WHY DENSITY?

Debunking the myth of the cubic watermelon

research group
2 3
 CHAPTER INDEX

a. WHAT IS DENSITY? ............................................................................... 6-23

b. THE INTENSE DENSITY ....................................................................... 24-51

c. DENSITY AND URBAN FORMS .......................................................... 52-93

d. THE FRIENDLY DENSITY ................................................................... 94-127

© a+t architecture publishers

No part of this publication, including the cover, may be reproduced or transmitted e. THE CLEAN DENSITY ...................................................................... 128-137
without the express authorization in writing of the publisher.

a+t architecture publishers. Calle General Álava, 15 2°A. 01005 Vitoria-Gasteiz. Spain + THE DESIRABLE DENSITY ............................................................... 138-141

aplust.net
a WHAT IS
DENSITY?

go back to index
 01.
a

The cubic watermelon

What is density? This is a very simple question at first sight that

makes us wonder about for years.
Before trying to answer this question, let’s see what density is not.
Very often, when you hear about density and city you associate
with images from Hong Kong or Benidorm, -the hyperdense city,
¬with skyscrapers put together and small apartments inside.
It reminds us the story of the cubic watermelon.
Around the 80s, a farmer, on the island of Shikoku, south of Ja-
pan came up with the idea of making a cube-shaped watermelon
which could easily be packed and stored.
He created a cubic mould, where each seed would grow adopt-
ing a cubic form.
The result was a wonderful cubic watermelon, which remained
stable and it was easier to be stored, packed and shipped.
8 9
You can do this with watermelons, but you can’t do it with buildings.
Density has nothing to do with the volumetric exploitation of the
city. It is not a question of bringing in as many homes as possible.
It is not a question of reducing voids.
10
If you do that with buildings, it won’t be for the sake of density, it
will be for the sake of speculation and the result will be the slums,
as history has proved already.
11
 02.
a

Why density matters?

01
CO2 EMISSIONS

In terms of carbon emissions, it has been proved that the dis-

persed city, consisting of individual houses, is a bigger source of
carbon emissions than the compact city, not only for the energy re-
quired for each house, but also for the emissions derived from the
02
individual transport, for public transport is unaffordable because INFRASTRUCTURES

the population does not reach a critical mass.

Secondly, road surfaces increase proportionally to the dispersion
and convert rural land into asphalt landscapes.
The proportion of asphalt needed to serve individual houses is of 1
m2 of road per 1 m2 of gross floor area, and the tons of material need-
ed for road constructions and buildings could achieve in many cases
the same proportion of 1:1.
Finally, the compact city promotes interaction between citizens and
uses, not only as neighbors but at a bigger scale, sharing facilities, 03
COMMUNITY
amenities, and public spaces.
12 13
 03. We tried to put in relation the
a

architectural project with a certain

What density means to us way of living, that which promotes:
. the compact city instead of the
dispersed city,
. the collective housing instead o
the individual houses and
. the interaction of functions
instead of the segregation of uses.
After many years analyzing
projects, we are beginning to
define what density means to
We began to be interested in density by the end of the 90s.
In architecture publications, housing projects used to be shown
us and we think that it based on
as objects, isolated from the surroundings, with any data related
the interaction between three
to the inputs they contribute to the city.
We believed that housing projects should be shown in relation elements:
with the type of city they proposed, because they aren’t just
buildings but part of a given city. Agents, fluxes and territory.
14 15
 04.
a

Who are the agents of density?

THE OWNER OF THE LAND THE RULER

On the opposite page we have the conventional agents of the city:

The owner of the land, the ruler, the urban planner, the devel- THE URBAN PLANNER THE DEVELOPER
oper, the architect and the citizen.
They all have had their specific aims and performances over the
history. But, as we will see through the coming pages, the con-
struction of a compact city requires that these traditional agents
turn into more complex entities in such a way that individual aims
–usually related to the dispersed city, are been transformed into
communal goals, capable to attain consensus and the common
good
In that respect, the dense city requires public-private partner-
ship to carry out the vision, participation of citizens at decision-
making levels, and a good dose of tolerance and social concern. THE ARCHITECT THE CITIZEN
16 17

05.
a
Which are the fluxes of density?
When we talk about the city or any other geographical space,
we identify the elements as two superimposed layers: fluxes
and territory. We recognize three types of fluxes:
natural fluxes, virtual fluxes and human fluxes.
18
. Natural fluxes are part of the
ecosystem of the territory. They
might be specific, as in the case
of water courses or the prevailing
winds, or general flows, such as
light or air.
. Virtual fluxes are decision flows,
which occur outside the physical
territory yet affect the physical
evolution of the territory as is
the case of political or economic
decisions.
. Human fluxes are related to the
movility of people or goods and
these are constrained by natural
and virtual flows.
19
 01 02
NATURAL FLUXES VIRTUAL FLUXES
They are those which affect the ecosystem of a territory, such as They are streams of decisions produced by the agents. There
watercourses, air or sunlight are economical, political and social decision fluxes

20 21
 03 01 + 02 + 03
HUMAN FLUXES FLUXES AND TERRITORY
They are the flows of individuals and goods which describe The combination of fluxes divides the territory into solids
human activity and voids

22 23
b THE INTENSE
DENSITY
The Renault site case-study

25

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 01.
b

Introduction

This is the case of the former site of the Renault car-

manufacturer, in the municipality of Boulogne-Billancourt, 7 km
east from the Parisian Champs Elysées.
In 1992 the Renault car factory discontinued production and
liberated a strategic area of 74 hectares, attracting a great deal
of land developers.
Here, an original combination of public and private interests led
to the transformation of the conventional agents of the city, who
acted in the right direction to create, together, a vibrant city
fragment.
26 27
 02.
b
The agents
The closure of the Renault factories triggered a process which
took 14 years to see the construction of the first building in the
new plan and whose total estimated time scale is 20 years.
The first stage in this process was for the councils and
the landowner to come together to form a public-private
partnership.
In 1995 the election of a new mayor for Boulogne-Billancourt
marks the real start of the project, with a political partnership,
at all levels of the state, highly favourable to implement an
ambitious city project.
The landowner and the group of governing bodies hire an
urban architect, Bruno Fortier, to lay down the ground rules:
28
The time has come to propose
a new way of living taking into
account demands concerning the
environment and social integration
which citizens are increasingly
willing to assume.
how many metres of build area can be offered to the future
developers, what percentage of land will be reserved for free
space, what will be the prevailing use and what degree of
mixed use and social integration will be allowed.
The outcome is a large scale urban plan which allows the
landowners to sell the land to a company made up of 4 large
property developers.
Based on the land sales and the definition of the master
plan, the group of governing bodies brings in a new agent,
the project manager, who will be responsible for setting up a
public-private partnership which is to manage and oversee the
process from 2003 until its completion.
29
02
THE OWNER OF THE LAND
THE RULER
THE DEVELOPER

The landowner, the carmakers Re-

nault, sells the land to the develop-
ment company DBS, according to the
plan drawn up by Bruno Fortier, which
guarantees a one million square metre
build area and releasing the required
public spaces to the council.
One of the agents who stands out in
this first operation is Jean Pierre Four-
cade. Elected Mayor of Boulogne-Bil-
lancourt in 1995, Fourcade is a profes-
sional politician who has been Minister
of both Finance and Infrastructures in
successive right-wing governments
since the 70s. He knows how the State
FOURCADE
works and he becomes Mayor while
also being Senator for the province.
Jacques Chirac has just become Presi-
dent of the Republic and Alain Juppé
is Prime Minister, both members of the
same party as Fourcade.
30 31
02
THE MANAGER
THE URBAN PLANNER

The manager of this project has also

been one of the most significant
agents: Jean-Louis Subileau, whose
SUBILEAU
profile lies between the politician, the
economist and the town planner who
creates and manages, at the gover-
nor’s request, a public-private partner-
ship, in which investment funds hold a
stake, which controls all the urban and
economic development of the opera-
tion. The governor, through this PPP,
does not only promote and manage
the public spaces and amenities, but
also coordinates-controls the design
and construction of all the architectural
projects.
The project manager, through a pub-
lic tender contest, selects two studies
by architects-town planners: Patrick
Chavannes and Christian Devilliers,
who are years later joined by Jean
Nouvel for the design of the isle. Each
of the three, in collaboration with a
landscape architect, is commissioned
to design one of the three areas into
which the project site has been divided.

32 33
02
THE ARCHITECT
THE CITIZEN

The design of each of these large

blocks is seen as an urban project and
is subject to a public tender contest.
The winning bidder becomes the coor-
dinator of all the buildings in the block,
which in turn are the outcome of indi-
vidual tender contests.
Citizens are present through 16 asso-
ciations from the beginning of the de-
sign and regulation process. The Coor-
dinating Commission created in 1995
is the information exchange platform
where different citizen associations
take part in different working groups.
34 35
 03.
b

Fluxes on the Renault site When a decision is made

concerning the density of a plan,
In this segment of recycled land the agents embody a complete
vision of the type of city they desire.
potential economic value is
The new segment differs from the pre-existing segment in the generated based on the building
setting comprising large social housing estates put up in the 70s.
Now the fabric is laid out in large open blocks, the so-called options which are granted to the
Macrolots.
How are they formed? Here is where fluxes come into play. land. This potential shapes the
As we have already mentioned, virtual fluxes are currents of
decision brought about by the agents.
built form virtually with the aim to
The combination of political and economic fluxes also shapes maximize profit.
the outdoor space of the blocks. Either a shared city or a closed
city will be built, according to the balance between both fluxes. The main decisions which shape
The relationship between public outdoor space and private
the form are:
. the assigned floor area ratio
outdoor space will determine the success of the compact city.
When there is a lack of balance in this relationship and there
is a large amount of private space, we get closed blocks, with
isolated spaces with high-cost maintenance for the owners,
(build area / plot area)
which eliminates the option for large recreational areas or small
spaces for socializing. . maximum permitted build height
Lastly, the circulation fluxes, which reflect the requirements of
human activity, finish off the process of shaping the territory.
36
. percentage of floor area occupied. 37
03
NATURAL FLUXES
WATERCOURSES,
AIR AND SUNLIGHT

The river pulls the heart of the new

neighbourhood towards its bank. The
most vibrant hub of activity is concen-
trated alongside the dockland area.
The flow of sunlight requires separa-
tion and setting distances between
the buildings for light to get to each
dwelling.
The air flows more easily through
dwellings which face in two directions.
Lastly the climatic structure imposes
sustainable development and deter-
mines that the construction uses re-
newable energy sources and manages
rainwater and seasonal flooding.
38 39
03
VIRTUAL FLUXES
ECONOMIC FLUXES

Apart from density there are other de-

sign decisions which increase or de-
crease the value of the dwelling.
For instance, when we open up the
block and remove interior courtyards
and constricted views, this enhances
the design and increases the potential
value of each dwelling. On the other
hand, if exterior views are sacrificed
in favour of a greater use of the floor
area, the value of the block as a whole
increases yet the value of each dwell-
ing decreases.
In the case of the former Renault site,
we can see how the floor area ratio of
each plot is about 3.5, which means
that 3.5 m2 can be built for each 1 m2
of plot area. The average permitted
build height is 8 storeys and the area
occupied is 50%.

40 41
03
VIRTUAL FLUXES
POLITICAL FLUXES

There is a political decision to provide

a large quantity of housing, part of this
subsidized, mixed with amenities, ser-
vices, office space and ample green
areas. The flow of political decisions is
what models the mixed city.
In each macrolot, housing makes up
between 30% and 70% of the build
area, of which 30% is social housing.

42 43
 FACILITIES HOUSING

44 OFFICES RETAIL 45
03
VIRTUAL FLUXES
POLITICAL AND
ECONOMIC FLUXES

In this case of Renault site, the consen-

sus released quite an open city.
The pattern of the urban block is a big
piece of land, about 1 to 1.5 hectares,
the so-called Macrolot, where street
fronts break up to let inner courtyards
reach the street
The interior of these blocks is thus
landscaped and public. They are
closed at night, to prevent conflict and
remain open during the day.
As we said previously, this open space
represents the 50% of the macrolot
surface, and remains in public hands.

46 47
03
HUMAN FLUXES
CIRCULATIONS

The design of the road network bal-

ances the flow of automobiles with
that of pedestrians and light vehicles
(bicycles, skates, wheelchairs...)
Automobiles are banned from enter-
ing the interior of the large blocks
while pedestrians and light vehicles
can cross through them as a shortcut.

PEDESTRIAN NETWORK

48 ROAD NETWORK MACROLOT PERMEABILITY 49

TOTAL
NATURAL, VIRTUAL AND
HUMAN FLUXES

This drawing summarizes the

look of intense density.
The result of this master plan is a
sector where:
Gross density: 75 dwellings/ha
Net density 304 dwellings/ha
In terms of floor area ratio, that
is the intensity of the place
when you sum up all the uses
included:
1.5 for the master plan
3.5 for the macrolot
50% covered area
50 51
c DENSITY AND
URBAN FORMS

53

go back to index
How to manage Density in the urban block? We put Floor Area Ratio, better
In the scales of Density, from the territorial, to the dwelling
scale, the intermediate scale, that of the urban block, is the
than dwellings or population, as a
main field of activity of the architect. measure of Density.
No longer dwellings per hectare, as an indicator of Density
We have given-up considering Density as a quotient between Floor Area Ratio, FAR is a more
the number-of-dwellings by the surface-area of the plot.
For us, this has been an important change in our mind. balanced indicator of Density.
Along building-life cycle, different movements can be produced
between residential-uses and offices or commercial-spaces. Use
It’s more abstract and generic.
can change. This should be possible and desirable. Density shouldn’t be affected by
At the image, you can see volumes with different colours, that
mean different uses, mixed in a generic plot. debates on uses or zoning.
54 55
 01.
c

Urban forms

1 2 3

10 11 12

4 5 6

13 14 15

7 8 9

A B
TRADITIONAL URBAN FORMS SELECTED URBAN BLOCKS
Analyzed by a+t research group Published in a+t Density series

Trying to obtain a more accurate picture of Density, we’ve of the most significant urban blocks published by a+t during
developed an analysis comparing nine traditional forms with six the last fifteen years.
56 57
 02.
c

Traditional urban forms

Here you can see nine traditional ways of filling a void with a 01. SINGLE FAMILY HOUSES 02. ROWHOUSES 03. POINT BUILDINGS
FAR 0.50 FAR 1.20 FAR 1.44
solid. COV 0.25 COV 0.60 COV 0.24
HEI 2.00 HEI 2.00 HEI 6.00
These nine, are theoretical examples, and not real cases.
All the plots have one hectare.
We think that these nine examples summarize the range of
possibilities of stacking floor-area on a plot.
They are abstract forms and they try to cover different
situations of living in a city.

04. DOUBLE SLAB 05. SLAB 06. CLOSED URBAN BLOCK

FAR: Floor Area Ratio: The Gross Floor Area divided by the FAR 1.80 FAR 1.65 FAR 3.84
COV 0.30 COV 0.15 COV 0.64
total area of the plot. The units are sqm per sqm. HEI 6.00 HEI 11.00 HEI 6.00

COV: Coverage: It shows the relationship between built and

non-built space on the plot. The units are sqm per sqm.

HEI: Height index: It is not the height of the building or the

block. It measures the relation between Floor Area Ratio and
Coverage. It is a sort of average height. It has no units*.
07. URBAN BLOCK WITH TOWERS 08. PLINTH WITH TOWERS 09. TOWER
FAR 3.10 FAR 1.16 FAR 1.89
COV 0.88 COV 0.36 COV 0.09
HEI 3.52 HEI 3.22 HEI 21.00

*Some of these concepts coincide with the research made by Meta Berghauser Pont and Per Haupt in
Spacematrix. Space, Density and Urban Form. (NAi 2010).

58 59
 03.
c

Selected urban blocks

10. MIRADOR 11. RENAULT SITE
FAR 1.60 FAR 3.50
COV 0.11 COV 0.50
HEI 15.02 HEI 8.00

The selection of the six significant urban blocks has

been made taking into account the densification of the
neighborhood and other factors that increase the quality 12. DE LANDTONG 13. SHINONOME
FAR 3.08 FAR 4.18
of Density, called performances, which are explained in the COV 0.41 COV 0.34
HEI 7.19 HEI 12.41
coming pages. The selection we’ve made can be grouped into
four categories:
PERFORATED BLOCK: the Mirador building in Madrid, by
MVRDV and Blanca Lleó.
MACROLOT OR SUPER-PLOT: the Renault site in Paris, by
Patrick Chavannes and Christian Devilliers
HYBRID BLOCKS: De Landtong in Rotterdam, by Architekten
Cie, Frits van Dongen and Shinonome in Tokyo, by Riken
14. SCHOTS 1 AND 2 CIBOGA 15. 8 HOUSE
Yamamoto, Kengo Kuma, Toyo Ito and others. FAR 1.19 FAR 2.51
COV 0.34 COV 0.46
MEGAFORMS: Schots 1 and 2 CiBoGa in Groningen, HEI 3.50 HEI 5.41

Netherlands, by S333 and 8 House in Copenhagen, by BIG.

60 61
0310
THE PERFORATED BLOCK
MIRADOR BUILDING
MVRDV & BLANCA LLEÓ
Sanchinarro (Madrid, Spain)

Located in Madrid’s Sanchinarro ex-

tension, we think that here the authors
asked themselves:
How to subvert the rigidity of the given
Master Plan, in which all plots are more
or less traditional perimeter blocks?
It is, thus, a joke of subversion by con-
verting the traditional perimeter block
into a vertical block with a perforation
in its centre.
This block became an icon of a public
residential building, but many impor-
tant aspects were put aside, such as
circulations, dimensions of the apart-
ments and the open space of the plot.
This project is published in the book HoCo (a+t
Density series)
go back to urban forms
62 63
0310

THE PERFORATED BLOCK

FLOOR AREA RATIO is the same as the plots with Perimeter

Block of the Sanchinarro Master Plan.
COVERAGE has a very small value, it could be assimilated to
the Tower model included in the traditional forms selection.
The HEI indicator diminishes by the great hole in the middle.

FAR=1.60 - COV=0.11 - HEI=15.02

64 65
0311
THE MACROLOT
RENAULT SITE
PATRICK CHAVANNES,
CHRISTIAN DEVILLIERS
Paris (France)

The Renault site is based on a concept

from the eighties’: the open block.
It associated two opposed principles:
the freedom of the individual solid-
form and the strictness of the grid.
The open block is excavated and di-
vided into voids and solids which are
regulated by specific, but open rules.
It is a way between urbanism and ar-
chitecture.

This project is published in the book DENSITY IS

HOME (a+t Density series).
go back to urban forms
66 67
0311

THE MACROLOT

FAR is bigger in macrolot than in any other

of our selected European city blocks and
COVERAGE is in a medium range.

FAR=3.50 - COV=0.50 - HEI=8.00

68 69
0312
THE HYBRID BLOCK
DE LANDTONG
ARCHITEKTEN CIE, FRITS VAN DONGEN
Rotterdam (The Netherlands)

De Landtong and Shinonome maintain

the traditional relationship with the
street, reaching the limits of the plot.
These mixture of slabs, towers and
row houses avoid the problems of the
perimeter-city-block, which are:
· Difficult configuration of the corners,
· Less daylight in inner facades and
· Closed and un-accessible interior
spaces.
The difference between both is in the
character of their interior open spaces.
In De Landtong are private, in Shinon-
ome public.
Orientation also has to do with the
quality of Density: Here, three slabs
slope-down towards the south to gain
daylight in the courtyards.
This is an intense combination of the
best of two worlds: low and high density.

This project is published in the a+t n.12 HOUSING

AND FLEXIBILITY I.
go back to urban forms
70 71
0312

THE HYBRID BLOCK

In The Netherlands, it’s not normal to find 3.08 FAR and

a COVERAGE of 0.41.

FAR=3.08 - COV=0.41 - HEI=7.19

72 73
0313
THE HYBRID BLOCK
SHINONOME
RIKEN YAMAMOTO, KENGO KUMA
TOYO ITO AND OTHERS
Tokyo (Japan)

Shinonome follows a strategy to ac-

complish the need for subsidized
housing with a rich variety of types
and, at the same time, diverts the at-
tention from the five private specula-
tive towers located beside.
There is a big proportion of live-work
units, a very demanded typology in
Japan.
Great intensity, but, however, the in-
terior public space remains in propor-
tions, producing a balsamic effect,
pointing-up that density is a subjective
concept, shaped by other factors.

This project is published in the book Dbook (a+t

Density series).
go back to urban forms
74 75
0313

THE HYBRID BLOCK

The most significant value is a FAR of 4.18.

The COVERAGE is only 0.34, because there is a lot of
public space at the interior of the block.

FAR=4.18 - COV=0.34 - HEI=12.41

76 77
0314
THE MEGAFORM
SCHOTS 1 AND 2 CIBOGA
S333
Groningen (The Netherlands)

Let’s compare the next two examples:

CiBoGa and 8 House.
We consider them as two megaforms,
which try to go beyond the rigid for-
malization of the traditional urban
block. With geometrical operations,
two basic volumes have been elon-
gated, twisted and folded to obtain a
megaform.
These two blocks are located in a re-
gained area in the centre of Gronin-
gen. The absence of a predominant
grid enhances the opportunity to cre-
ate an urban event, which can act as a
node for the area. These hybrid blocks
performs not only with its solids, but
also with its voids.

This project is published in a+t n.22 DENSITY IV.

go back to urban forms
78 79
0314

THE MEGAFORM

Considering FAR index, in this case it is more important the

concept of Diversity, than that of Intensity. CiBoGa has a small
Coverage index, due to the big importance of open spaces

FAR=1.19 - COV=0.34 - HEI=3.50

80 81
0315
THE MEGAFORM
8 HOUSE
BIG ARCHITECTS
Copenhagen (Denmark)

The 8 House is located in Orestad

South, at the end of this new territory
incorporated to the city of Copenha-
gen, with nice views of the Kalfebod
Commons.
Its mission is to create a big pole of at-
traction in the area. In order to gather
enough population and produce a
lively city ambiance, the whole com-
plex, like CiBoGa and De Landtong,
is composed by putting-together two
urban blocks, a decision against the
prevailing master plan.
Till now, this is the largest private-
housing-development ever undertak-
en in Denmark. It is also a way between
urbanism and architecture.

This project is published in the book DENSITY IS

HOME (a+t Density series).
go back to urban forms
82 83
0315

THE MEGAFORM

FAR maintains a medium range situation. The big surface of

courtyards decreases also the COVERAGE of the plot.

FAR=2.51 - COV=0.46 - HEI=5.41

84 85
 04.
FAR

c
5,0

4,5

Traditional forms versus 4,0

06

selected blocks
3,5
07

3,0

2,5

2,0 09
04
05
1,5 03

08 02

1,0

01
0,5

COV
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1

This graph shows two axes. Horizontal axis shows the TRADITIONAL FORMS
COVERAGE index, and the vertical axis shows the FAR index.
In the first case the gradation is from zero to one, and in the 01. SINGLE FAMILY HOUSES 02. ROWHOUSES 03. POINT BUILDINGS
FAR 0.50 FAR 1.20 FAR 1.44
second, from zero to five. COV 0.25 COV 0.60 COV 0.24
HEI 2.00 HEI 2.00 HEI 6.00
Among the axes there are the nine traditional urban forms, with
the value of their indicators.
In terms of intensity, two urban forms show-off their power at
04. DOUBLE SLAB 05. SLAB 06. CLOSED URBAN BLOCK
the upper right corner. They are the perimeter block and the FAR 1.80 FAR 1.65 FAR 3.84
COV 0.30 COV 0.15 COV 0.64
singular volumes over a base. These are examples of an intense HEI 6.00 HEI 11,00 HEI 6,00

use of the land. All the rest of urban forms are under 2.00 FAR
with a small COVERAGE index. The exception is the example
of the typical British suburbia, number 2, row houses with no 07. URBAN BLOCK WITH TOWERS 08. PLINTH WITH TOWERS 09. TOWER
ending, which is not as dispersed as the single family scheme, FAR 3.10 FAR 1.16 FAR 1.89
COV 0.88 COV 0.36 COV 0.09
but not as concentrated as the strip or slab solutions. HEI 3.52 HEI 3.22 HEI 21.00

86 87
 FAR

One thing is clear: if we want to 5,0

4,5

have a wise grading of solids and 4,0

13

voids to enrich the urban form, we

11
3,5

12
3,0

would need empty spaces within 2,5

15

the plot. That means coverage 2,0

10
1,5

index has to be smaller than 0.50.

14

1,0

0,5

COV

This graph shows the precise relationship between the three 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1

indicators of density: FAR, COVERAGE and HEI.

All the blue selected blocks fulfill this rule. CiBoGa (14) is the SELECTED BLOCKS
smaller example from the point of view of FAR and with less
10. MIRADOR 11. RENAULT SITE 12. DE LANDTONG
COV index, because of the richness and gradation of public and FAR 1.60 FAR 3.50 FAR 3.08
COV 0.11 COV 0.50 COV 0.41
semi-public spaces and the strong desire for physical contact- HEI 15.02 HEI 8.00 HEI 7.19

with-the-ground of the Dutch population. Shinonome (13) is

the most intense block and reveals the strength of this type 13. SHINONOME 14. SCHOTS 1 and 2 CIBOGA 15. 8 HOUSE
FAR 4.18 FAR 1.19 FAR 2.51
of development. It has the highest FAR ratio, 4.18. Standard COV 0.34 COV 0.34 COV 0.46
HEI 12,41 HEI 3.50 HEI 5.41
European ratios sound ridiculous when they are compared to
these types of agglomerations of Asian cities, which maintain a
more complicated relationship with density.
We can see three sloping lines which establish neat pointed
areas of low, medium and high rise. High density not always
means high rise. Many examples support this idea and Macrolot
(11) and 8 House (15) are two of them.
88 89
 FAR

HIGH RISE MEDIUM RISE MEDIUM RISE

5,0

4,5
13

4,0
06
06
11
3,5 11

07
12 07
12

LOW RISE
3,0

15
2,5 15

2,0 09
04
04
10 05
1,5 03
03
14 08 02
14 08
1,0

01
0,5

COV
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1

MEDIUM RISE

Which density do we prefer?

The range of values that is worthwhile are the well balanced
urban blocks placed in the centre of the graph. In order to 06

create urban life and intensity we think that FAR should be 11

07
balanced around 3.00, this of course at the plot level. As a 12

general rule, we proclaim the advantages of the compact city. 15

We try even to avoid publishing single family houses. So, our

04
interest focuses on the intermediate area of Medium-Rise.
03
There is a golden triangle between 8 House (15) De Landtong 14 08

(12) and the Renault Macrolot (13), that joins together the
best qualities of the European block: dense, compact, mixed,
intense and diverse.
90 91
 11. RENAULT MACROLOT
FAR 3.50 MEDIUM RISE
COV 0.50
HEI 8.00

06

11

12 07

15

04

03
14 08

15. 8 HOUSE
FAR 2.51
COV 0.46
HEI 5.41

Two points of this triangle are good examples of two intense

ways of living in Europe: Nordic and Mediterranean. They
are the Macrolot (11), near the high line, a good example for
Southern countries, and the 8 House (15), well balanced in
the centre of the graph, which does the same for Northern
countries, but with Mediterranean touches as we’ll see.
92 93
d THE FRIENDLY
DENSITY

95

go back to index
 01.
d
Introduction
There are some characteristics of
density not measurable in terms
of figures and ratios, but with
the same importance. These are
the performances that define the
Quality of Density.
We can classify them into two
categories: hard and soft.
96
HARD PERFORMANCES are referred to physical aspects of
the built environment, such as accesses, circulations, types of
dwellings, orientation, communal spaces and exterior spaces...
It has to do with architecture.
SOFT PERFORMANCES imply more subjective conditions,
such as privacy, flexibility, spaciousness, relation with nature
and safety and security... It has to do with sensations, the
atmosphere and the perception of the space.
97
 02.
d

Hard performances

In order to identify the performances of an urban form we shall

use the 8 House in Copenhagen by BIG Architects which, as
we observed in the previous chapter, is a good example to
promote the compact active city.
The hard performances of the building have their origins in the
design process. These performances are architectural variables
chosen by the author once the urban criteria laid out in the
master plan have been accepted.
These are decisions which have profound implications on the
typology and functioning of the building.
98 99
02
ACCESSES
VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL
Staircases, elevators and streets

The diversity of typologies produces

the variety of accesses, ranging from
the open galleries or streets to the
vertical cores with stairs and lifts. Most
vertical cores are located on the fa-
çades facing the street so as to attain
more active building performance re-
garding the setting.

Every blue-vertical-arrow shows the location of an staircase and

elevator and each circle the access to the streets
100 101
02
CIRCULATIONS
THE MOEBIUS STRIP
Street in the sky

This is a walkable and cyclable block in

the sense you can promenade follow-
ing the public path which goes up and
down around the whole building.
This round performs a leading role in
the design of the building.
This building reminds us the stepped
streets of the Spanish village of Fri-
giliana in Malaga, where Bjarke Ingels
went once on holidays.
The idea is a landscape subversion by
the introduction of an artificial moun-
tain* in the flat plain of Copenhagen.
The slope is over the norm in Denmark,
but authorities accepted the solution *Previously BIG and JDS, did that with the
because it has rest-areas beside. Mountain Building also in Orestad.

The horizontal circulations are open

102 103
02
TYPES OF DWELLINGS
THE DIVERSITY OF A
NEIGHBOURHOOD
A B C
Terraced houses, apartments and TERRACED HOUSES APARTMENTS PENTHOUSE
penthouses

It seeks the integration of all possible

types in a block, to achieve the vitality
of a neighbourhood. The aim is to get
diversity.
Three different typologies on a com-
mercial, offices and nursery base have
been superimposed:
A Terrace houses on the bottom circu-
lation double-ring
B Apartments in the middle and
C Penthouses on the upper circulation
double-ring

Terraced houses on the bottom circulation double-ring

Apartments in the middle
Penthouses on the upper circulation double-ring
104 105
This is a picture of a traditional Potato-Row House, BIG tries to re-convert old typologies, with the
in Central Copenhagen same idea of a front-private courtyard
106 107
02
ORIENTATION
CROSS VENTILATION
Most of the dwellings are east-west
orientated

In a dwelling block, a minimum of two-

side facades assures cross ventilation
and better thermal regulation in all
seasonal conditions.
This is the case of all the 8 House
dwellings.
Furthermore, the volume has been
W
crushed down in its South corner to fa-
cilitate the entrance of sunlight. WINTER SOLSTICE 12:00 H

S
SUMMER SOLSTICE 12:00 H
108 109
02
COMMUNAL SPACES
THE SOCIAL TOWER
Multipurpose spaces stacked

In this block all the communal func-

tions have been concentrated in the
point where the figure 8 crosses itself.
This is a social tower of empty space ty-
ing or linking the House together from
basement to attic. It contains meeting
rooms, canteen for parties with kitchen
and outdoor spaces for barbecues. Its
cladding is made of aluminium gold
composite panels, in order to be dis-
tinguished as a communal place within
the block.

It is an empty space
tying or linking the House together from basement to attic
110 111
02
EXTERIOR SPACES
ORGY OF SPACES
Plazas, courtyards, stepped streets,
quays, front gardens and roof gardens

Bjarke Ingels refers to an “Orgy of

spaces” when he speaks about 8 House
because the variety of types.
Some of them are public, some semi-
public, some private and recreate the
diversity of exterior spaces in the his-
toric city.

01. North courtyard, in a Japanese style, with

cobblestones and grass mounds.
02. South courtyard, with a lot of sunlight and
exterior space for the kindergarten.

They recreate the diversity of exterior spaces in the historic city

01 02
112 113
 03.
d

Soft performances

Density is friendly owing to the subjective performances.

These performances are the last step in the entire process
of constructing the compact city, a process which starts off
dividing up solids and voids brought about by fluxes and
finishes up with perceptions such as privacy or safety.
This combination of decisions and conditions is synthesized
into a specific dwelling, located in a given building and setting,
which is what the user perceives.
The subjective performances of this dwelling come from its
interaction with the user and they only appear in the post-
occupancy period.
114 115
03
PRIVACY
BUFFER SPACE
Private outdoor space

Privacy is opposed to Community. The balance between both can be achieved

by means of architecture.
In the case of the dwellings located opposite the high-rise streets, privacy
is maintained by the terraces which act as intermediate spaces to buffer the
access.

116 117
03
FLEXIBILITY
CONTROL BY THE USER
Double height ceilings

The rising shape permits large interior ceiling-heights in some dwellings.

The user can act on the interior space not just horizontally, but also vertically. In
some cases, double-height ceilings give the possibility to have a mezzanine or a
second level with casual uses. The apartment on the image below has 90 sqm.

118 119
03
SPACIOUSNESS
UNEXPECTED VIEWS
Floor plan at different levels

The different width of the ribbon and different height of the dwelling’s section
allow variable future configurations of the interior layout.
This picture shows the richness of the spatial solution in this dwelling. Staircase,
two windows with different orientations, various floor levels, etc.
This row-house has 115 sqm.

120 121
03
RELATIONSHIP WITH NATURE
BLURRING THE LIMITS
Big openings and exterior spaces

All the dwellings have large windows and outdoor space for users to feel the
proximity to the natural spaces in the surrounding area. Kalfebod Park and the
bird sanctuary offer a mid-distance natural setting while the private outdoor
spaces allow the residents to experience Biophilia, the sense of a connection
with nature, in a more immediate fashion, by growing their own plants.

122 123
03
SAFETY AND SECURITY
VISUAL CONTROL BY THE RESIDENTS
Open air circulations and protected courtyards

Visual surveillance from the dwellings is crucial in order to prevent the common
spaces from becoming areas of conflict, to this end all the horizontal circulation
elements are open.
Public space runs continuously and safely, facilitating children’s movements from
the dwelling to the courtyard play-areas.
By night, stepped streets are generously lightened to provide safety and
security at the same time.

124 125
03
SENSE OF COMMUNITY
EASY RESIDENT ENCOUNTERS
Great variety of communal spaces

Social life invades up to the higher altitudes of this building. The dwellings
located up, due to the sky street, are rooted in the community because they are
accessible, openly and directly by foot, from the ground floor. Altitude does not
mean isolation in this case.

At the South corner, a café serves as meeting point for the whole area and faces the canal.

All these performances, hard and

soft, shape solids and interact with
voids enhancing or making worse
the intrinsic characteristics of the
urban form.
126 127
e THE CLEAN
DENSITY

129

go back to index
 01.
e

Introduction

We would like to underline the importance of the self-sufficient

urban block as a piece of clean density. We’ve selected an
example in which the main feature is the behaviour of the
inhabitants
In 2006, the city of Helsinki approved the Master Plan for this
harbour area near the city centre.
Finland has one of the world’s largest per capita ecological
footprint.
In order to reduce carbon emissions, the Master Plan
establishes a similar density to that of Barcelona. This is
the winning project of the competition and its aim was to
consider the city as a living factory of ecology. This block is an
experiment within the Plan, combining uses, and this is new,
educating user-habits. This block and the whole neighborhood,
should be a sort of living factory of ecological behaviour. It
should be the first carbon neutral district in Finland.
130 131
 02.
e

Zero carbon footprint

The project is called Low2No (from low emissions to

no emissions) and is designed by Sauerbruch Hutton in
collaboration with Arup. We can see that, as in the Renault Site
in Paris, here we have an open urban block.
The volumes in blue are devoted to housing: family-apartments,
elderly assisted units and a student residence. All of the podium LOW2NO
surface is dedicated to offices and retail. There is not car park ARUP, SAUERBRUCH HUTTON, EXPERIENTIA
underground. HELSINKI, FINLAND 2009
132 133
 03.
e

Building the clean density

01. SYSTEMS
Highly efficient underfloor heating
Narrow floor plans to enable
natural ventilation
Utilising excess heat from building
High performance ventilation
heat recovery 6%
Installations along the
perimeter of the building.

02. MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

Laminated wood structure
for the dwellings
Recycled concrete for the
podium structure
Lightweight cladding with
high solar heat gain.

03. GREEN AND

CULTIVATION SPACES
Level 0. “Wood layers” at ground level
Level 3. Semi-public gardens above the
base
Levels 3-6. South orientation greenhouses
Green roof + rainwater storage tank

134 135
 04.
e

Behavioral habits

01 02
PUBLIC DISPLAY ELECTRIC CARS

But the most striking thing in this project is the importance given
to behavior. Here there are some of the 50 behavioral features
that the residents should follow:
01 Public billboards will show the emissions and consumption of
03 04
each building, so every building will compete to reduce its POCKET GREEN HOUSES INCUBATOR CENTRE

own figures.
02 Communal electric cars will be available to be shared.
03. Private pocket greenhouses must provide 10% of vegetables
consumption of each family.
04 An Incubator Centre, located within the block, will spread
information about ecological behavior.
05 Renewable energy will be obtained from a wind farm outside
the plot financed by the owners.
06 Working and living within the block will be an advantage for
05 06
taking green mortgages, which means 20% lower interest rate. WORKING NEAR BY RENEWABLE ENERGY

136 137
+ THE DESIRABLE
DENSITY

139

go back to index
If we were to ask ourselves what the
desired house really was,
most of us would recognize that we
have an ideal photo in mind.
It would be even more embarrassing,
if we were to ask ourselves where
we live at present, in which type of
house, in which part of the city and
what plans we have for the future.
Suddenly, density ceases to be a
concept, something vital for the
planet, a ratio for judging plans.
Suddenly, density becomes an
uncomfortable subject which deeply
affects our decisions.
We know that the dense city has to
140
be built, but while building the city, we
can’t forget the home.
The home for the citizen who will put
their name on the letterbox.
If we asked at the beginning what
density was, now you can be sure that
we were not referring to hyperdensity.
For us density is the good balance of
population and uses, the sustainable
way of living together, the successful
performances of the buildings.
We need to live in dense cities and must
transform such a need into desire. Let´s
turn Density into home, and each home
into our home.
research group
141
DENSITY IS HOME
Housing by a+t research group
ISBN 978-84-615-1237-9 201I English/Español edition

NEXT
Collective Housing in progress
ISBN 978-84-613-8676-5 2010 English/Español edition

HOCO
Density Housing Construction & Costs
ISBN 978-84-613-3080-5 2009 English/Español edition

DENSITY PROJECTS
36 new concepts on collective housing
ISBN 978-84-612-1335-1 2007 English/Español edition

DBOOK
Density, Data, Diagrams, Dwellings
ISBN 978-84-611-5900-0 2007 English/Español edition

DENSITY. CONDENSED EDITION

New collective housing
ISBN 84-611-1203-2 2006 English/Español edition

architecture publishers
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142 143