor
blades are vertical, a
yaw device is not
needed, reducing the
need for this bearing
and its cost.
• Vertical wind
turbines have a
higher airfoil pitch
angle, giving
improved
aerodynamics while
decreasing drag at
low and high
pressures.
• Mesas,
hilltops, ridgelines
and passes can have
higher and more
powerful winds near
 the ground than up
high because of the
speed up effect of
winds moving up a
slope or funneling
into a pass
combining with the
winds moving
directly into the site.
In these places,
VAWTs placed close
to the ground can
produce more power
than HAWTs placed
higher up.
• Low height
useful where laws do
not permit structures
to be placed high.
• Smaller
VAWTs can be
much easier to
transport and install.
• Does not need
a free standing tower
so is much less
expensive and
stronger in high
winds that are close
to the ground.
• Usually have a
lower Tip-Speed
ratio so less likely to
break in high winds.

[edit] Disadvantages of vertical wind turbines

• Most VAWTs
produce energy at
only 50% of the
efficiency of
HAWTs in large part
because of the
additional drag that
they have as their
blades rotate into the
wind. This can be
overcome by using
structures to funnel
more and align the
wind into the rotor
(e.g. "stators" on
early Windstar
turbines) or the
"vortex" effect of
placing straight
bladed VAWTs
closely together (e.g.
Patent # 6784566).
• There may be
a height limitation to
how tall a vertical
wind turbine can be
built and how much
sweep area it can
have.
• Most VAWTS
need to be installed
on a relatively flat
piece of land and
some sites could be
too steep for them
but are still usable by
HAWTs.
• Most VAWT's
have low starting
torque.
• A VAWT that
uses guyed wires to
hold it in place puts
stress on the bottom
bearing as all the
weight of the rotor is
on the bearing.
Guyed wires
attached to the top
bearing increase
downward thrust in
wind gusts. Solving
this problem requires
a superstructure to
hold a top bearing in
 place to eliminate the
downward thrusts of
gust events in guyed
wired models.

[edit] Advantages of horizontal wind turbines

• Blades are to
the side of the
turbine's center of
gravity, helping
stability.
• Ability to
wing warp, which
gives the turbine
blades the best angle
of attack. Allowing
the angle of attack to
be remotely adjusted
gives greater control,
so the turbine
collects the
maximum amount of
wind energy for the
time of day and
season.
• Ability to
pitch the rotor blades
in a storm, to
minimize damage.
• Tall tower
allows access to
stronger wind in sites
with wind shear. In
some wind shear
sites, every ten
meters up, the wind
speed can increase
by 20% and the
power output by
34%.
• Tall tower
allows placement on
uneven land or in
offshore locations.
 • Can be sited in
forests above the
treeline.
• Most are self-
starting.
• Can be
cheaper because of
higher production
volume, larger sizes
and, in general
higher capacity
factors and
efficiencies.

[edit] Disadvantages of horizontal wind turbines

• HAWTs have
difficulty operating
in near ground,
turbulent winds
because their yaw
and blade bearing
need smoother, more
laminar wind flows.
• The tall towers
and long blades (up
to 180 feet long) are
difficult to transport
on the sea and on
land. Transportation
can now cost 20% of
equipment costs.
• Tall HAWTs
are difficult to
install, needing very
tall and expensive
cranes and skilled
operators.
• Supply of
HAWTs is less than
demand and between
2004 and 2006,
turbine prices
increased up to 60%.
At the end of 2006,
all major
 manufacturers were
booked up with
orders through 2008.
• The FAA has
raised concerns
about tall HAWTs
effects on radar in
proximity to air force
bases.
• Their height
can create local
opposition based on
impacts to
viewsheds.
• Offshore
towers can be a
navigation problem
and must be installed
in shallow seas.
HAWTs can't be
floated on barges.
• Downwind
variants suffer from
fatigue and structural
failure caused by
turbulence.

[edit] Horizontal-axis wind turbine aerodynamics

The aerodynamics of a horizontal-axis wind turbine are complex. The air flow at the
blades is not the same as the airflow far away from the turbine. The very nature of the
way in which energy is extracted from the air also causes air to be deflected by the
turbine. In addition, the aerodynamics of a wind turbine at the rotor surface include
effects that are rarely seen in other aerodynamic fields.

[edit] Special wind turbines

Main article: Special wind turbines

One E-66 wind turbine at Windpark Holtriem, Germany carries an observation deck,
open for visitors to see. Another turbine of the same type, with an observation deck, can
be located in Swaffham, England.

[edit] History
 Main article: History of wind power

The world's first megawatt-sized wind turbine on Grandpa's Knob, Castleton, Vermont

Wind machines were used for grinding grain in Persia as early as 200 B.C. This type of
machine was introduced into the Roman Empire by 250 A.D. By the 14th century Dutch
windmills were in use to drain areas of the Rhine River delta. In Denmark by 1900 there
were about 2500 windmills for mechanical loads such as pumps and mills, producing an
estimated combined peak power of about 30 MW. The first windmill for electricity
production was built in Cleveland, Ohio by Charles F Brush in 1888, and in 1908 there
were 72 wind-driven electric generators from 5 kW to 25 kW. The largest machines were
on 24 m (79 ft) towers with four-bladed 23 m (75 ft) diameter rotors.

By the 1930s windmills were mainly used to generate electricity on farms, mostly in the
United States where distribution systems had not yet been installed. In this period, high-
tensile steel was cheap, and windmills were placed atop prefabricated open steel lattice
towers. A forerunner of modern horizontal-axis wind generators was in service at Yalta,
USSR in 1931. This was a 100 kW generator on a 30 m (100 ft) tower, connected to the
local 6.3 kV distribution system. It was reported to have an annual load factor of 32 per
cent, not much different from current wind machines.

[edit] Records
The world's largest turbines are manufactured by the Northern German companies
Enercon and REpower. The Enercon E112 delivers up to 6 MW , has an overall height of
186 m (610 ft) and a diameter of 114 m (374 ft). The REpower 5M delivers up to 5 MW ,
has an overall height of 183 m (600 ft) and a diameter of 126 m (413 ft).
The turbine closest to the North Pole is a Nordex N-80 in Havoygalven near Hammerfest,
Norway. The ones closest to the South Pole are two Enercon E-30 in Antarctica, used to
power the Australian Research Division's Mawson Station.[5]

The highest turbine is at 2300 m (7,500 ft) on the Gütsch mountain near Andermatt,
Switzerland. Originally a prototype from a Dutch company was tested there, but it was
demolished in 2002. Since October 2004, an Enercon E-40 has been producing electricity
there.

[edit] See also

• Darrieus wind
turbine
• Electrical
generator
• Green energy
• List of wind
turbine
manufacturers
• Renewable
energy
• Microgenerati
on
• Savonius wind
turbine
• Cape Wind
Project
• Wind power
• Wind power in
Australia
• Wind power in
Germany
• Wind power in
the United Kingdom
• Wind turbines
(UK domestic