Anatomy Note PDF

LAN-111
INTRODUCTORY LIVESTOCK ANATOMY

(Credit Hours: 3+1=4)
Anatomy:- To cut apart and see.

Definition:- it is a branch of biological science, which deals with the forms and
structures of organism.
It teaches about the make-up and organization of living organism. When it
concerns the structures of domestic animals it is referred as Veterinary Anatomy of
domestic animals.
Veterinary Anatomy:
Def:- It is a branch of veterinary science which deals with forms and structures of
principal domestic animals
 It is basic subject of veterinary science. It is a principal science and reading
demonstratable with the aid of dissection.
 It is a science and art.
 Earlier it was studied only by naked eye, but with the introduction of microscope,
study of finer detail of structure is carried out which is known as Histology.
Different fields of Anatomy:
1. Gross Anatomy/ Macroscopic Anatomy
2. Histology/ Microscopic Anatomy
3. Embryology/ Developmental Anatomy
Gross Anatomy:
It is the study of forms and relative position (relation) of structures of the body
that can be seen with naked eye.
Histology:
It is a branch of anatomy which deals with the study of tissues of the organs and
cells with the help of microscope.
Embryology:
It is the study of changes of growing tissues when organism undergoes a period
from conception to birth.
The study of anatomy comprises:
1. Special anatomy:
Study of single type or a particular species of animal. e.g. Bovine anatomy,
Avian anatomy, Equine anatomy, Caprine anatomy etc.
2. Comparative Anatomy:
It is the description and comparison of structures of different species of animals
(various species) and forms the basic for their classification
Three chief methods of study:
a) Systemic b) Topographic c) Applied
a) Systemic:
The study of anatomy of a particular system, e. g. Osteology, Syndesmology,
Myology, Splanchnology, Angiology, Neurology and Asthesiology
Divisions of Systemic Anatomy:
1. Osteology:- Study of bones and cartilages. Function: Support and Protection of soft parts
of the body
2. Syndesmology:- Study of joints and ligaments Function:- Make the bones movable; hold
them together with strong band
LAN – 111 Class Note Dr. M. M. Chudasama, Assistant Professor,

[1] Polytechnic in A. H., Khadasali
3. Myology:- Study of muscles and accessory Function:- to put the bone and joint into
useful motion
4. Splanchnology:- Study of viscera, including Digestive, respiratory, urinary and male and
female genital system (organ that opens directly or indirectly opens exteriorly)
5. Angiology:- Study of organs of circulation, blood and lymphatic vessels
6. Neurology:- Study of nervous system Function:- To control and co-ordinate functions of
all other organs and structures
7. Asthesiology:- Study of sense organs Funntion:- Which relate the individual to the
environment.
8. Common integuments:- Skin and its appendages: protective envelopes of body
b) Topographic Anatomy:- It can be studied by, dissection, surface anatomy, Gross
Anatomy, Radiographic Anatomy
All the structures present in different parts or regions of the body are studied in
order, in which they should be present, themselves, in the course of dissection.
c) Applied Anatomy:- The consideration of anatomical facts in their relations to surgery,
physical diagnosis and other practical branches.
Topographic terms
In order to precisely the position and directions of parts of body, certain descriptive
terms are employed.
1. Anterior/Cranial/Cephalic:- Directional terms meaning towards the head.
2. Posterior/Caudal:- Directional terms meaning towards the tail.
(Above terms are used for relations of structures with regards to the longitudinal axis of the body)
3. Dorsal/Superior:- Towards or beyond the vertebral column
4. Ventral/ Inferior:- Meaning towards the ground/ plane of support.
5. Medial:- A structure or surface, which is nearer than other to the median plane, is medial
to it e.g. Heart is medial to lung (external).
6. Lateral:- Away from the median plane. e.g. Ribs are lateral to lungs.
7. Superficial:- Any structure close to surface
8. Deep:- Any structure beneath the superficial
9. Rostral:- Towards the tip of the nose
10. Axial:- Towards central line or central axis of the body.
11. Abaxial:- Away from central axis.
Text books for references:-

a) ‘The Anatomy of the domestic animals’, Vol-I, By, Nickel, R., Schumer, A. and Seifrle, E
b) ‘Sisson and Grossman’s the Anatomy of Domestic Animals’ by, Getty, R. Vol-I
c) ‘Sisson and Grossman’s the Anatomy of Domestic Animals’ by, Getty, R. Vol-II
d) ‘Anatomy of Ox; by ICAR
e) ‘Primary Veterinary Anatomy’ by Ghosh, R.K.

Major Anatomical Planes
1. The median plane/ midsagittal plane:- Longitudinal cranio-caudal plane, which
divides the body into two equal halves (Rt & Lt)
2. Sagittal plane/ Para-median plane:- Any plane parallel to median plane,
which divide the body into unequal parts (Rt & Lt)
3. Transverse plane/ Segmental plane:-Plane cut the long axis, which is
perpendicular to median plane and divide the body into cranial and caudal
segment.
OR
A plane which is perpendicular/ right angle to median plane and divide the
body into cranial and caudal segment is a transverse plane.
4. Frontal Plane:- A plane which is perpendicular to both, the median and
transverse plane which divide the body into dorsal and ventral segments.
Special terms for limbs
Proximal extremity
It expresses relative
distance of parts from
the long axis of the body
Distal extremity
Fore limb Pelvic limb

Below to elbow Below to stifle
Anterior Volar Anterior Planter

or or or or
Dorsal Palmar or Dorsal Posterior
Posterior

General Osteology
Structure of Bone
 Like other supporting tissues, bone consists of cell, fibers and ground substance/ bone
matrix.
 Ground substance is calcified (inorganic cell) interstitial substance known as bone matrix.
Macroscopically it consists of both, compact and spongy substance/ region.
Compact Bone:-
It is external in position, dense and solid. In long bone the compact bone is
thickest at middle and thin at extremities.
Spongy/ Cancellous/ Trabecular bone:-
It is more internal and more loosely arranged and consists of delicate bony plates
and spicules. Which run in various direction and intercross. The intervals between the
plates are occupied by marrow and are termed as marrow spaces.
The spongy bone forms the bulk of short bone and of the extremities of long bones.
It may extend up to some distance in shaft also in long bones.
Microscopic study:-
 Architecture of the bone can be studied by LS and TS of compact bone.
 It posses osteogenic potency. On stimulation like fracture, It becomes reactivated and
osteoblast (bone forming) reappears.
 Compact bone consist of Haversian system/ osteon, non-Haversian canal, lamellae
and fragments of old osteon.
In TS, it appears as concentric rings around a circular opening.
The great majority of the bone matrix is arranged in the form of concentric layer
around the Haversian canal known as lamellae.
There are uniformly melon seed shaped spaces/ cavities in the ground substance
(lamellae) for bone cells (osteocytes) known as laculae.
Slender tubular processes radiating in all directions from the lacunae known as
canaliculi. These branching canaliculi anastomose more with the processes of adjacent
laculae.
In longitudinal section of Haversian system, the vascular canal in the center of HS
is known as Haversian canal or nutrient canal, which are communicating with the adjacent
Havercian canal by transverse canal known as Volkman’s canal. (it is not surrounded by
concentric lamellae but lamellae are parallel to canal.)
Endosteum:- It is thin membrane lines the medullary cavity and larger Haversian canal.
Periosteum:- It is the fibrous membrane which invest the outer surface of the bone,
except where it is covered with articular cartilage.
It consists of:- An outer protective fibrous layer and inner cellular osteogenic layer.
Bone marrow/ Marrow:- Occupies the interstice of spongy and medullary cavity of long
bone. It is chief haemopoetic center and participates in immunologic function.
Two types:
1. Red Bone Marrow:- Contains characteristic cells and blood forming substance.
2. Yellow Bone Marrow:- It is practically adipose tissue, due to this it has jelly-like
consistency. It is also known as gelatinous bone marrow.
Pneumatic Bone:- Some bones containing air spaces within the compact substance
known as pneumatic bone. e.g. long bone of poultry.
Sinus:- The cavity in the bone which are lines with mucous membrane and directly or
indirectly communicated with external air are known as sinuses. e.g. frontal sinus,

maxillary sinus. Palatine sinus of skull. They communicate directly or indirectly with
nasal cavity.
Diploe:- Spongy layer in the bones of skull between compact layer.
Blood vessels and nerves:-

Two sets artey: 1) Periosteal 2) Nutrient/ medullary artery
Nerves fibers accompany the blood vessels of the bone- vasomotor or sensory type.
Chemical composition of bone

Bone consists of an organic & inorganic matter in the ratio of approximately 1:2.
An organic matter gives toughness and elasticity. Inorganic matter gives hardness to the
bone.
Decalcification:-Removal of inorganic matter from bone, so bone becomes soft &
pliable. Bone is a highly specialized hard connective tissue.
Cells:- Osteocytes, fibers:- Bone collagen, and ground substance
Composition of bone:- (%)

Gelatin (organic) 33.30
Phosphate of lime 57.35
Carbonate of lime 03.85
Phosphate of magnesia 02.05
Carbonate and chloride of 03.45
sodium
Total 100.00
Fresh dead bone is yellowish white and macerated. Boiled, bleached bone is white in
colour.
Functions of bone:-
1. Serves as framework of body
2. Serves as a levers and attachments of muscles and tendons.
3. Protect certain viscera e.g. heart, lung, brain and spinal cord.
4. Contains bone marrow, so concerned in blood cell formation.
5. It store minerals (Ca, P)
Skeleton:- “It is a framework of hard structures (bone, cartilage)which supports and

protects the tissue of animals.”
Two types of skeleton:-
1. Exoskeleton and 2) Endoskeleton
1. Exoskeleton:- When harder supporting and protecting structures are situated
externally (derived from endoderm) e.g. Shells of many invertebrates, feathers of birds,
hoof and nail of animals, scales of fish.
2. Endoskeleton:- When harder supporting and protecting structures are embedded in
the soft tissues (derives from mesoderm- notochord, axial skeleton from endoderm)
Division of Skeleton
Primary division A) Axial B) Appendicular C) Splanchnic or visceral
A) Axial Skeleton:-
It comprises the vertebral column, rib, sternum and skull.
- Vertebral column- Cervical, Thoracic, Lumbar, Sacral and Coccygeal vertebrae.
- Ribs- Sternal and Asternal
B) Appendicular Skeleton:- Includes the bones of the limb
1) Bones of Pectoral/ Thoracic/ Fore limb 2) Bones of Pelvic/ Hind limb
C) Splanchnic or Visceral:- Certain bones developed in viscera or organs e.g. Os penis
in dog (penis), Os cardis in cattle (heart), Os phrenic in camel (diaphragm), Os rostri in
pig (snout: between nostrils, adaptation to the habit of burrowing or rooting), Os opticus
in birds (eye).
The number of the skeleton of an animal varied with age (over fusion of skeleton
elements owing growth these are separate in the fetus or young). in Horse- 208, Cattle-
210, Dog- 271, Poultry-166. It also varies in the adult species: 6 to 7 tarsal bones in horse:
7 to 8 carpal bones in horse, varying number of coccygeal vertebrae of domestic
mammals.
Projection and Depression

The surface of the bone presents great varieties of eminences and depressions
from which bone is identified.
Projection:- Structure of the bone which projects above to the surface.
Depression:- Structure of the bone which is indented or deeped to the surface of
the bone.
Articular projections includes
1) Head 2) Condyle 3) Trochlea 4) Facet, as it is not depression, hence
included
1. Head (caput):- Spherical, convex articular projection with a constricted portion
below known as Neck, e.g. head of femur, humerus
2. Condyle:- It is a cylindrical or oval articular mass (ovoid in form) (epicondyles are
non-articular eminences attached to condyle) e.g. condyle in the distal end of humerus
and femur.
3. Trochlea:- Pully like articular projection e.g. at the distal end of the femur, on which,
patella slides.
4. Facet:- Relatively flat, small articular surface, found between adjacent carpal bones,
facet present on proximal extremity of large metacarpus and large metatarsus.
Non-articular projections
1. Process:- It is a general term for a bony projection/ prominence, e.g. spinous
process, transverse process etc,
2. Tuberosity (tuber, tuberositas):- Relatively large non-articular projection.
e.g. Traochanter major of femur, lateral tuberosity of humerus, anterior tuberosity of
tibia etc.
3. Tubercle:- Comparatively small non-articular projection. tubercle and tuberosity are
sometime used interchangeable.
e.g. Teres tubercle of humerus, Psoas tubercle of hip bone
4. Spine:- When the process is in the form of elongated projections. e.g. Spine of tibia,
dorsal spine of vertebra, spine of scapula
5. Line:- If the process is small and linear e.g. Popliteal lines of tibia and gluteal lines
of pelvis.
6. Ridge:- If the process is linear and thick e.g. Trochanteric ridge
7. Crest:- When process is sharp and thin e.g. Deltoid crest, crest of ilium.
8. Neck:- It is a cylindrical part of a bone to which head is attached, neck of head of
femur and humerus.
Articular Depressions
1. Glenoid cavity:- Shallow, Concave articular depressions giving lodgement to the head.
e. g. Glenoid cavity of scapula.
2. Cotyloid cavity:- Deep concavity, articular depression. e.g. Acetabulum of os coxae.
3. Notch:- May be an articular indentation, as the semilunar notch of ulna which
articulate with the condyle of humerus or it may be non-articular indentation.
e.g. Notch in vertebra.
4. Groove:- It is a articular depression bounded by ridges. e.g. Trochlear groove of
femur.
Non-Articular Depressions
1. Fossa:- It is a large, non-articular depression. e.g. Atlantal fossa located ventral to the
wing of atlas. Trochanteric fossa of femur, coronoid & olecranon fossa of
humerus.
2. Fovea:- It is a small non-articular depression in the articular area.
e.g. Fovea capitis on the head of femur, Fovea dentis of atlas
3. Groove and Sulcus:- It is a non-articular depression bounded by ridge. It is a rough
blind cavity for attachment of muscle, tendon and ligament.
e.g. Bicipital groove of humerus, musculospiral groove of humerus.
4. Foramen:- It is a perforation or hole through bone into which blood vessel enters.
e.g. Nutrient foramen, Obturator foramen of pelvis.
5. Canal:- If the foramen has certain amount of length is known as canal.
e,g, Vertebral canal.
6. Notch:- Vertebral notch
Classification of bones
Four classes (according to their shape and function)
1. Long bones 2. Flat bones 3. Short bones 4. Irregular bones
1. Long bones:-
 Typically elongated, cylindrical in form with enlarged extremities.
 Marrow cavity is present
 Bones of the limbs, e.g. humerus, femur, tibia and radius-ulna
Functions:-
 Acts as supporting column and as levers
 The main tubular cylindrical part termed as shaft/ body (diaphysis) which posses
medullary cavity in which bone marrow is present. Bone marrow is a chief
haemopoetic organ.
2. Flat bone:-
 Expanded in 2 directions
 Relatively thin e.g. Scapula, Hip bone, Bones of skull
Functions:-
 Provide sufficient area for muscle attachment.
 Protection to the organs, which they covers e.g. Scapula and many bones of skull.
 Flat bone consists of two layers of compact bone with inverting spongy bone and
marrow.
3. Short bone:-
 Length, breadth and thickness in somewhat similar dimension
 Consist of spongy bone enclose within a shell of compact bone
 Roughly cuboidal in shape e.g. carpal bones, tarsal bones & sesamoid bones.
Functions:-
 Diffusing the concussion
 To diminish the direction of tendon.
 To increase leverage to muscle and tendon e.g. carpal, tarsal and sesamoid bone.
4. Irregular bone:-
 Irregular and varied in shape
 Unpaired and present in median plane. e.g. vertebrae and temporal bones
Functions:-
 Provide sufficient area for the attachment of muscles
 It protects the organs which it contains.
Development and growth of bone

 The process of development and growth is termed as ossification or osteogenesis
 Bone producing cells are known as osteoblast which secrets and lay dawn the matrix.
These cells differentiate from mesenchyme.
 When osteoblast cells becomes imprisoned (confined) in the matrix known as bone
cells (osteocytes) which are located in the individual lacunae.
Osteoclast:- Known as giant cells of bone development (large multinucleated) cells,
product of cell fusion. Osteoblast cells also known as bone breakers.
Types of Ossification:
1. Intramembranous ossification
2. Endochondral ossification/ intra cartlagenous ossification

TYPICAL VERTEBRA
A typical vertebra presents a body, arch and processes
Body:-
It is more or less cylindrical, on which other parts are constructed. Cranial
extremity is usually convex while caudal extremity is usually concave. Dorsal surface is
flattened and forms ventral part of vertebral canal.
Arch:-
It is constructed on the dorsal aspect of the body. Made up of two lateral halves of
ventral pedicle and dorsal lamina.
Pedicle forms the lateral and lower part of arch. It is cut cranially and caudally
towards body of vertebra by notches. The notches of adjacent vertebra forms
intervertebral foramen for passage of spinal nerves. Laminae are dorsal plates which unite
with each other dorsally forming a complete arch, which is a vertebral canal.
Processes:-
1. Articular processes/ oblique processes (two cranial and two caudal)
2. Transverse process
3. Dorsal spine/ spinous process
4. Ventral spine/ crest
5. Mammillary process
6. Accessory process
Transverse process: It is present at the junction of body and arch. It is transverse in
direction in all animals except in the dog where it is cranially directed. In cervical
vertebrae transverse process is bifid into dorsal and ventral part. In thoracic vertebrae
costal facet for articulation of tubercle of rib is present.
2. Spinous process/ dorsal process: It is single and projects dorsally from the middle of
arch.
3. Ventral spine/ crest:- It is present at the ventral aspect of body in the form of crest
and in middle.
4. Articular/Oblique processes:- Two cranial and two caudal processes are present.
They projects obliquely from the junction of pedicle and lamina, cranial articular process
presents a articular area facing dorsally while caudal articular process presents a articular
area facing ventrally.
5. Mamillary process:- it is present between cranial articular and transverse process, in
the posterior series of thoracic and lumbar vertebrae only.
6. Accessory Process:- It is present between caudal articular and transverse process, only
in the lumbar vertebra of dog.
VERTEBRAL FORMULA IN DIFFERENT DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

OX C7 T13 L6 S5 Cy15-20
HORSE C7 T18 L6 S5 Cy18-20
DOG C7 T13 L7 S3 Cy18-23
FOWL C14 T7 L+S 14 Cy6
CAMEL C7 T12 L5 S5 Cy4
SHEEP C7 T13 L6-7 S4 Cy16-18
GOAT C7 T13 L7 S4 Cy12
PIG C7 T4-15 L6-7 S4 Cy20-23

CERVICAL VERTEBRAE
Present in neck region. Body is massive and strongly convex cranially and
strongly concave caudally. Arch is well developed. Oblique processes with articular area
facing dorsally on cranial articular process and facing ventrally on caudal articular
process. Cranial and caudal oblique processes are connected by bony plate. Ventral spine
is in the form of ventral crest. Dorsal spine and transverse processes are also present.
3rd, 4th and 5th cervical vertebra of ox:- Transverse process if bifid in to dorsal and
ventral part. Dorsal part directed caudally while ventral part directed cranially. Transverse
process is perforated by a foramen known as transverse foramen. Articular area on the
oblique process is rounded or triangular in the outline. Dorsal spine is well developed.
Bony plate connecting cranial and caudal articular process is very well developed.
Horse:-
Body is very massive and longer with strongly convex cranially and very strongly
concave caudally. Dorsal spine is short. Transverse process is bifid into cranial and caudal
part. Articular processes are very well developed with oval articular area. Bony plate is
weak.
Dog:-
Body is moderately convex cranially and concave caudally. On the dorsal surface
of body median ridge and lateral grooves are present. On the dorsal surface of the caudal
articular process tubercle is present. Transverse process is bifid into cranial and caudal
parts. Free end of caudal part of transverse process presents a tubercle.
6th cervical of ox:-

Transverse process is bifid into dorsal and ventral part. Ventral part is a plate like
known as sagittal plate. Transverse foramen is larger. Ventral crest is well developed.
Horse:-
Transverse process is trifid into cranial, caudal part and 3rd part is a sagittal plate.
Dog:-
Transverse process is bifid into dorsal and ventral part. Ventral part is known as
sagittal plate. On the medial surface of sagittal plate a ridge is present.
7th Cervical vertebra of ox:-

Body is strongly convex cranially and strongly concave caudally. Bony plate
connecting articular processes is well developed. Transverse process is short and single.
Dorsal spine is well developed and summit is pointed. Posterior extremity of body has
one pair of costal facet. Ventral surface of body is rounded.
Horse:-
Body is longer and more strongly convex cranially and concave caudally. Bony
plate is weak. Dorsal spine is less developed. Transverse process is short and single. At
caudal extremity of body one pair of costal facet present.
Dog:-
Free end of transverse process is tuberculated. Body is moderately convex
cranially and concave caudally. Dorsal face of caudal articular process presents tubercle.
At caudal extremity of body one pair of costal facet present.

THORACIC VERTEBRAE
Cattle- 13 in number also known as dorsal vertebrae
Regional characters
1. 3 pairs of costal facets for articulation of ribs are present except last thoracic to
which only two costal facets present.
2. Well developed spinous process/ dorsal spine.
3. Body is constricted in middle from side.
4. Cranial and caudal extremities of the body are moderately convex and concave
respectively, presents costal facet which articulates with head of rib.
5. Arch is small with shallow cranial vertebral notch, caudal vertebral notch is often
converted into lateral vertebral foramen.
6. Cranial articular processes are present on cranio dorsal aspect of arch facing
dorsally, while caudal articular process are present at the base of spinous process
facing ventrally.
7. Transverse processes are short and thick. Each has a costal facet for articulation
with tubercle of corresponding rib
8. Dorsal spine almost similar in thickness at cranial and caudal border, and cudally
directed.
9. In 2 and 3 thoracic vertebra dorsal spine is highest and prominent and caudal to it
gradually decreases in the height in posterior series.
10. In 13 thoracic vertebra dorsal spine vertical. Two pairs of costal facets present
which are small and shallow. One at cranial extremity of body and second at
transverse process. Mammillary process is present.
In first thoracic:-
- Cranial articular processes are very well developed and present at the junction of
pedicle and lamina. Well marked ventral crest.
- - Three pairs of costal facets.
- - Spinous process is well developed and curved caudally.
Anterior series of thoracic vertebra:-

- 1. Dorsal spine well developed.
- 2. Costal facets are large and deep.
- 3. Ventral crest is distinct.
Posterior series:
1. Dorsal spine is less developed.
2. Costal facets are small and shallow.
3. Mammillary processes are present.
In Horse:-
- 18 in number.
- Body is shorter and not distinctly constricted in middle.
- In dorsal spine anterior borders are sharp and posterior border is thicker. Dorsal
spine is very well developed in 3rd and 4th thoracic vertebra.

- In 16th dorsal spine is vertical and in 17th and 18th dorsal spine is directed cranially.
Mammillary process is distinct in posterior series.
In Dog:-
- Body is dorsoventrally compressed and moderately convex cranially and concave
caudally.
- In last 2 – 3 thoracic vertebra on the body caudal costal facets is present so head
of rib articulates with corresponding vertebra.
- Free end of transverse processes of thoracic vertebra is tuberculated.
- Mammillary process in posterior series is well developed.
In Poultry:-
- 7 thoracic vertebrae.
- 2nd to 5th is fused
- 1st and 6th thoracic vertebrae are free
- 7th is fused with lumbosacral mass.
- Each vertebra present a capitular cavity for articulation of corresponding rib.
ATLAS (1st Cervical Vertebra)

- It is atypical vertebra in the form of strong ring, with 2 curved plates known as
‘wings of atlas’ or ‘Alae’, which projects laterally. Vertebral canal is enclosed by
2 lateral masses connected by dorsal and ventral arch.
- At anterior end 2 deep articular cavities (fossa condyloid) are present which
articulates with occipital condyles forming a atlanto-occipital joint. Posterior
articular surface is flat which articulates with axis forming atlanto-axial
articulation.
- Dorsal arch is concave ventrally and a median dorsal tuberosity is also present. It
is anteriorly perforated laterally by a foramen known as lateral vertebral foramen.
- Ventral arch presents a tubercle at ventral surface. A transverse articular area is
present in inside surface for articulation of dense. In this area fovea dentis is
present. In front of articular area a rough area for odontoid ligament or ligamentum
dentis is present.
In Ox:-
- Wings are modified transverse process, which are less curved. Towards ventral
face between wings and lateral mass fossa atlantis which is deep.
- In the wing alar foramen is present which is also connected with lateral vertebral
foramen by a alar groove.
- Posterior articular area is flat.
In Horse:-
- Wings are more curved so fossa atlantis is much deeper.
- Lateral and alar foramina are present but in the center of wing transverse foramen
is also present.
- Posterior articular area is saddle shaped.
In Dog:-
- Ventral arch is narrow.
- Wings are horizontal.
- At the anterior border of wing towards lateral mass alar notch is present.
- Lateral vertebral and transverse foramina are present.
- Fossa atlantis is shallow and posterior articular area is oblique.
AXIS (2nd Cervical Vertebra)

It is the longest vertebra and atypical. Anterior extremity of body presents a
process known as dens or odontoid process. Ventral surface of dens is convex, while
dorsal surface is concave and rough. At the root of dens and body articular area is flat.
Posterior extremity of body is strongly concave. Lateral vertebral foramen is not
nearer to anterior border of arch.
Posterior vertebral notch is present. Posterior articular process with articular area
is present. Transverse processes are small and projected caudally. Dorsal spine is large
with summit is narrow in front and thick and wide behind. Dorsal spine slopes
abruptly posterior. Ventral spine is in the form of crest.
In Horse:-
- Dens is longer and narrower.
- Dorsal surface of dens is not so concave.
- Anterior articular area is saddle shape. Caudal articular area is more strongly
concave.
- Transverse process is thin and caudally directed. Transverse foramen is present.
- Lateral vertebral foramen is more nearer to anterior border of arch.
- Dorsal spine is massive with anteriorly thin and posteriorly divided into 2 parts.
- Slope of dorsal spine is gradual posteriorly. Both parts of dorsal spine are
continuous with caudal articular process.
In Dog:-
- Dens is very long and rod shape which reaches up to occipital condyle.
- Anterior extremity of body presents oblique articular area.
- Spinous process is massive and long.
- Posterior slope of dorsal spine is abrupt.
- Anterior part of the dorsal spine overhangs to the dorsal arch of atlas.
- Instead of lateral vertebral foramen deep anterior vertebral notch is present.
- Transverse foramen is present.
LUMBAR VERTEBRA
- 6 in number and present in loin region.
- Body is moderately convex cranially and moderately concave caudally.
- Excessive development of transverse process.
- Transverse processes are thin plate like and borders are irregular.
- Cranial articular processes are strongly curved medially with articular area facing
medially.

- Caudal articular process strongly curved laterally. Due to this ‘interlocking
phenonmonon’ is common.
- Body is constricted in middle.
- Ventral crest is also present.
- Spinous process is low, wide and caudally directed.
- Mammilary process is fused with cranial articular process which is present
between cranial articular and transverse process.
- Vertebral notches are deeper with a posterior vertebral notch is converted into
lateral vertebral foramen.
In horse:-
- 6 in number
- Body is shorter and moderately convex cranially and concave caudally.
- Dorsal spine is well developed. In 4th and 5th is vertical while in 6th it is directed
cranially.
- Transverse process is thick and borders are regular.
- In 5th lumbar vertebra at caudal border of transverse process concave facet is
present while in 6th lumbar vertebra at cranial border of transverse process convex
facet is present, while at caudal border elongated concave facet is present which
articulate with wing of sacrum.
- Articular processes are less curved.
- Mamillary process is present between cranial articular and transverse process.
- Mamillary process is always with lateral aspect of cranial articular process.
In Dog:-
- 7 in number.
- Transverse processes are plate like and well developed with border are regular.
- Transverse processes are directed forward and downward.
- Mamillary process is present attached to lateral aspect of anterior articular process.
- Accessory process is also present.
- Body is dorsoventrally flattened and oval.
In poultry:-
- Lumbosacral mass which is formed by ossified part of last thoracic + Lumbar
and sacral vertebra and 1st coccygeal vertebra.
- Last thoracic + L+S/14 + 1st coccygeal vertebra= total 16 vertebrae
SACRAL VERTEBRAE/SACRUM:-
- The five sacral vertebrae fused to form a single wedge shaped bone. This bone
articulates postero- laterally with the wing of ilia, anteriorlly with lumbar
vertebra and posteriorly with coccygeal.
- For description it has:- Two surface - Dorsal surface
- Ventral surface
Two borders - Left lateral border
- Right lateral border
Apex and Base

Dorsal surface:-
- Dorsal spines of five sacral vertebras are completely fused forming median
sacral crest.
- On either side of base of median sacral crest oblique/articular process are fused
forming lateral sacral crest with is thin and low.
Ventral surface:-
- Also called as pelvic surface. It is concave in both the directions. It marked by a
central groove and four transverse lines are also present indicating the fusion of
bodies of sacral vertebrae.
- Four sacral foramina are large and arranged in single row.
Borders:-
- Lateral borders are thin, sharp and irregular.
Base:-
- It is wide and formed by first sacral vertebra. Body is dorsoventrally flattened
with convex elongated oval articular area.
- It articulates with body of last lumbar vertebra.
- Vertebral canal is well developed.
- On either side of canal cranial articular process is more strongly curved
medially.
- The lateral aspect of base is known as wing.
- Each is quadrilateral mass with an anterior surface is concave and on posterior
surface at lower part a small triangular articular is present which articulates with
ilium known as Syn-sacrum.
Apex:-
- It is narrow and formed by last sacral vertebra.
- Posterior end of the median sacral crest form a pointed projection over the
opening of sacral canal.
Horse:-
- Spinous processes are not completely fused.
- Articular processes fused forming a low lateral sacral crest.
- Between dorsal spine and lateral sacral crest a groove is present in which four
dorsal sacral foramina are arranged in a single row.
- Ventral surface is flat and transverse lines are not distinct.
- Vascular groove is present.
- Lateral border are thick and regular.
- At base cranial articular process are less curved and wings are prismatic with
pointed free ends.
- On the anterior border of wing a convex articular facet is present which
articulates with concave articular area present on transverse process of last
lumbar vertebra.
- At posterior surface of wing a facet is present which articulates with ilium
known as ‘synsacrum’.
Dog:-
- It is fusion of three sacral vertebrae and quadrilateral in shape.
- Dorsal spines are fused together with two notches.
- Articular processes are in the form of tubercles on either sides of medial sacral
crest.

- Ventral or pelvic surface is deeply concave and presents two pairs of ventral
sacral foramina.
- Lateral border are thick and regular.
- Wings are prismatic.
- Posterior articular processes at the apex are small and project backward and
articulate with 1st coccygeal vertebra and overhangs to vertebral canal.
COCCYGEAL/CAUDAL VERTEBRAE
First five are typical vertebra. Body is cranially and caudally moderately convex.
Transverse processes are large and plate like.
Cranial articular processes are well developed without articular area. Ventral spine
known as haemal process is paired which form a groove for middle coccygeal artey
known as haemal arch.
Dog:- Articular processes have articular area forming a joint.
Poultry:-
6 segments. Summit of dorsal spine is bifid. Transverse process is well developed. 1st
coccygeal vertebra is fused with lumbosacral mass.
Last two/three coccygeal vertebra fused together forming a triangular long pointed bony
mass known as ‘pygostyle’, which is pyramid in shape and serve as a support for the
stale feathers and coccygeal glands.

HEAD
 It includes all the bones of head
 Cranial bones:- form cranium
 Facial bones:- form skeleton of oral and nasal cavities and also support pharynx,
larynx and root of tongue.
 Both cranial and facial bones combined together to form orbital and nasal cavities.
Bones of cranium:-
1. Occipital:- Lower part of posterior part of skull.
SINGLE 2. Sphenoid:- Base of skull
3. Ethmoid:- Infront of sphenoid
4. Inter parietal:- Inbetween parietal above and occipital below,
fused with other bones.
5. Parietal:- Postero-lateral aspect of cranium, fused with each other
PAIRED
and interparietal.
6. Frontal:- Upper aspect of skull and form roof of the cranium.
7. Temporal:- Lateral wall of cranium
BONES OF FACE (FACIAL BONES):-

1. Maxilla:- - Largest bone of the upper jaw
- Lateral aspect of the face
- Carries upper cheek teeth
- Facial tuberosity is present.
- Facial crest is also present.
- Infra orbital foramen is present.
2. Premaxilla:- - Anterior part of jaw
- Dental pad in ruminents.
3. Palatine:- - Either side of posterior nares
- Each consists of horizontal and vertical part.
4. Pterygoid:- - Thin plates situated on either side of posterior nares.
5. Nasal bone:- - Roof of nasal cavity
- Do not fuse with adjacent bones even in old age.
6. Lacrimal:- - Anterior part of orbits
- Extends into face (lacrimal foramena)
7. Malar (Zygomaticus):-
- Situated between lacrimal and maxilla.
8. Dorsal
turbinate - Present inside the nasal cavity.
9. Ventral - Scroll like bones attached to lateral walls of nasal cavity.
turbinate
10. Vomer - Median bone which assists in forming ventral part of septum nasi.
(single)
11. Mandible - lower jaw
(single) - Largest bone of the face.
- Body and two rami.
- Carries lower teeth
- Articulate with condyles of temporal
12. Hyoid - Situated chiefly between rami of mandible.
( single)

Skull as whole:-
- Pyramidal, shorter and wider.
- Cranium is wider externally due to frontal sinuses and is quadrilateral.
- Cranial cavity is smaller.
Frontal surface (Dorsal surface)
- It is formed by frontal, premaxilla and nasal bones.
- Frontal part is extensive and quadrilateral.
- Central depression and on either side supraorbital grooves and foramen present.
- Posteriorly medial frontal eminence (intercornual protuberance).
- Horn cores are present.
- Nasal part is very short.
- Premaxilla; don’t band ventral and relatively thin and weak, and are separated
by an interval which has a wide rostral part in place of incisive canal.
Lateral surface:-
- It is more triangular
- Temporal fossa is present in this surface, which is deep and narrow and its
boundaries are more complete.
- Zygomatic arch, glenoid cavity, posterior glenoid process is also present in this
surface.
- Orbital region is present.
- Pre orbital or maxillary region is short but relatively high.
- Facial tuberosity or facial line or crest is present.
- Infra orbital foramen is situated dorsal to the first cheek tooth and is often
double.
Basal surface (Ventral surface):-

- It is short and wide
- In the cranial region:- occipital condyles and foramen magnum is present
- The choanae are very narrow and vomer doesn’t reach to the level of their
ventral margin.
- In the palatine region:- hard palate formed by premaxilla, maxilla and palatine
bone.
- Caudal border of small central part of palatine region enters into formation of
choanae and this region is called as choanal region.
- Nuchal or occipital surface: - it is extensive and somewhat pentagonal in
outline.
- About its center is the external occipital protuberance for the attachment of
nuchal ligament from this median external occipital crest extends toward the
foramen magnum.
 Skull of Horse:-
- It is four sided pyramid, the base of which is caudal.
- Dorsal surface is formed by the squamous part of the occipital, interparietal,
parietal, frontal, nasal, and premaxilla bone.
- It is divided into parietal, nasal, frontal and premaxillary region.
- Parietal:- it is marked by external saggittal crest
- Nasal:- it is convex from side to side, wide caudally and narrow rostrally.
- Frontal:- widest part of the surface, smooth and almost flat.
- Premaxillary:- it presents maxillary canal.

- Lateral surface divided into; 1. Cranial, 2. Orbital and 3. Maxillary
- Cranial:- presents the temporal fossa, zygomatic arch
- Orbital:- comprise the orbit and pterygo-palatine fossa.
- Maxillary region:- it is chiefly formed by maxilla but also by premaxilla,
facial part of the lacrimal and zygomatic bone.
- Ventral or basal surface:- consists of three regions.
Cranial Choanal Palatine
Extends rostrally to the Presents pharyngeal Formed by palatine and
vomer and pterygoid orifice of the nasal maxilla.
processes cavity. This is elliptical
and is divided in its
depth medially by the
vomer into two choanae.
Nuchal/ occipital surface:-
- It is formed by the occipital bone. It is separated from the dorsal surface by
the nuchal crest.
 Skull of Dog:-
- Different breeds of dogs display great variation on the form and size of the
skull.
- Those which have a long, narrow skull (e.g. Greyhound) are designated as
dolicocephalic. Other dogs (e.g. Bulldog) have very broad, short skull and are
termed as brachycephalic. Intermediate forms (e.g. Fox terrier, dachshound)
are mesaticephalic.
- Frontal surface:-
- Zygomatic arch, frontal and nasal regions are centrally depressed.
- Orbit is also present.
- Lateral surface:-
- Temporal fossa is present.
Basal surface:-
- Wide and flatness of the basal part of the occipital bone.
- Choanal are long and narrow and are not divided by vomer.
- Nuchal surface:-
- Somewhat triangular with the base ventral. The summit is formed by nuchal
crest.
- In some skull there is thin, median occipital crest.
- Foramen magnum varies greatly in form.
 Skull of Poultry:-
- Possesses one of the most highly specialized skull among the living
vertebrates.
- Fusion of all the bones (i.e. Sutures are not visible)
- Pneumatization of the skull may occur by epithelial extensions of air sacs into
many areas, thus producing a greatly lightened.
- Skull is kinetic, upper jaw is movable, swings downward and upward and
articulates with brain case by movable joint called as nasal-frontal hinge
(cranio-frontal)
- Orbits are large and both are separated by bony partition.

- In domestic birds ectethmoid and lacrimals are present. Ectethmoid is very
small and fragile and usually lost at the time of preparation.
- Maxilla are greatly reduced and small and slender bones which extends
medially as medial process of the maxilla and laterally give rise to thin rod
like bones the zygomatic process.
- Caudal portion of the skull is formed by number of bones which are fused in
adults.
- Immediately caudal to the parietal is single median supraoccipital. It unites to
form the bilateral ossification centers which fused into a single element in the
adult.
- Supraoccipital form the dorsal border of the foramen magnum.
- Occipital condyle is single.
- Nasals are the complex bones and constitue the roof of the nasal cavity.
Orbital fossa of cattle:-

- Deep depression on the lateral surface of the skull, situated on its dorso-
lateral aspect.
- Formed by lacrimal, orbital plate of frontal, supraorbital process, orbital wing
of malar/ zygomatic bone.
 Horse:-
- Placed more laterally and no lacrimal bulla.
- It is formed by orbital plate, the supraorbital process of frontal and orbital
wing of maxilla and malar.
 Dog:-
- It is oval and anterior margin is serrated.
- Orbital rim is incomplete, as the supraorbital process of the frontal bone does
not reach the zygomatic process.
 Fowl:-
- Very large and separated by a thin interorbital septum formed by the
sphenoid and ethmoid.
- The bony rim is incomplete and two orbital cavities in the dry skull
communicate with each other with an opening in the interorbital septum.
CRANIUM / CRANIAL CAVITY

- It is ovoid
- It is shorter and its long axis is more oblique.
- Three compartments; 1. Anterior, 2. Middle, 3. Posterior/ Dorsal
- Rostral fossa lies at the much higher level than the rest of floor.
- The ethmoidal fossae are smaller and hypophysial fossa / sella turcica is much
deeper.
- Caudal to sella, there is often a distinct prominence called as dorsum sellae.
- Ridges and digital impressions are very pronounced.
- Temporal meatus is entirely made up of temporal bone.
Formation of cranial cavity:-
- Root:- formed by inner table of frontal bone. It extends from ethmoidal fossa to
the dorsal border of foramen magnum and is formed by the frontal, parietal,
interparietal and occipital bones.

- Lateral wall:- Ventral part of parietal, temporal, frontal and the orbital wings of
the sphenoid.
- Floor:- basilar process of the occipital and sphenoid.
- Ventral extremity is formed by the ethmoid bone, while dorsal extremity is
formed by foramen magnum which is a part of occipital bone.
Horse:-
- Ovoid and less oblique.
- Floor of the ventral compartment is not much raised.
- Pituitary fossa or hypophyseal fossa is shallower.
- Roof formed by supra occipital, interparital, parietal and frontal bones.
Dog:-
- It is broad above and tapers below.
- Floor of the cranium is almost parallel to the palate.
- Olfactory or ethmoid fossae are deep.
- Depth of hypophyseal fossa is variable and dorsum sella is relatively higher and
- Roof is formed by the parietal, interparietal and frontal.
- Middle and dorsal compartments are marked off by the well developed internal
occipital protuberance and sharp petrosal crest.
Fowl:-
- Cranial bones are thick and hence the cranium is small.
- The cancelated tissue of the bones of the cranium cavities receive air from the
Eustachian tube, hence it acts as a secondary sinus.
- All the bones are fused.
1. Ventral or olfactory compartments formed by sphenoid and ethmoid.
2. Middle (cerebral) compartment is the longest and the widest.
3. Dorsal (cerebellar) compartment:- its floor is formed by the basilar part of the
occipital, roof formed by the supraoccipital and lateral walls by the petrous
temporal. It lodges the cerebellum, medulla oblongata and pons.
MANDIBLE
- Two halves of the mandible does not fuse completely even in advanced age, so
that a symphysis is present.
- Body is shorter, wider and flatter and has eight rounds and relatively shallow
alveoli for the lower incisors.
- Canine teeth and no alveoli for canine teeth.
- Caudal part of the body is narrow.
- Mandible space is wider.
- Angle is more pronounced.
- Molar part is not so high and lies ventral border is convex in its length.
- Its alveolar border bears six alveoli for the lower cheek teeth. The first is quite
small increase in the size posteriorly.
- Ramus is much smaller and its ventral border is thin, concave and wider
dorsally.
- Mandibular foramen is about in the middle of its medial surface.
- The condyloid process projects medially.
- Coronoid process is extensive and curved medially.
- Mantle foramen is further forward than horse and it is present on lateral aspect.

Horse:-
- Fusion of two halves of the body is complete very nearly at birth.
- Body is larger and narrower and considerably thicker.
- Lingual surface is more concave and labial surface is more convex.
- Alveolar border carries six deep alveoli for the incisors.
- In male little behind to these alveoli is alveolus for canine tooth.
- Intermandibular space is narrow.
- Ramus is less curved hence the angle of the jaw is not so prominent.
- Mental foramen is placed further backwards.
- Mandibular foramen is placed more towards the alveolar border.
- Occasionally, there are small alveolus in front of the first molar for the in
contact wolf teeth in Stallion.
- The condyle is convex in both directions.
- Coronoid process is thinner and is rounded at its free end.
Dog:-
- Even in old age two halves of the body are not completely fused.
- Body carried six alveoli for the incisors and two for the canine teeth, which are
deep and wide.
- The alveoli for the incisors increase in size from within outwards.
- Two rami diverge more, enclosing a larger intermandibular space.
- The alveolar border of the horizontal part is rounded and thick.
- Mental foramina are two or three usually one placed behind the other.
- Condyle is elongated transversely.
- Coronoid process is an extensive plate as broad as the ramus itself and is directed
backwards and outwards.
- Free end is rounded.
- Angular process is present ventral and behind the condylar process.
Poultry:-
Though appears to be a single bone, results from the fusion of the two halves.
Each halve consist of five to six elements.
1. Pars articularis:- it forms the posterior part of the mandible and is expanded.
2. Pars angularis:- it is a slender strip of bone lying below the articular element
along the posterior border of jaw.
3. Pars supra angularis:- this forms the posterior third or more of the upper border
of the mandible.
4. Splenial:- Thin plate of the bone which is placed along the medial surface of the
mandible.
5. Pars dentalis:- it is the largest of all the elements of the mandible and forms the
anterior half of the jaw.
SINUSES
- These are the air spaces in the skull and they are either nasal or paranasal.
- They communicate directly or indirectly with the nasal cavity
- In fresh state these are lined by the mucous membrane.
- In the embryonic skull, elements of palatine and maxillary sinuses are laid earlier
than frontal.
- All the sinuses are paired and named according to their bony relations.

1. Frontal:- communicates with upper division of middle nasal meatus by several
small openings. Largest of the sinus and extensive.
2. Sphenoid:- generally absent in the young skull. When present, it is smallest of
the sinuses and communicates with the rhamoidal meatus..
3. Maxillary:- it is formed by lacrimal, malar and body of maxilla
4. Palatine:- communicates with middle meatus of nasal cavity by a short narrow
opening and is in free communication with the maxillary sinus over the
infraorbital canal.
5. Ethmoid:- cavity of the large ethmoid turbinate is called as ethmoid sinus. It
communicates with the nasal sinus directly behind posterior nares.
Maxillary and palatine sinuses communicates freely with each other over
infra orbital canal and with the nasal cavity by an aperture on its medial wall.

RIB
It is elongated curved bone. Form the lateral wall of thoracic cavity. Proximal or
vertebral extremity articulates with the vertebra while the distal or sternal extremity
articulates with sternum by costal cartilage.
Three types of ribs:-
1. Sternal rib.
2. Asternal rib.
3. Floating rib.
1. Sternal rib:- Rib which articulates with sternum by means of their costal
cartilages are known as sternal ribs.
2. Asternal rib:- Ribs which articulates with sternum indirectly with help of costal
cartilages of other ribs.
3. Floating rib:- Ribs in which sternal end is free.
The space or interval between the ribs is known as intercostal space.
Cattle:- 13 pairs (first 8 are sternal and last 5 are sternal)
TYPICAL RIB
Elongated curved bone and oblique in both directions. It presents a shaft and two
extremities.
Shaft:- It is elongated and curved bone. Presents two surfaces and two borders.
 Lateral surface is convex and a wide costal groove is present on its anterior part.
 Medial surface is concave and costal groove is present towards posterior border.
 Anterior border is thick and concave.
 Posterior border is convex and present a costal groove which is wide and distinct
on upper third.
 Proximal/vertebral/upper extremity consists of head, neck and tubercle.
Head:- has a spherical articular surface which is divided into anterior and posterior
articular area by a non-articular groove.
 It articulates with the socket formed by the bodies of adjacent thoracic vertebrae.
Neck:- is constricted, non articular part attached with head.
Tubercle:- is present postero-medial to head bears a concave facet which
articulates with the costal facet present on the transverse process of
corresponding thoracic vertebra.
 Sternal/distal/lower extremity is wide and articulates with sternum with the help
of costal cartilage.
First rib:-
- It is the shortest and least curved
- Sternal extremity widens very greatly.
- Costal groove is absent.
- Tubercle is larger than head.
- Tubercle and head meet with right angle to one another.
Horse:-
- 18 pairs (first 8 are sternal and last 10 are asternal)
- Ribs are narrower, thicker and more curved.
- Costal grooves are narrower and very faint.

Dog:-
- 13 pairs (first 9 are sternal and last 4 asternal)
- Shaft is cylindrical and strongly curved.
- In many cases last rib is floating.
- The head of last 3-4 ribs articulates with the corresponding thoracic vertebra.
Poultry:-
- 7 pairs present (1st, 2nd and 7 are floating).
- Each rib is made up of upper part vertebral and lower part sternal.
- On the posterior border of vertebral rib a process is present known as ‘uncinate -process’,
which overlaps with the adjacent rib.
- The head of rib articulates with the capitular cavity of corresponding thoracic vertebra.
In 1st, 2nd and 7th sternal part of rib is not present.
- Uncinate process is absent in 1st and 7th rib.
STERNUM
- It is medially placed, made up of 7 sternebrae forming floor of thoracic cavity.
- It is entirely cartilaginous in mammals.
- It is compressed laterally up to the middle and then flattened dorso-ventral. It is
directed downwards and backwards.
- It presents two surfaces, two borders and two extremities.
- Ventral surface is extensive, convex in front and concave behind. In this surface
transverse lines are present.
- Dorsal surface is also similar to ventral surface and transverse thoracic muscle is
attached to this surface.
- Borders are thick in front and thin behind. Each border presents 8 articular cavities
to which costal cartilages are articulated.
- Anterior extremity or presternum where menubrium sternum is present.
- Posterior extremity or metasternum where xiphoid cartilage is attached. Body is
known as mesosternum which is a middle part.
Horse:-
- Fusion of seven sternebrae, boat shaped.
- At anterior extremity cariniform cartilage is present. Ventral border presents keel
and dorsal border is concave.
Dog:-
- Road shaped and long. It is a fusion of eight sternabrae. It is constricted in middle.
Poultry:-
- It is fusion of five pieces, well developed and entirely made up of bone. Processes are
present.

THORACIC LIMB
SCAPULA
It is a flat triangular bone. It is present in shoulder region. It is obliquely placed
downward and forward. Dorsal end is wide; while ventral end is narrow which is
articulating with humerus forming shoulder joint. It is attached with thoracic cage or body
by means of muscles of shoulder girdle. This joint is known as synsarcosis.
For description it has two surfaces, three borders and three angles.
 Surfaces (two in number):-
1. Lateral surface is wide above than below.

- It is divided into two unequal areas by the spine of scapula. Area in front to the spine
of scapula is a supraspinatous fossa which covers about ¼ area.
- Area behind to the spine of scapula is an infraspinatous fossa which covers about ¾
area.
- Spine of scapula is wavy in outline with a margin is thickened in middle. Spine of
scapula extended towards the glenoid cavity known as acrominon process.
2. Medial surface is wide above than below. Sub scapular fossa is shallow.
 Borders (three in number):-

1. Anterior border is thin and convex on upper 2/3 while thick rounded and concave
at lower 1/3.
2. Posterior or caudal border is thick and nearly straight. In the lower 1/3 part
nutrient foramen is present.
3. Vertebral border is straight, thick and pitted. Here scapular cartilage is attached.
 Angles (three in number):-

1. Anterior or cervical angle is thin and present between anterior and vertebral
border.
2. Posterior angle is thick and tuberous, which is present between vertebral and
posterior border.
3. Glenoid or articular angle is attached to the rest of the bone by constricted portion
known as neck of scapula.
At glenoid angle, structures present are glenoid cavity, supra glenoid tubercle or
tuber scapulae and coracoid process. Glenoid cavity is a shallow spherical articular
depression present posteriorly. Above and cranial to this cavity supraglenoid tubercle or
tuber scapulae is present. Between the tuber scapulae and glenoid cavity gap is narrow.
On the medial aspect of supraglenoid tubercle a small process is projecting known as
coracoid process.

 Scapula of horse:
- Spine of scapula divide the lateral surface into cranial 1/3 supraspinatous fossa
and caudal 2/3 infraspinatous.
- Spine is not well developed.
- Sub scapular fossa on the medial surface is deeper.
- Coracoid process is well developed.
- Nutrient foramen is present in the infraspinous at lower 1/3 part.
- Gap between tuber scapulae and glenoid cavity is wide.
 Scapula of dog:
- In this region two bones are present.
 Scapula
 Clavicle
Scapula:
- Spine of scapula is well developed which divide the lateral surface into two equal
fossae supraspinatous and infraspinatous.
- Spine of scapula extended towards glenoid angle forming a prominent acrominon
process.
- Sub scapular fossa is very shallow.
- Vertebral and anterior borders are convex.
- Glenoid cavity and supraglenoid tubercle are continuous with each other.
- A tuber scapula is in the form of blunt process.
- Posterior border is thick and straight.
Clavicle: is a small, thin and irregularly triangular cartilaginous plate embedded
in shoulder girdle muscles.
 Scapula of poultry:-
Three bones are present in the shoulder girdle.
1. Scapula
2. Coracoid
3. Clavicle
1. Scapula/shoulder blade:-
It is a parallel to thoracic vertebrae and reaching up to ilium. A process extended forward
towards the foramen triosseum. It is blade like and thick with slightly curved.
2. Coracoid:-
It is the strongest bone of shoulder girdle. Directed downward and backward. Its upper
extremity articulates with clavicle, scapula and humerus, while distally articulates with
sternum. Proximally it also participates in formation of foramen triosseum.
3. Clavicle:-
Slender, curved, rod like bone. Dorsal end articulates with Coracoid and scapula.
Ventrally fuses with its fellow at an acute angle form a furcula or wish bone.

HUMERUS
It is a long bone extends from shoulder proximally to the elbow distally. It is
directed obliquely downward and backward forming 55 degree angle with horizontal
plane. It consists of a shaft and two extremities. Proximally articulate with scapula
forming shoulder joint, while distally it articulates with radius-ulna forming elbow joint.
Shaft:
Consist of four surfaces and it is irregularly cylindrical and twisted appearance.
Lateral surface is smooth and present a shallow spirally cured muscular spiral
groove. It is separated from anterior surface by deltoid tuberosity which ends at
coronoid fossa. It blends with anterior and posterior surface.
Anterior surface is triangular in outline with a wide above and narrow, rounded
below.
Posterior surface is rounded and smooth. At distal part nutrient foramen is present.
It blends with medial surface.
Medial surface have a teres tubercle. This surface blends with anterior and posterior
surface.
Proximal extremity is voluminous part consist of head, neck, two tuberosities, and
bicipital groove.
Head is a spherical convex articular area. It is placed behind. Below to head is constricted
non articular projection known as neck is present.
Tuberosities:-
Lateral tuberosity is massive and placed laterally and above to the level of head.
It is divided into two parts cranial and caudal part. Summit of cranial part
overhangs to the bicipital groove. It forms the outer boundary of bicipital groove.
Medial tuberosity is medially placed and divided into cranial and caudal parts. It
forms the medial boundary of bicipital groove.
Bicipital groove is anteriorly placed and bounded laterally by lateral tuberosity and
medially by medial tuberosity. It is undivided.
Distal extremity consists of cylindrical condyle, epicondyle, coronoid/radial fossa and
olecranon fossa.
Condyle is cylindrical articular area and divides into two parts by ridge into larger medial
and smaller lateral.
- Above and posterior to the condyle two epicondyle are present. Lateral epicondyle is
smaller and medial epicondyle is larger.
- Olecranon fossa is deep and placed posteriorly bounded by medial and lateral
epicondyles. Coranoid / radial fossa is shallow and above and in front.
 Horse:
- Lateral and medial tuberosities are at the level of head.
- Bicipital groove s divided.
- Deltoid tuberosity and crest are prominent.
- Musculospiral groove is deeper.
- Nutrient foramen is placed on the distal 1/3 of the medial surface.
 Dog:
- Long and slender.
- Deltoid tuberosity is ridge like.
- Lateral and medial tuberosities are single and below to the level of head.
- Teres tubercle is raised rough area.
- Head is spherical and strongly convex.
- At distal extremity olecranon and coronoid fossa are continuous with each other by
foramen.
 Poultry:
Curved long bone. It is nearly horizontal in position and parallel with the thoracic
vertebrae except flying. Head is elongated convex. At distal extremity two separate
condyle for articulations of radius and ulna.
RADIUS-ULNA
- It is vertical in direction and present in forearm region.
- Proximally it articulates with humerus forming elbow joint and distally articulates
with carpal bones forming carpal/knee joint.
Radius
- It is gently curved long bone consist of shaft and two extremities.
- Shaft is somewhat flattened, gently curved and consists of two surfaces and two
borders.
Dorsal/anterior surface width and thickness decreases distally and prismatic in outline.
It is smooth and slightly convex.
Volar/posterior/caudal surface is concave and ulna is attached on the lateral aspect of
this surface. In this surface proximal interosseus space is present with ulna where nutrient
foramen is present.
Medial border blends with anterior and posterior surfaces and slightly concave.
Lateral border is strongly curved.
Proximal extremity is wide and transversely flattened. Presents articular area which is
divided into two areas by a saggital ridge with a medial area is larger. In the articular area
transverse synovial fossa is present. In front of this extremity a lip likes coronoid process
present. On either side of this surface radial tuberosity is present.
Distal extremity presents three articular areas divided by two oblique ridges into medial,
middle and lateral facet.
Medial is the largest to which radial carpal bone is articulating. Lateral is saddle shape to
which ulnar carpal bone is articulates. Middle is smaller to which intermediate carpal
bone is articulating
 In horse:-

- Radius is longer and larger than ulna.
- Radial tuberosity is larger.
- Distal articular areas are three which are saggital.
- Distal interosseus space is absent.
- Distal extremity presents two tubercles on either side on the posterolateral aspect
at distal extremity a facet for articulation of accessory carpal bone is present.
 In dog:-
- Two bones of forearm articulating with each other proximally and distally forming
a narrow interosseus space.
- Radial tuberosity is smaller.
- At distal extremity towards medial border process is present known as styloid
process of radius.
- At distal extremity in radial only one articular area is present.
Ulna
It is longer but smaller than radius. Shaft is three sided and strongly curved. It is
fused with radius forming proximal and distal interosseus space.
At proximal extremity olecranon is large and bears a large tuberosity. At anterior
border a curved anconeal process is present. Below to this process articular semilunar
notch is present. Distal extremity fused with radius and projects below to the level of
radius forming styloid process of ulna.
 In horse:
- It is a long bone but smaller and shorter than radius.
- Shaft is three sided and tapers to a point distally up to the middle of radius. Medial
surface is smooth and slightly concave.
- Lateral surface is flattened.
- Lateral and medial borders are thin and sharp.
- Anterior surface attached with radius.
- Proximal extremity is a major part of the bone.
- Anconeal process is well developed and overhangs the semilunar notch.
 In dog:
- Ulna is longer than radius with proximally and distally articulates with radius
forming a narrow interosseus space.
- In proximal extremity olecranon process bears paired tubercles.
- On the medial aspect for semilunar notch a facet for articulation of medial condyle
of humerus is present.
- Styloid process is well developed.
 In poultry:
- Radius is smaller of the forearm bones.

- Proximally it articulates with humerus and ulna and distally articulates with ulna
and carpal bone.
- It is cylindrical and curved with the concavity facing towards ulna forming a wide
interosseus space.
- Ulna is much larger than radius.
- It is cylindrical curved with concavity facing towards radius forming wide
interosseus space.
- Distal extremity is slightly enlarged and has two articular facets for articulation
with the radial carpal and ulnar carpal bone.
MANUS
It is a homologous of hand in man and consists of three divisions:
1. Carpus, 2. Metacarpus and 3. Digits
Carpus
It is homologous with the wrist of human which contains group of short bones.
They are six in number and arranged in two rows medial to lateral:
Proximal row Radial carpal Intermediate carpal Ulnar carpal Accessory
carpal
nd rd th
Distal row 2 and 3 are fused 4 carpal
In horse Total 7 or 8
Proximal row Radial carpal Intermediate carpal Ulnar carpal Accessory
carpal
Distal row (First) 2nd 3rd 4th carpal
In dog Total 7
Proximal row Radio intermediate carpal Ulnar carpal Accessory
carpal
Distal row 1st 2nd 3rd 4th
In poultry:
In adult only two carpal bones, which are present in proximal row, radial and ulnar carpal
bone.
In distal row three cartilaginous sesamoid appear in the embryonal stage.
Metacarpus
- In dog all five metacarpal bones from medial to lateral
- 1st 2nd 3rd 4th and 5th metacarpal bones.
- 1st metacarpal bone is much smaller than others. 2nd and 5th are somewhat reduced in
cattle. Only 3rd and 4th are large which fused to form the large metacarpus.
In ox it is artiodactyles (even toes) while in horse it is perisodactyles (odd toes).

 In ox:
- 3rd and 4th metacarpal bones fused together forms a large metacarpus and 5th
metacarpus is a small, rounded rod like articulates with proximal lateral border of
large metacarpus and do not articulate with the carpal bones. Others are absent.
Large metacarpus is a long bone vertically directed, proximal extremity articulates
with distal row of carpal bones forming knee or carpal joint while with 1st phalanx
forming fetlock joint.
- It consist of shaft and two extremities
- Shaft is shorter and relatively wider. It has two surfaces and two borders.
- Dorsal/anterior surface is rounded and marked by a vertical vascular groove.
Nutrient foramen is present at proximal part of this groove.
- Volar surface is flat and vascular groove is very faint.
- Lateral and medial borders are rounded and proximally rough.
- Proximal extremity bears two facets which articulate with the distal row of carpal
bones. Two facets are separated in front by a ridge and a notch behind. Medial
facet is larger than lateral facet. On lateral angle a facet for articulation of 5 th
metacarpus. Medial angle has an anterior and posterior tuberosity.
- Distal extremity has articular condyle which articulates with 1st phalanx. It is
divided into two parts by a saggital cleft.
 In horse:-
- 3rd metacarpus is a large metacarpus while 2nd and 4th are small known as splint
bone.
- In large metacarpus volar surface is rough on its upper two third portions either
side for the attachment of the small metacarpal bones. Nutrient foramen is present
on the upper third of this surface. Dorsal surface is smooth and convex. Vascular
groove is absent. In distal extremity single condyle is present which articulates
with 1st phalanx.
 In dog:-
- Five metacarpal bones. First is the shortest. 2nd is slightly shorter than 3rd and 4th
but little longer than 5th. 3rd and 4th are the largest but 5th is the thickest bone. All
the bones articulate proximally with other.
 In poultry:-
- Three bones fused to single mass.
- The first metacarpus is in the form of projection, while 2nd and 3rd are fused at
either extremity enclosing a narrow, elongated interosseus space between their
shafts.

THORACIC LIMB (DIGITS, PHALANX AND SESAMOIDS)
 In ox:- 3rd and 4th functional
- 2nd and 5th vestigial and not articulating with skeleton.
- Each digit has three phalanges
st
1. 1 phalanx is a long bone with proximal extremity is larger and shaft is four sided
2. 2nd phalanx (os coronae) is also a long bone with proximal extremity is larger and
shaft is three sided.
3. 3rd phalanx (os padres) is short bone and enclosed in hoof. It has four surfaces.
Ox- total 6 sesamoids for each limb
4 proximal sesamoid (two for each digit)
2 distal sesamoid (one for each digit)
Horse-3 sesamoid for each limb because only one digit is functional
 Dog:
- 5 digits.
- 1st digit has 2 phalanges. 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th digits have three 3 phalanges each.
- Sesamoid are 13 to 14. 9 proximal and 4 to 5 distal sesamoid.
- Distal sesamoids are cartilaginous.
 Poultry:
- 3 digits
1. 1st digit-two phalanges
2. 2nd digit-two phalanges
3. 3rd digit-one phalanx.
- Sesamoid are absent.
 Camel:
- 3rd and 4th digits are functional. Each digit has 3 phalanges.
- Each digit has only 2 sesamoid (proximally sesamoids only)
- Digital pad cover volar surface of 3rd phalanx and the flexor tendons and extend
to cover volar surface of 2nd phalanx.
- Distal sesamoids are absent.

PELVIC LIMB
HIP BONE (OS COXAE)
Largest flat bone present in the body. It is present in hip region. It is a fusion of
Ilium, Ischium and pubis at acetabulum.
Ilium
It is the largest and pubis is the smallest.
Ilium: Irregularly triangular and forms the lateral wall of pelvis.
It has two surfaces, three borders and three angles.
 Surfaces:-
1. Pelvic surface has articular area to which sacrum is attached. Towards
acetabular angle psoas tubercle is present.
2. A Gluteal or lateral surface is concave and Gluteal lines are present.
 Borders:-
1. Anterior border presents crest of Ilium.
2. In medial border greater sciatic notch is present.
3. Larteral border is concave.
 Angles:-
1. Lateral angle which is present between anterior and lateral borders. Here
tuber coxae is present which have three tuberosities.
2. Medial Angle is present between anterior andmedial borders. Here tuber
sacrale is present.
3. Acetabular angle is present between medial and lateral border. In this angle
ischiatic spine separate the ischium with ilium. It appears as shaft of ilium.
Ischium
It forms the floor of pelvis. It is irregularly quadrilateral and placed behind the
ilium and pubis. It has two surfaces, four borders and two angles.
 Surface
1. Pelvic surface is concave and dorsal.
2. Ventral surface is convex and rough.
 Borders
1. Anterior border forming the part of obturator foramen.
2. Posterior border forming the ischial arch with its fellow and it is narrow.
3. Lateral border having lesser sciatic notch which is separate from greater
sciatic notch by sciatic spine.
4. Medial border form ischiopubic symphysis which is aphiarthrosis type of
joint.
 Angles
1. Anterolateral angle where acetabulum is present.
2. Posterolateral angle where tuber ischii is present.
- Tuber ischii is trifid.

Pubis
It is the smallest and triangular in out line. It has 2 surfaces, three borders and one angle.
 Surfaces
1. Dorsal surface is smooth and concave, while
2. Ventral is convex and rough.
 Borders
1. Anterior border is thick. Posterolateral border forming the margin of
obturator foramen.
2. Medial border contributing to the ischiopubic symphysis
 Angles:-
- Acetabular angle which contribting the formation of acetabulum along with
the ilium and ischium
 Ischiopubic symphysis or pelvic symphysis:- It is formed by union of medial

borders of pubis and ischium. It is amphiarthrosis type of jpoint and placed medially
and forming the floor of pelvis and it is basin like.
 Acetabulum is cotyloid cavity formed by union of ilium, ischium and pubis. It
articulates with the head of femur forming the hip joint. Acetabular notch is present
on posterior aspect.
 Obturator foramen is a large elliptical opening on the floor of pelvic cavity formed
by ischium and pubis. In female it is spherical and in male it is elliptical.
Bony pelvis (pelvic cavity)

It is composed of ossa coxarum, sacrum and first three coccygeal vertebrae.
- Roof is concave and formed by sacrum and first three coccygeal vertebrae.
- Floor is concave and formed by ischium and pubis.
- Lateral walls formed by ilium and ischium. In life sacrosciatic ligament and muscles
are also present.
- Inlet or anterior aperture:- Bounded by terminal lines of ilium which is also known
as brim of ilium. It is elliptical and more oblique. It is dorsally bounded by sacrum and
ventrally by pubis.
- Outlet or posterior aperture:- It is small and incomplete. Bounded dorsally by 3rd
coccygeal, ventrally by ischial arch, laterally by ischium and sacrosciatic ligament.
- Conjugate diameter/sacropubic diameter: From sacral promentory to anterior
border of pubis.
- Transverse diameter: Greatest width above the psoas tubercle.
- Axis of pelvis: Imaginary line drawn from center of pelvic inlet, cavity and outlet.
- Sexual difference
1. Ischial arch is wider in female.
2. Conjugate and transverse diameters are greater in female.
3. Pelvic cavity is more roomy in female.
4. Pubis and ischiae of opposite side meet at an open angle in female.
In horse:-
- Pelvic symphysis is wider.
- Tuber coxae have four tuberosities (two pairs).
- Tuber ischii is bified.
- Ischial arch is wider.
- Acetabular notch in middle.
- Pelvic inlet is wider and rounded.
In dog:-
- Ilea are parallel to median plane.
- Gluteal surface is deeply concave.
- Crest of ilium is convex.
- Tuber coxae is in form of single tuberosity.
- Ischium has twisted appearance.
- Ischial arch is wide and semielliptical.
- Tuber ischii is in the form of single tuberosity.
- Acetabular notch is posterior.
- No lesser sciatic notch and greater sciatic notch is shallow.
In fowl:-
- No pelvic symphysis.
- Ilium is fused with lumbosacral mass.
- Pelvic face of ilium is concave for the lodgment of kidneys.
- Ischium lies external and posterior to ilium.
- Sciatic foramen is formed by ischium and ilium lies behind the acetabulum.
- Pubis is a slender bone lies along lateral border ischium.
- Obturator foramen is smaller than sciatic foramen.
FEMUR
It is the largest and massive long bone present in the thigh region. It is placed obliquely
downward and forward between hip and stifle joint.
It has shaft and two extremities.
 Shaft has four surfaces
1. Anterior surface
2. Posterior surface
3. Medial surface/border
4. Lateral surface/border
1. Anterior surface is convex and blended with medial and lateral surface.
2. Posterior surface is narrow in middle and blended with medial and lateral
surface.
3. Medial surface/border:- In the upper third part trochanter minor is present.
Trochanter minor is connected with trochanter major by a oblique trochanteric
ridge, trochanter fossa is deep and large.
4. Lateral surface/border:- At distal third supra condyloid fossa is present.

 Proximal extremity
 Head is convex and medially placed. Fovea capitis is present for attachment of
round ligament.
 Trochanter major is massive and laterally placed.
 Distal extremity
 Trochlea and two condyles are present.
 Trochlea is present in front. Trochlea is bounded by two ridges in which medial
trochlear ridge is prominent. Trochlear ridges are oblique. Trochlea is articulating
with patella.
 Condyles are behind and oval, and are separated by intercondylar fossa. Above to
condyles epicondyles are present in which medial epicondyle is larger. Condyles
are ariculated with tibia. Intercondyloid fossa lodges the spine of tibia.
In horse:-
- Very massive
- In the lateral border very big trochanter tertius is present.
- Supracondylar fossa is deeper.
- Trochantric ridge is vertical which is extended up to trochanter tertius.
In dog:-
- Longer and strongly curved
- Trochanter tertius and supra condyloid fossa are absent
- Trochanteric fossa is rounded and deep
- Trochanter major and head are at the same level
- Trochlear ridge are at equal level and saggital
- Intercondyloid fossa is wide
- Above each condyle in posterior surface a small facet for articulation with
sesamoid bones (2) which develop in gastrocnemius muscle
In poultry:-
- Head is prominent but smaller than acetabulum, due to this articular area is
extended up to trochanter major.
- Lateral condyle have groove for articulation with fibula.
TIBIA
It is long bone present in leg region. It is obliquely placed downward and
backward. Proximal extremity articulates with femur forming stifle joint while distal
extremity articulates with proximal row of tarsal bones and lateral malleolus (distal fibula)
forming hock joint.
For description it has two extremities and shaft. Shaft is three sided above but
flattened below.
It presents three surfaces and three borders.
1. Lateral surface is concave wide above and narrow below.
2. Medial surface is convex and subcutaneous with a broad above and narrow
below.
3. Posterior/planter surface is flat and popliteal lines are present.
Borders
1. Anterior is very prominent and crest of tibia is present on upper 1/3 part.
2. Lateral is concave and fibula is attached.
3. Medial is thick and rounded on upper part.
Proximal extremity:-
- Is large and three sided.
- It presents medial and lateral condyle separated by popliteal notch behind.
- Condyles are saddle shape and between the condyles bified tibial spine is present.
- Anteriorly a large anterior tuberosity of tibia is present which continues with the
crest of tibia.
- On the anteromedial aspect of condyle intercondylar fossa also present.
Distal extremity:-
- Is smaller than proximal extremity.
- It bears two concave articular surfaces with a ridge which are saggital in direction.
- On the lateral aspect of lateral groove a facet for articulation of lateral malleolus
(distal fibula) is also present.
 In horse:-
- In distal extremity articular groove and articular ridge are oblique in direction.
- In distal extremity lateral malleolus is completely fused with tibia.
- Anterior tuberosity of tibia bears a vertical groove.
- Lateral condyle bears a facet for fibula.
- Popliteal lines are more prominent.
 In dog:-
- Shaft is double curved with proximal part convex medially and distal part
laterally.
- Tibial crest is more prominent.
- A large facet on posterolateral aspect of lateral condyle for fibula is present.
- Articular grooves and ridge are saggital.
- At distal extremity facet for fibula is present.
 In poultry:-
- It is the largest bone of poultry.
- Proximal extremity is large and irregular.
- In distal extremity two condyles are present. This bone fused with proximal row
of tarsal bone hence it is known as ‘tibiotarsal bone’.
- On the lateral side of condyle a facet for fibula is present.

TARSAL BONES
Cattle:- Total = 5
Medial to lateral, three rows
Proximal row Tibial tarsal (talus),
Fibular tarsal (calcaneous)
Central row Fused central and 4th tarsal
Distal row 1st tarsal
Fused 2nd and 3rd tarsal
Horse:- Total = 6
Proximal row Tibial tarsal
fibular tarsal
Central row Central tarsal
Distal row 1st and 2nd tarsal fused
3rd tarsal
th
4 tarsal (articulate with tibial and fibular tarsal)
Dog:- Total = 7
Proximal row Tibial tarsal
Fibular tarsal
Central row Central tarsal
Distal row 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th tarsal
Poultry
Absent in adult
In foetus present- proximal row is fused with tibia and distal row fuses with metatarsus.
Camel:- Total = 7
Articular surfaces are modified as to permit greater flexion of joint.
When camel is sitting the digit lies medial to stifle joint which rest on ground.
Large metatarsus
rd th
- It is fusion of 3 and 4 metatarsal bones.
- It is a long bone vertical in position.
- Proximally articulates with tarsal bones forming hock joint, distally articulates
with 1st phalanx forming fetlock joint.
For description it presents shaft and two extremities.
Shaft is four sided.
 Dorsal surface is convex and presents a deep and wide vascular groove.
 Planter surface is flat and present a shallow vascular groove
 Lateral and
 medial surface are convex
1. In the proximal extremity flat articular area is divided into large medial and
small lateral articular area by a non articular groove. Small tuberosity is present
dorso- medially.
2. In distal extremity condyle is divided by a saggital cleft.

 Horse:-
- 3rd Meta tarsus is large Meta tarsus.
- 2nd and4th metatarsal bones (splint bones) are also present in which head of
fourth is larger than 2nd
- Dorsal surface is smooth and convex. In the distal extremity condyle is single
.On planter surface two rough areas are present in which medial is smaller and
lateral is larger for articulation / fusion of 2nd and 4th metacarpal bones.
 Poultry:-
- As it is fused with distal row of tarsal bones it is known as tarsometatarsus. It is
a fusion of 2nd, 3rd and4th metatarsus and tarsal elements.
- In distal extremity three condyles are present which articulate with three digits.
- In cock on the medial aspect of the shaft at distal 3rd part a facet for articulation of
spur is present which is projecting medially.
- Digit in poultry: (4 in number)
1. 1st digit Consist of three phalanges and attached to the medial side of the planter
surface distally by fibrous tissue and directed backward.
2. 2nd digit 3 phalange and articulates with medial condyle of tarso metatarsus.
3. 3nd digit consist of four phalanges which articulates with medial condyle of tarso
metatarsus
4. 4th digit 5 phalanges and articulates with lateral condyle of tarso metatarsus.
- The distal phalanx of each digit is pointed and is covered by a horny claw.

JOINT
It is a union of two or more bones / cartilage by other tissue. Uniting medium
chiefly made up of fibrous tissue, cartilage or mixture of these.
Based on the nature of uniting medium and movement permitted; three chief
divisions of joint
Synarthrosis or Diarthrosis or Amphiarthrosis or

fibrous joint synovial joint cartilagenous joint
(uniting medium is or movable (uniting medium is
fibrous tissue) joint cartilage)
 Synarthrosis: In this type of joint uniting medium is fibrous tissue, there is no

joint cavity and no movement. Two divisions
:
Suture Syndesmosis
Serrata; e.g. Squamosa; e.g. squmous Harmonia or plane;

Interfrontal suture part of temporal and e.g. Internasal suture
(edges of the bones parietal bone. (edges of the bones are
are serrated) (Edges of the bones are plane)
beveled, hence over
lapping)
 Syndesmosis:- In this type of joint uniting medium is fibrous tissue, and in adult
it seems to be continuous bone. e.g. Fusion of radius and ulna, Union of shaft of
3rd and 4th metacarpals and metatarsus in ox, Tibia fibula at distal extremity in
horse
 Cartilagenous joint / Amphiarthrosis:-
- Segments are united by fibro-cartilage or hyaline cartilage.
- Joint cavity is absent.
- Limited movement is present.
- Chief classes are
A) Synchondrosis, B) Symphysis
A) Synchondrosis or Hyaline cartilagenous joint:-

- This cartilage is converted into bone in the adult animal.
e.g. Epiphyseal plate which fuses to form the continuity of bone,
Joint present between occipital and sphenoid, and
Sphenoid and ethmoid bone, costo chondral junction.

B) Symphysis (Fibrocartilagenous joint)
- It is always present in the median plane;
e.g. Pelvic symphysis / ischio pubic symphysis
Mendibular symphysis,
Fusion of sternabrae
 Gomphosis:- Implantation of tooth in the alveoli. It is not a true joint because

tooth is neither a bone nor a cartilage.
 Synsarcosis:- Attachment of scapula or thoracic limb with the body by means of

shoulder girdle muscles.
 Requirements of synovial joint

Constant
1) Articular surface
2) Articular cartilage
3) Articular capsule / Joint capsule
Variable structure
4) Ligament
5) Articular disc or Menisci
6) Marginal cartilage
1) Articular surface:-
In most cases, it is smooth. It is formed by especially dense bone. In certain cases,
the surface is interrupted by non-articular cavities known as synovial fossa.
2) Articular cartilage:-
- It is usually hyaline cartilage.
- It forms covering over the articular surface of the bones.
- They vary in thickness, on concave articular surface peripheral part is the thickest.
- Whereas, on a convex articular surface, the central part is the thickest.
- Articular cartilage is non-vascular and smooth.

- They diminish the effects of concussion and greatly reduce the friction.
3) Articular capsule / Joint capsule:-

It consist of two layer outer fibrous and inner synovial layer or synovial
membrane. Fibrous layer is thick and it is also known as capsular ligament, usually it is
attached close to margins of the articular surface.
Synovial layer lines the joint cavity except, where it bounded by the articular
surface / cartilage. It is thin membrane and supplied by close network of vessels and
nerves. It frequently forms the folds and villi which projects into joint cavity. The synovial
membrane secrets a fluid known synovia or synovial fluid, which lubricates the joint
surfaces. It also transport nutrient material for hyaline cartilage. The articular cavity is
enclosed by the synovial membrane and the articular cartilage.
4) Ligament:-
Ligaments are strong bands usually composed of white fibrous tissue, which bind the
bones together. Practically they are inelastic. They may be extra capsular / peri-articular
ligament and intra capsular / intra articular ligament
- Extra capsular ligament those, which are situated on side, also known as
collateral ligaments.
- Cruciate ligaments are those, which are crossing over one-another.
- Intracapsular ligaments present within the fibrous capsule but not in the joint
cavity.
- Interosseous ligaments are those, which connect directly to opposite surfaces of
bones.
5) Articular disc / Menisci

- Special structures present in side the joint cavity.
- These are plates of fibro-cartilage placed between articular cartilages.
- They divide the joint cavity partially or completely in two compartments.
- It allows greater range / variety of movements and diminishes concussion,
therefore act as shock absorber;
- e.g. - Menisci in stifle joint and Temporo-mandibular joint, and
- Articular disc between bodies of vertebrae.
6) Marginal cartilage:-
- It is a ring of fibro-cartilage, which encircles ring of articular cavity.
- It enlarges the cavity and tends to prevent the fracture of margin;
- e.g. Hip joint and marginal cartilage present at the margin of glenoid cavity in
scapula of dog. (i.e. in the shoulder joint of dog)
CLASSIFICATION OF SYNOVIAL / DIARTHORIDIAL JOINTS

A) According to the participation of bone
1) Simple joint: Joint formed by articulation of two joint surfaces; e.g. shoulder
joint of ox, fetlock joint
2) Compound joint: Joint formed by articulation of more than two joint
surfaces; e.g. Elbow joint, hip joint; stifle
joint
B) According to axis of movement:
1) Uniaxial: One axis is fixed, second is moving
- e.g. Elbow joint, Atlanto axial joint
2) Biaxial: During the movement of joint both axis are moving;
- e.g. Knee / carpal joint, Interphalangeal joint in the dog.
3) Multiaxial:- All the axes are moving during the movement of joint.
- Here circumduction and rotation movements are also permitted;
- e.g. Shoulder and hip joint.
C) Classification according to shape of articular surface and type of movement.

1) Arthrodia / Gliding joint:-
- In this joint, joint surfaces are flat, so gliding movement;
- e.g. Carpo-metacarpal joint, joint between the articular process of vertebrae.
2) Ginglymus / Hing joint:
- In this joint surfaces usually two condyles / cylinders, which are received by
corresponding cavity.
- In this type of joint uniaxial type of movement is possible;
- e.g. Elbow joint, atlanto-occipital joint
3) Trochoid joint / pivot joint
- In this type of joint, movement is limited to rotation of one segment around the
longitudinal axis of other;
- e.g. Atlanto-axial joint
4) Enarthrosis / ball and socket joint
- In this type of joint, spherical articular surface received by a articular cavity and
multiaxial movements and all types of movements (flexion, extension, rotation,
adduction, abduction and circumduction) are present;
- e.g. Hip and shoulder joint.
Movements in synovial joint

1. Gliding:- Here sliding of one surface over the other;
- e.g. - Joint between articular processes of cervical vertebrae.
- Joint between carpal bones.
2. Angular movement; e.g. Elbow, hock joint
- Flexion: Motion in which angle is decreased between the bony segments
- Extension: Motion in which angle is increased between the bony segments
3. Circumduction:- in this movement segment the distal end of limb describe a
circle / base of bone; e.g. Hip joint
4. Rotation:- Rotation of one segment around the longitudinal axis of the other
segment forming joint; e.g. Atlanto-axial joint
5. Adduction and Abduction:
- Adduction: Refer to movement of part / limb towards the median plane;
e.g. Movement of digit toward the axis of limb
- Abduction: Movement of part / limb away from the median plane
6. Pronation and Supination: In supination the volar face of the manus region is
turned forward or upforward and in pronation it faces backwards or downward.

ARTICULATIONS OF VERTEBRAE
Between body of vertebrae amphiarthrosis type of joint. Segments are directly
united by a plate of fibro cartilage. Between articular surfaces of oblique processes gliding
movement.
ARTICULATIONS OF THE RIB
a) Costocentral articulation. Trochoid joint between the head of the rib and socket
formed between the bodies of the adjacent vertebrae and inter vertebral fibro cartilage.
b) Costotransverse articulation between the facet of the tubercle of rib and transverse
process of the adjacent thoracic vertebra.
c) Costochondral articulation. Between rib and sternum.
ARTICULATION OF SKULL
1) Atlanto-occipital articulation – Angular movement. It is a hinge or ginglimus joint.
2) Mandibular articulation
a) Diarthrosis type between ramus of the mandible and squamous part of
temporal
bone.
b) Mandibular symphysis
3) Hyoidean articulations:
a) Temporo-hyoid articulation – Amphiarthrosis
b) Intercornual articulation formed by the junction of the ventral extremity of the
great cornuae
c) Basicornual articulation, diarthrosis formed at junction of each small cornua
with the body of the hyoid bone
4) Synarthrosis of the skull
a) Sutura serrata – Inter forntal suture
b) Sutura squamosa – Parieotemportal suture
c) Sutura plana or Harmonia – Inter nasal suture
5) Synchondrosis: Between sphenoid and ethmoid, and sphenoid and occipital bone
HIP JOINT
Enarthrosis (Ball and socket joint). It is compound joint. Articulation between
head of femur and acetabulum.
Movement: All types of movements
Ligament in cattle:-
- Round ligament, which is intra articular, it is small or absent.
- Transverse acetabular ligament is present.
In Horse:
- Round and accessory ligament and transverse acetabular ligaments are
present. Due to this abduction, movement is not possible.
- Acetabulum is deepened by a ring of fibro cartilage known as cotyloid
ligament when it crosses the acetabular notch is known as transverse
acetabular ligament.
In the shoulder joint of dog rudimentary marginal cartilage is present.
STIFLE JOINT
Two articulations:
1) Femoro – patellar articulation and 2) Femoro – tibial articulation
1) Femoro – patellar articulation: Formed between the trochlea of the femur and patella
Three ligaments: Medial patellar ligament
Middle patellar ligament
Lateral patellar ligament
Movements: Gliding movement
2) Femoro – tibial articulation: Between condyles of the femur and proximal extremity
of tibia. Menisci or semi lunar cartilages (lateral and medial) is present between the
articular surfaces.
Ligaments are --------Two collateral – Medial and lateral
Two cruciate – Anterior and posterior
Movements: Flexion and Extension are main and slight rotation
LIGAMENTUM NUCHAE
Cervical part of supraspinatous ligament is known as ligamentum nuchae. It is

highly elastic apparatus and very well developed in cattle and buffalo.
- Main function is to assist the extension muscles of the head and neck.
- It is divided into two parts 1) Lamellar part and 2) Funnicular part
1) Lamellar part (Pars cervicalis):- a. Anterior part and b. Posterior part
a. Anterior part:- It is double. Arising from 2nd and 3rd thoracic spines
directed downward and forward end on the cervical spine of 2nd, 3rd, and
4th cervical.
b. Posterior part:- It is single. Arising from 1st thoracic spine and end on the
cervical spine of 5th, 6th and 7th cervical.
2) Funnicular part (Pars occipitalis):- arises from the external occipital
protuberance and inserted into the summit of 3rd thoracic spine. It is clearly
divided into two parts which is very clear at its origin. It is covered by trapezeus
and rhomboideus muscles.

MYOLOGY
Deals with the muscles and their accessory structures. Muscles are characterized
by their physiological property of contraction, when stimulated. The contractile part is a
muscle tissue.
Three kinds of muscular tissues are recognized,
1. Striated or striped
2. Non-striated or unstriated or smooth
3. Cardiac- which is a specialized variety of striated muscle.
According to physiological action muscles are classified into two type
1. Voluntary
2. involuntary
According to arrangement of muscle fibers joins to tendon which is known as pennate
arrangement.
1. When fibers are arranged on one side of the tendon the muscle is unipennate
2. When fibers are existed on both the sides is bipennate.
3. When arrangement is more complex it is a multipennate muscle.
4. Strip muscles having parallel muscle fibers e.g. Sartoreus, abdomen muscles.
5. Fusiform
40-50% body weight is due to muscles.
 Functions:-
1. Locomotion
2. Vasodilation/ constriction
3. Peristalsis/ antiperistalsis
4. Generation of body heat
5. Cardiac pumping
6. Respiration
 Arrangement of skeletal muscles
1. Sheet:- abdominal muscles
2. Sheets rolled into cords- e.g. semitendanisus
3. Sheet rolled into bundles- e.g. biceps femoris
4. Ring like muscle with circumscribe opening. Contraction of this muscles close the
orifice which is often known as spinchter.

 Connective tissue covering to the muscles
- Individual muscle fiber is surrounded by endomycium
- Fascicles are surrounded by perimycium
- Complete muscle surrounded by epimycium
 Functional group of muscles
1. Flexor:-muscles located on side of limb towards which limb bends.
2. Extension:- muscle located on side of limb which helps to extend the limb by
physiological action.
3. Adduction:- pulls the limb towards the median plane
4. Abduction:- muscle which helps to keep the limb away from median plane.
5. Sphincter:- muscle which surrounds the natural openings
6. Cutaneous muscles:- muscle which is intimately attached with skin and loosely
attached by underlying fascia and structures.
 Definitions
1. Linea alba:- a white fibrous raphe that extend from prepubic tendon to xiphoid
cartilage. It is formed by union of aponeurosis of oblique and transverse
abdominis muscles.
2. Fascia:- the connective tissue separating muscles from each other and binding
them into position is known as fascia.
3. Belly:- the thickest part of the muscle is known as belly.
4. Origin:- the attachment of the muscle which remain more stationary during
movement is known as origin.
5. Insertion:- the attachment of muscle which moves during movement is termed as
insertion.
6. Aponeurosis:- when fascia gives origin or insertion to muscle, it appears as thick
white sheet known as apponeurosis.
7. Flank:- in the abdominal region the non-osseous part is known as flank.
8. Paralumbar fossa:- A triangular non-osseous area in the flank region is known
as paralumbar fossa.
9. Tendo achillis:- It is a combined tendon of muscle superficial digital flexor and
gastrocnemius. It is firmly attached to tuber calcis at point of hock.
10. Pre-pubic tendon:- it is an insertion of rectus abdominus muscle and it is present
infront of pubic bone is known as prepubic tendon.
11. Tendon:- it is a band of dense white fibrous tissue by means of which muscle is
attached.

MUSCLES OF THE NECK
1. Muscle sternocephalicus:- extends from the sternum to the head on the
ventrolateral part of the neck. In the posterior two third of the neck the right and
left muscles meet at the median plane. Superficial part is sternomandibularis.
Deep part is sternomastoideus. Sternomastoideus is about twice as wide as the
mandibular part.
2. Muscle sternothyrohyoideus:- with its fellow lies on the ventral surface of the
cervical part of trachea. On the anterior third of the neck it divides into a medial
hyoid branch and a lateral thyroid branch.
3. Muscle scalenus:- has dorsal and ventral parts. The dorsal part has long
superficial and short deep parts. The brachial plexus passes to this muscle.
4. Muscle rectus capitis ventralis major:- is long and narrow and adjacent to the
median plane at its insertion.
5. Muscle rectus capitis ventralis:- minor is the small ventral sriated muscle of the
head crossing the lateral part of the ventral surface of the occipito-atlantal joint.
6. Longus colli- lies on the ventral surface of the vertebrae from 5th/6th thoracic
vertebra to the atlas and it consists of two parts; 1. Thoracic and 2. Cervical.
MUSCLES OF THE SHOULDER GIRDLE

Muscles which attach to the thoracic limb to the head, neck and trunk
 First layer:-
1. Muscle trapazius:- superficial and triangular muscle. It is located on the upper
part of the shoulder and extends onto lateral surface of the neck.
Relation:- superficially the skin and fascia. Deeply the latisimus dorsi,
rhomboideus, serratus cervicis.
2. Muscle omotransversarius:- On the lateral surface of the neck extending from
the wing of the atlas to the shoulder. Posterior part is between the
brachiocephalicus and trapezius muscle. This part is subcutaneous
 Second layer:-
3. Muscle rhomboideus:- is attached to the deep surface of the scapular cartilage
and extends forward to the level of the axis under the trapezius.

4. Muscle latissimus dorsi:- flat and triangular, covers much of the lateral thoracic
wall
Relation:- superficially the skin and fascia, trapezius and triceps brachii. Deeply
the ribs and external intercostal muscles serratus thoracis, longiscimus costarum,
longiscimus dorsi.
5. Muscle brachiocephalicus:- is a long flat muscle on the lateral surface of the
neck extending from the arm to the head. It has two parts, dorsal and ventral
Realation:- superficially skin and fascia. Deeply the biceps brachi, insertion of
deep pectoral and omotransversarius muscle.
6. Superficial pectoral muscle:- extends from anterior and ventral part of the
sternum to the medial surface of the arm and forearm.
Relation:- superficially the skin and fascia. Deeply the deep pectoral and biceps
brachi muscles.
7. Deep pectoral muscle:- is large and covered in part by the superficial pectoral
muscles. Its fibers are largely longitudinal.
Relation:- superficially skin and fascia and superficial pectoral muscle. Deeply
the abdominal muscle, rectus abdominis, external intercostals and rectus thoracis
muscles.
8. Serratus ventralis:- wide and fan shaped, extends from the second or third
cervical vertebra to the ninth rib. Two divisions, cervical and thoracic.
MUSCLES OF SHOULDER AND ARM

Muscles in this region are on the scapula and end on the arm. They may be
divided into two groups, lateral & medial or costal.
 Lateral group:-
1. Muscle deltoideus:- it is a triangular muscle on the lateral surface of the limb
that extends upward from the deltoid tuberosity. It has acromial and scapular
part.
Relation:- superficially- skin, fascia and omobrachial. Deep- long and lateral
heads of the triceps brachii, infraspinatus and teres minor muscles.
2. Supraspinatus muscle:- occupies all of the supraspinatus fossa and extends
anterior to the fossa and covers the tuber scapula.

Relation:- superficially- trapezius and omotransversarius. Deeply- scapular
cartilage, supraspinatus fossa, tuber scapulae and origin of the biceps brachii
muscle.
3. Infraspinatus muscle:- occupies the infraspinatus fossa and extends beyond the
posterior border of the scapula in the distal half of its length.
Relation:- superficially- trapezius, latiscimus dorsii and deltoideus muscles, skin
and fascia. Deeply- scapula and its cartilage, teres major and teres minor
muscles.
4. Teres minor:- its small and lies on the deep surface of the deltoid muscle.
Relation:- superficially- deltoid and small part of infraspinatus muscle. Deeply-
origin of the long head of the triceps brachii muscle.
 Medial group:-
5. Muscle subscapularis:- flat and triangular muscle and lies on the medial surface
of the scapula.
Relation:- medially- the serratus ventralis muscle & subscapular nerve.
Laterally- scapula, shoulder joint and teres major muscle.
6. Teres major:- flat and on the medial surface of the shoulder and arm behind the
shoulder joint.
Relation- Medially- the serratus ventralis muscle, radial nerve and subscapular
vein. Laterally- the latiscimus dorsi and long head of the triceps brachii muscles.
The subscapular vessels lies along the anterior border.
7. Coracobrachialis:- lies on the medial surface of the shoulder joint and the
medial surface of the humerus.
Relation:- medially the deep pectoral muscle. Laterally- the humerus, insertion
of teres major and latissmus dorsi muscles and insertion of the subscapular
muscle.
 ARM REGION
8. Muscle biceps brachii:- it is cylindrical in shape & lies on the anterior surface of
the arm
Relation:- origin is covered by the distal part of the supraspinatus muscle.
Medially and anteriorly are the pectoral muscles. Laterally- the brachiocephalicus
& superficial pectoral muscles.

9. Muscle brachialis:- large and fleshy, occupies the musculospiral groove of
humerus.
Relation:- superficially the long and lateral head of triceps brachii, radial nerve.
Deeply- musculospiral groove, anterior surface of elbow joint.
10. Muscle tensor fascia antibrachii:- extends from the posterior angle of the
scapula to the medial surface of the olecranon.
Relation:- laterally the long head of the triceps brachii muscle. Medially- the
latissimus dorsii muscle. Below it is related to the deep pectoral muscle.
11. Muscle triceps brachii:- large three headed muscle occupies the angle formed by
the scapula & humerus. The heads are named; long or middle, medial and lateral.
Lateral head- it is long and flat
Long head- it is much larger. It has distinct tendons beginning near the middle of
its length that passes over the summit of the olecranon.
Medial head- it is smallest & is covered to some extent by long head.
Relation- superficially the deltoid and omobrachial muscle. Medially- teres major,
latissimus dorsii, skin and fascia.
MUSCLES OF FOREARM AND MANUS

 Extensor Division:
1. Muscle extensor carpi radialis:- It is the largest and most medial of the extensor
group. Extends from distal part of humerus to the metacarpus.
Relation- superficially, lateral head of triceps brachii muscle, tendon of extensor
carpi obliqus, dorsal carpal fascia and skin. Deeply- humerus, elbow joint, radius
and carpus.
2. Muscle extensor carpi obliqus:- It crosses the distal part of the radius and the
carpus, passing obliquely from lateral to medial.
Relation:- origin is covered by digital extensor muscles. Tendon crosses that of
the extensor carpi radialis superfiacially and covered by dorsal annular ligament.
3. Common digital extensor:- is a long slender and extends from the distal part of
humerus to the third phalanx of both digits.
4. Medial digital extensor:- extends from distal extremity of humerus to 3rd phalanx
of medial digit.
5. Lateral digital extensor:- it extends from proximal extremity of radius 3rd
phalanx of lateral digit.

 Flexor Division
1. Muscle pronator teres:- it is fibro-muscular cord which crosses the medial
surface of the elbow joint and extends into the forearm along the medial border of
the radius.
Relation- medially the superficial pectoral muscle, skin and fascia. Laterally- the
median vessels and nerves.
2. Muscle flexor carpi radialis:- it is medial flexor of the carpus. It is fusiform in
shape and lies on the medial surface of the forearm just posterior to the radius.
Relation- deeply, median vessels and nerve and humerus head of the deep digital
flexor.
3. Muscle flexor carpi ulnaris:- it is middle or oblique flexor of the carpus. It
crosses the posterior surface of this region obliquely to reach the accessory carpal
bone.
4. Muscle ulnaris lateralis:- it is the lateral flexor of the carpus. It lies on the lateral
surface of the forearm behind the lateral digital extensor muscle.
Relation- superficially, skin and fascia. Deeply, the humeral head of the deep
digital flexor.
5. Muscle superficial digital flexor:- extends from the distal extremity of the
humerus to the pastern joint. Two parts- 1. Superficial and 2 deep.
6. Deep digital flexor:- it has three heads and extends from the distal part of the
humerus and proximal part of the ulna to the third phalanx.
i. Humeral head:- is the largest and readily divided into two equal parts.
ii. Ulnar:- short, thick and superficial.
iii. Radial:- small and triangular.
ABDOMINAL MUSCLES
1. Muscle oblicus abdominis externus:- it is most superficial of the abdominal
muscles. It has narrow, fleshy portion and an extensive aponeurosis. Direction of
muscle fibers is downward and backward.
2. Muscle obliqus abdominis iinternus:- it is a large, fan-shaped muscle and lies
on the deep surface of the external oblique. Two indistinct parts are formed by the
widely separated insertions. Direction of the muscle fiber is downward and
forward.

3. Muscle transverse abdominis:- it is a muscular sheet on the deep surface of the
obliqus abdominis internus and rectus abdominis muscle. Fibers are transverse
and pass downward and inward toward the linea alba.
4. Muscle rectus abdominis:- it is limited to the abdominal floor and extends from
the sternum to the pubis. Fibers are longitudinal.
Linea alba:- it is a white, fibrous raphe that extends from the prepubic tendon to the
xiphoid cartilage. It is formed by the union of aponeurosis of the oblique and
transverse abdominal muscles. The umbilicus; is a cicatrix on the linea alba a little
posterior to its middle.
MUSCLES OF HIP & THIGH

 LATERAL GROUP
1. Muscle tensor fascia lata:- it is thin, triangular and on the anterior part of the
thigh.
Relation- Superficially- skin and fascia. Prefemoral lymph gland on posterior
border. Deeply- rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, iliacus and gluteus medius.
2. Muscle gluteus medius:- it extends forward and inward from the trochanter major
to the posterior part of lumbar region.
Relation- superficially- vertebral head of biceps femoris, vastus lateralis and skin
and fascia. Deeply- deep gluteus, iliacus muscle.
3. Muscle gluteus profundus:- it is thin, triangular and covers the hip joint
extending forward to near the tuber coxae.
Relation- superficially- gluteus medius. Deeply- hip joint.
4. Muscle biceps femoris:- it is long, broad and on the lateral surface of the hip and
thigh. The fleshy part is succeded at the level of the stifle, by an aponeurosis which
extend into the leg. Two heads. i. Ischial head & ii. Vertebral head.
Relation- superficially- skin and fascia. Deeply- gluteus medius. Posterior border-
semitendinosus.
5. Muscle semitendinosus:- extends from the tuber ischii to the tibia and tuber
calcis. It is long, narrow and fleshy. In the thigh region it is on the poeterolateral
surface of the limb between the semimembranosus and biceps femoris.
Relation- in the distal part of the thigh the muscle is related deeply to the popliteal
lymphgland and medial head of muscle gastrocnemius.

 MEDIAL GROUP:-
6. Muscle Sartorius:- it is long, narrow and located on the medial surface of the
thigh. It extends from the shaft of the ilium to the stifle joint.
Relation- superficially (medially)- the skin and fascia below the pubis and
aponeurosis of external oblique muscle and iliac fascia above this bone. Deeply
(laterally)- the psoas major, vastus medialis and pectineus muscles.
7. Muscle gracilis:- covers the medial surface of the thigh.
Relation- superficially (medially)- skin and fascia, saphenous vessels and penis or
mammary gland. Deeply (laterally)- the semitendinosus, semimembranosus,
adductor and pectineus muscle. Along the anterior border Sartorius is present.
8. Muscle pectineus:- it is on the medial surface of the femur, between the adductor
and vastus medialis muscles.
Relation- gracilis- is medial, adductor- posterior, femoral vessels & vastus
medialis- anterior.
9. Muscle adductor:- it is situated posterior to the femur between the pectineus and
semimembranosus muscles.
10. Muscle semimembranosus:- it is named from its thin membranous appearance
in man. It is a large, three-sided muscle between the tuber ischii and the stifle joint.
Relation- medially- the gracilis, skin and fascia. Anterior surface is in the contact
with the adductor muscle. Laterally- biceps femoris, semitendinosus and medial
head of the gastrocnemius muscle.
11. Muscle obturator internus:- thin and fan shaped, located on the pelvic floor.
12. Muscle obturator externus:- extends from the ventral surface of the pelvis to the
trochanteric fossa.
13. Muscle quadratus femoris:- is narrow and extends from the ischium to the
femur. Origin is fleshy and insertion is tendinous.
Relation- dorsally- externus obturator and gamellus. Ventrally and posteriorly is
semimembranous. Sciatic nerve and biceps femoris crosses its lateral border.
14. Muscle gamellus:- it is a thin sheet crossing the posterior surface of the hip joint.
Relation- deeply- lateral border of ischium and the insertion of internal and
external obturator muscles. Superficially- sciatic nerve and biceps femoris.

 ANTERIOR GROUP:-
15. Muscle quadriceps femoris:- it is large, four headed and lies anterior to the
femur.
16. Rectus femoris:- named from the direction of the muscle fibers and vastic named
from their position and size.
Heads :
i. Muscle rectus femoris:- extends from the ilium to the patella and is
covered laterally by the vastus lateralis.
ii. Vastus lateralis:- it is lateral and most extensive muscle of the group.
iii. Vastus medialis:- is the medial division of the quadriceps group and is
about half the size of the lateral vastus.
iv. Vastus intermedius:- is the smaller of the heads of the quadriceps femoris
group. It lies on the anterior surface of the femur and is covered by the
other head.
MUSCLES OF THE LEG AND FOOT

 EXTENSOR GROUP:-
1. Long digital extensor:- extend from distal extremity of the femur to the third
phalanx of each digit.
2. Muscle medial digital extensor:- extends from the distal extremity of the femur
to the abaxial surface of the third phalanx medial digit.
3. Muscle lateral digital extensor:- is on the lateral surface of the leg and extends
from the stifle joint to the third phalanx lateral digit.
4. Muscle peroneus longus:- is small, flat, triangular and occupies the dorsolateral
part of the leg. It extends from the stifle joint to the distal row of tarsal bones.
Belly lies between the lateral digital extensor and peroneus tertius in upper part of
leg.
5. Muscle peroneus tertius:- is large, superficial and extends along the dorsal
surface of the leg from the stifle to the metatarsus. It is in complex muscles along
with long and medial digital extensor.
Relation- deeply the long and medial digital flexor muscles.

6. Muscle anterior tibialis:- lies on the anterior surface of the tibia and is largely
covered by the long and medial extensor muscles of the digit. It is present just
below the complex group.
7. Muscle extensor bravis:- is on the dorsal surface of the tarsus and proximal half
of the metatarsus. Structure- The muscle has a small tendon of origin but otherwise
is fleshy. The insertion is to several inches of the tendon of the long digital
extensor.
 PLANTER OR FLEXOR GROUP

1. Muscle gastrocnemius:- extends from the distal part of the femur to the tuber
calcis. It has two bellies; medial and lateral that form the proximal half of the
muscle.
2. Muscle soleus:- is flat and located in the proximal half of the lateral digital
extensor.
Relation- superficially, skin, fascia and peroneal nereve. Deeply- long head of
deep digital flexor.
3. Muscle superficial digital flexor:- extends from the digital part of the femur to
the middle of the digits.
Relation- superficially- gastrocnemius muscle, skin and fascia. Deeply- tendon of
the deep digital flexor.
4. Muscle deep digital flexor:- consists of three heads which lies on the posterior
surface of the tibia. Its tendon of insertion extends to the third phalanx of both
functional digits.
5. Muscle popliteus:- lies on the upper part of the planter surface of the tibia.
Relation- starting at its origin the muscle passes medially and downward.
Superficially- the superficial digital flexor and gastrocnemius muscle and
branches of the tibial nerve and popliteal vessels. Deeply- the lateral condyle and
posterior surface of the tibia and the popliteal vessels.
 TENDO ACHILLIS:- It consists of the tendons to tuber calcis. These tendons are
from the gastrocnemius and superficial digital flexor and also the tarsal insertion of
the semitendinosus and biceps femoris muscles. Anterior designation for these tendon
is the ‘Ham-string’. Rupture or division of these tendons prevents the limb from
supporting weight.

AESTHESIOLOGY
 The aesthesiology deals with organs of special senses which receive external
stimuli and conduct impulses to brain which results in sensation of sight, hearing,
taste, smell, touch, pain, temperature, pressure etc.
 These sensations are received by receptors usually in form of “bipolar neurons”
(eye, olfactory mucous membrane, skin) or specialized neuro-epithelial cells (taste
buds, internal ear) or peripheral processes / dendrites of neurons (skin).
 Sense organs and their senses:
Sr No Organ Sense organ Sense
1 Eye Organ of vision / sight Vision
2 Ear Organ of hearing Hearing
3 Skin Organ of touch Touch
4 Taste buds on tongue Organ of taste Taste
5 Olfactory part of nose Organ of smell Smell
Skin:
Layers of the Epidermis
1) Stratum corneum
2) Stratum lucidum
3) Stratum granulosum
4) Stratum spinosum
5) Stratum basale
Skin of cow:
 Skin of cow is 3 to 4 mm thick. Thickness varies region to region
 The colour, size and thickness of the hairs are highly variable.
 The seat and sebaceous glands are less in number.
 The end of tail presents long hair in form of brush.
 Tactile hairs are found on lip, nostrils eyelids and external ear.
 Subcutis presents striated muscle, called Muscle subcutaneous. Contraction of this
muscle causes twitching of skin.
Skin of Horse:
 Skin is thinner than cow.
 Sweat and sebaseous gland are well developed.
 Dorsal border of wither, neck and forehead present long hairs, called as mane.
 Tail bears long hairs, typical to the species.

Skin of Dog:
 The palmer surface of carpus, Metacarpus and digits are hairless and bear pads. The
pads are composed of fibro-elastic tissue, fat and thick keratinized coverings. Five
claws in a limb, one for each digit
Skin of Fowl:
 Epidermis appendages: comb, wattles, earlobes, feathers, scales, claws
 Beaks are horny covering of upper and low jaws
 The distal end of metatarsal presents metatarsal spur. It is covered by horny
coverings.
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
It includes the lymphatic and blood vascular system
Blood vascular system:-
Heart:- Heart is a hollow muscular organ which function as a force and suction pump,
situated in the middle mediastinal space of the thorax on the left side. Heart is enclosed
in the fibro-serous sac known as pericardium, which on the left side is in the contact with
the chest wall as far back as the fourth intercostals space. On the right side it is covered
by lung, also forming a triangular notch on the right lung at the ventral aspect of the 4 th
rib and adjacent intercostal space.
Pericardium:- It is a part of serous membrane covering the heart. It is a fibro-serous sac,
which encloses the heart and consists of two layers; fibrous and serous. The fibrous layer
is thin, strong and inelastic. At the base of the heart it is attached with great blood vessels
and below at 6th costal cartilage of sternum, by two ligaments; sterno-pericardiac
ligaments (right and left). The serous layer consists of parietal and visceral parts. In
between two layers serous fluid; liquor pericardi is present. The parietal part is closely
attached with the internal face of the fibrous layer, while visceral part covers the heart
and is termed as epicardium.
Horse:- Left:- 3rd to 6th intercostals space
Right:- 3rd to 5th intercostals space
Dog:- Pericardium attached to the sternal part of the diaphragm by pericardio-phrenic
ligament and connected to the sternum only at mediastinal pleura. The area of contact is
chiefly ventral from point opposite to the third rib as far as xiphoid cartilage.

Fowl:- Pericardium is thin and membranous. It gives attachment to the sternum and
falciform ligament of the liver. It is related to the lobes of the liver, and anterior thoracic
air sac laterally, sternum below and trachea, oesophagus, clavicular and thoracic air sacs
dorsally.
Heart:- The average weight of heart is 0.4-0.5 % of total body weight of animal.
Involuntary muscular organ of irregular flattened cone shaped, present in the greater part
of the middle mediastinal space. It is free in pericardium and attached at the base by the
great blood vessels. The long axis is directed ventrally and backward. Its position is from
2nd to 6th rib.
It presents two surfaces, two borders, a base and an apex.
The anterior border is strongly convex and posterior border is shorter and nearly
ventral and is opposite to the 5th intercostal space.
The two surfaces are convex and marked by grooves which indicate the division
of heart into four chambers. The transverse or coronary groove indicates the division
between the upper atria and lower ventricles. It completely encircles to the heart except
at the origin of pulmonary artery. The longitudinal grooves are left or anterior and right
or posterior. The left groove origins at the coronary groove behind the origin of pulmonary
artery and descend down almost parallel to the posterior border. The right groove begins
at the coronary groove below the termination of the posterior venacava and passes towards
the apex but doesn’t reach the apex. There is an intermediate groove which is posterior in
position and is shallow. It extends from coronary groove on the wall of left ventricle, but
does not reach the apex. The groove occupies the vessels and fat.
Ventricles:-
Right:- it form the anterior part of ventricular mass and form the anterior border
of the heart. It doesn’t reaches upto the apex of heart. In cross section it is triangular in
outline and crecentric in shape. At the origin of pulmonary artery, a higher projection is
present called as conus arteriosus. Wall of right ventricle is thinner.
Following features are seen in the interior,
1. Endocardium:-
2. Moderate band:- which is a rounded musculotendinious cord extending from
interventricular septum to the lateral wall at the base of the lateral muscular
papillae. It prevents the overdistension of the right ventricle.

3. The wall bears muscular ridges- trabaculae, cornea, these ridges in the form of
conical flattened projection are the musculi papillares or papillary muscle and are
three in number. These are continuous at their bases with the wall (2 on the septum
and 1 on the anterior wall). At the ventricles and at the apices they give attachment
to the chordae tendinae, which are fibrous cords attached at their other ends to the
cusps of the atrioventricular valve.
4. The right atrio-ventricular orifice:- is oval, guarded by tricuspid valve made up
of 3 cusps. One is between the artrio-ventricular orifice and the conus arteriosum.
Second is against the ventricular septum and third one on the right margin. The
the peripheral edges of the cusps are attached to the fibrous ring of the artrio-
ventricular opening and the central edges hang down into the ventricle and give
attachment to the chordae-tendinae. The auricular surfaces of cusps are smooth
and ventricular surfaces are rough and furnish attachment to the chordae tendinae.
The valves are folds of endocardium strengthen by fibrous tissue and at the
periphery muscular tissue. Each cusp receives chordae tendinae from two
papillary muscles.
5. Pulmonary orifice:- It is circular and is situated at the summit of the conus
arteriosum. It is guarded by valves of three semilunar cusps. One medial
(anterior), one lateral (anterior) and third posterior.
6. A crest:- the crista supraventricularis seperates the cavity of the conus arteriosus
from the atrio-ventricular orifice.
Left ventricle:-
It forms the apex of the heart and posterior border of heart. Wall is thicker. In
cross section, it is completely circular. In embalmed dead animal an account of the
great contraction of its wall. The cavity of left ventricle appears smaller than that of
the right ventricle.
Structures are similar to that of right ventricle, but moderate bands are two and
very strong. They are more tendinous and branched. Papillary muscles are two in
number and they are on either side. The left atrio-ventricular opening is circular and
is guarded by the bicuspid or mitral valve. Cusps are anterior and posterior. Aortic
opening is guarded by aortic valve, composed of three semilunar cusps. One cusp is

anterior and the others, right and left posterior in position. The free edges of each cusp
contains a small central nodule of fibrous tissue.
Ventricular septum placed obliquely facing convex surface towards right and
buldge into the right ventricle. The concave surface looks backwards and to the left
and faces into the left ventricle. Hence the right ventricle appears crescentric and left
circular in cross section.
Right atrium:-
It form the right anterior part of the base and is above the right ventricle. It consist
of principle cavity- sinus venarum and a blind diverticulum- the appendix. The
auricular appendix curves around the anterior face of the aorta and its blind end
appears in front of the origin of the pulmonary artery.
Structures opens are:
1. Anterior venacava:- Opening at the dorso-anterior part
2. Posterior venacava:- Opening at the posterior part
3. Vena hemiazygous/azygous vein:- In coronary sinus.
4. Great coronary vein:- In the coronary sinus- opens in the sinous venarum below
the opening of the posterior venacava. The orifice is provided with a semilunar
fold of endocardium, the coronary valve
5. Right atrio-ventricular valve:- Tricuspid valve at the lower part of the floor of the
sinus
Other structures are:-
a. Intervenous crest:- projecting downward and forward from the dorsal wall in
front of the opening of the posterior venacava. This tends to direct the flow of
blood from the anterior venacava towards the auriculo-ventricular opening.
This crest terminates ventrally, known as crista terminalis.
b. Fossa ovalis:- it is oval depression or diverticulum present at the point of
entrance of the posterior venacava and is a remnant of the foramen ovale of
the foetus. The interior of the auricle in appendix is not smooth but crossed in
various directions by muscular ridges, the musculi pectinati. The musculi
pectinati terminate above on curved crest the crista terminalis.several small
orifices of small cardiac veins are concealed in the depressions between the
musculi pectinati.

Left atrium:-
It forms the posterior part of the base of the heart. It lies behind the pulmonary
artery and aorta and above the left ventricle. It consists of the sinus venorum and
appendix. The appendix extends on the left side and its blind end lies behind the origin of
the pulmonary artery. The sinus venorum receives the pulmonary veins, about 4-7 in
numbers, two groups.
Interior similar to that of right atrium except left atrio-ventricular opening which
is a bicuspid valve or mitral valve.
Horse:- 0.7 % of body weight, intermediate groove is absent, instead of os cardis, the
aortic ring contain on the right side a plate of cartilage. Sometimes a smaller plate is
present on the left side.
Dog:- It is ovoid in shape. The apex is blunt and rounded. It is large in hunting dogs. It is
nearly 1% of the body weight.
Fowl:- It is acute cone shaped and lies partly between the two lobes of the liver and partly
anterior to them. There are two anterior venacavae and a single posterior venacava. A
muscular fold; the Eustachian valve is found to the right of the opening of the posterior
venacava.
Papillary muscles are absent in the right ventricle. The pulmonary artery opening
has three semilunar valves. The left atrium is smaller than the right and the two pulmonary
veins open into it by a common opening. The left artioventricular valve is guarded by
membranous cusp. The aortic opening has three semilunar valves.
Between pulmonary artery and posterior aorta ligamentum arteriosum is present,
which is a remnant of ductus arteriosum of the foetal heart circulation.
Foetal Circulation :-
 Oxygenated blood returning from the placenta enters the embryo by Umbilical
vein and is conveyed to liver. From liver, it is conveyed to the posterior vena cava.
 Major part of blood of umbilical vein directly enters to the posterior vena cava
through the short cut called Ductus Venosus and remained blood through hepatic
veins.
 The unoxygenated blood of the portal vein and posterior vena cava contaminates
only partially the large amount of volume of oxygenated blood from the placenta.
In sharp contrast, the blood returning from the Anterior Vena cava is very poor in
oxygen.
 In the heart, the blood coming from the anterior vena cava is directly poured into
the right ventricle and through pulmonary artery it leaves the heart. Some of this
reaches to the lungs but mostly it is conveyed through the ductus arteriosus to
the posterior aorta.
 On the other hand, the blood from the posterior vena cava entering into the right
atrium passes mostly to the left atrium through the foramen ovale and reaches the
left ventricle. From here it is passed into the aorta.
 The blood reaching the heart through coronary arteries and the head, neck through
bicarotid trunk contains comparatively more oxygen then which is distributed to
the other part of body through the posterior aorta.
 The umblical arteries from aorta, transport a large volume of this blood to the
placenta for oxygenation.
 At birth the lungs becomes functional and placental circulations stops. This causes
some foetal into disuses and gets atrophied.
Foetal shortcuts:
 The Umblical Arteries (two) become transformed into lateral ligaments of
urinary bladder (two).
 The umblical vein forms the ligamentum teres of liver (one).
 The ductus venosus also atrophies and transformed into ligamentum venosum
embedded in the substance of liver.
 The ductus arteriosus is transformed into the ligamentum arteriosum.
 The foramen ovale get obliterated and site is marked permanently as depression
called fossa ovalis.

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
It consists of lymph glands and lymph vessels. Lymph vessels contain the lymph.
Their walls are very much thin with narrow valves.
Two large trunks
a. Thoracic duct
b. Right lymphatic duct

The lymph glands are intercalated in the course of the lymph vessels. Lymph
passes at least one lymph gland before it empties into venous system.
Lymph vessels which carry lymph to the gland are afferent and those
which leave the gland are efferent. The haemal lymph glands are dark red in colour
and these have no afferent or efferent vessels; but have the blood directly passing
through their channels.
a. Thoracic duct:-
It is a chief collecting trunk of the lymphatic system. It drains lymph from
the parts of the body; except right limb, right side of the head, neck and thorax. It
arises from the cistern chili; which is a reservoir of lymph, formed by the union
of the lumbar and gastro-intestinal trunks. The cistern chyli is an elongated
fusiform dilatation situated at the hiatus aorticus, dorsal to the aorta and ventral to
the last thoracic and first lumbar vertebra.
The intestinal trunk is formed at the ventral face of the posterior venacava,
just behind the dorsal border of the liver. It results from the union of common
efferent vessels of gastric and intestinal lymph glands. The gastric trunk is on the
left side of the celiac artery, the intestinal trunk follows the anterior mesenteric
artery. The trunk formed by the union of these two trunks bends dorsally between
the aorta and posterior venacava and unites with the lumbar trunk. The lumbar
trunk formed by the union of the efferents from iliac lymph gland. It also receives
efferents from the lumbar and renal lymph glands.
The thoracic duct arises from the cisterna chyli passes forward on the right
part of the dorsal face of the aorta covered by pleura and fat. At the 6th or 7th
thoracic vertebra, it inclines ventrally, crosses obliquely on the left face of the
oesophagus, passes forward on the left face of the trachea to the thoracic inlet. The
extra thoracic part is on the deep face of the left scalenus muscle. It curves
backwards and inwards under the bicarotid trunk and open on the dorsal face of
the left common jugular, jugular confluence or anterior venacava. In its course it
receives efferents of the intercostals, mediastinal and bronchial glands and at the
thoracic inlet it receives the duct from the left posterior cervical and the left
tracheal duct.

b. Right lymphatic duct:-
It is a short vessel which drains the lymph from the right side of head,
neck, right forelimb and thorax. When absent, several ducts open directly into the
thoracic duct or jugular confluence. It is formed by the union of right tracheal
lymph duct and the efferent of right posterior cervical and right axillary glands. It
lies on the deep face of the scalenus muscle above the terminal part of the right
jugular vein. It opens into the anterior venacava.
Tracheal ducts:-
These are right and left and are formed essentially by the confluence of
efferent vessels from the atlantal lymph gland. They receive efferents of cervical,
costo-cervical and prescapular glands. They pass along each side of the trachea
and oesophagus in relation to the carotid arteries. The right duct joins the efferents
of the posterior cervical and costo-cervical to form the right lymphatic duct or it
may join the right common jugular vein. The left duct opens into the thoracic duct.
Superficial lymph glands:-

1. Parotid
2. Mandibular
3. Atlantal
4. Prescapular
5. Prefemoral/ precrural
6. Superficial inguinal/ supra mammary
7. Popliteal
Splanchnology: is branch of science, which deals with study of visceral organs.

(splanchnos= viscus, pl. viscera; logy= study). The organs of this system are tubular
which are lined by mucous membrane and directly or indirectly communicates exterior.
Splanchnology includes:
1) Digestive system
2) Respiratory system
3) Urogenital system
a) Urinary system
b) Genital system (male & female)


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LAN-111

INTRODUCTORY LIVESTOCK ANATOMY

Anatomy:- To cut apart and see.

LAN – 111 Class Note Dr. M. M. Chudasama, Assistant Professor,

Text books for references:-

LAN – 111 Class Note Dr. M. M. Chudasama, Assistant Professor,

Fore limb Pelvic limb

Anterior Volar Anterior Planter

LAN – 111 Class Note Dr. M. M. Chudasama, Assistant Professor,

LAN – 111 Class Note Dr. M. M. Chudasama, Assistant Professor,

Blood vessels and nerves:-

Chemical composition of bone

Composition of bone:- (%)

Skeleton:- “It is a framework of hard structures (bone, cartilage)which supports and

Projection and Depression

Development and growth of bone

LAN – 111 Class Note Dr. M. M. Chudasama, Assistant Professor,

VERTEBRAL FORMULA IN DIFFERENT DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

LAN – 111 Class Note Dr. M. M. Chudasama, Assistant Professor,

6th cervical of ox:-

7th Cervical vertebra of ox:-

LAN – 111 Class Note Dr. M. M. Chudasama, Assistant Professor,

Anterior series of thoracic vertebra:-

LAN – 111 Class Note Dr. M. M. Chudasama, Assistant Professor,

ATLAS (1st Cervical Vertebra)

AXIS (2nd Cervical Vertebra)

LAN – 111 Class Note Dr. M. M. Chudasama, Assistant Professor,

LAN – 111 Class Note Dr. M. M. Chudasama, Assistant Professor,

LAN – 111 Class Note Dr. M. M. Chudasama, Assistant Professor,

LAN – 111 Class Note Dr. M. M. Chudasama, Assistant Professor,

BONES OF FACE (FACIAL BONES):-

LAN – 111 Class Note Dr. M. M. Chudasama, Assistant Professor,

Basal surface (Ventral surface):-

LAN – 111 Class Note Dr. M. M. Chudasama, Assistant Professor,

LAN – 111 Class Note Dr. M. M. Chudasama, Assistant Professor,

Orbital fossa of cattle:-

CRANIUM / CRANIAL CAVITY

LAN – 111 Class Note Dr. M. M. Chudasama, Assistant Professor,

LAN – 111 Class Note Dr. M. M. Chudasama, Assistant Professor,

LAN – 111 Class Note Dr. M. M. Chudasama, Assistant Professor,

LAN – 111 Class Note Dr. M. M. Chudasama, Assistant Professor,

LAN – 111 Class Note Dr. M. M. Chudasama, Assistant Professor,

LAN – 111 Class Note Dr. M. M. Chudasama, Assistant Professor,

 Surfaces (two in number):-

1. Lateral surface is wide above than below.

 Borders (three in number):-

 Angles (three in number):-

LAN – 111 Class Note Dr. M. M. Chudasama, Assistant Professor,

LAN – 111 Class Note Dr. M. M. Chudasama, Assistant Professor,

LAN – 111 Class Note Dr. M. M. Chudasama, Assistant Professor,

LAN – 111 Class Note Dr. M. M. Chudasama, Assistant Professor,

LAN – 111 Class Note Dr. M. M. Chudasama, Assistant Professor,

LAN – 111 Class Note Dr. M. M. Chudasama, Assistant Professor,

LAN – 111 Class Note Dr. M. M. Chudasama, Assistant Professor,

LAN – 111 Class Note Dr. M. M. Chudasama, Assistant Professor,

 Ischiopubic symphysis or pelvic symphysis:- It is formed by union of medial

Bony pelvis (pelvic cavity)

LAN – 111 Class Note Dr. M. M. Chudasama, Assistant Professor,

LAN – 111 Class Note Dr. M. M. Chudasama, Assistant Professor,

LAN – 111 Class Note Dr. M. M. Chudasama, Assistant Professor,

LAN – 111 Class Note Dr. M. M. Chudasama, Assistant Professor,

Synarthrosis or Diarthrosis or Amphiarthrosis or