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 J_ID: TSEA DOI: 10.1115/1.4042351 Date: 28-December-18 Stage: Page: 1 Total Pages: 11

PROOF COPY [TSEA-18-1299]

AQ1
AQ2 Experimental Study of the
AQ3
AQ4 AQ5
1
2
Juan Sebastian Cano1
Department of Mechanical and
Incidence of Changing a
3
4
Mechatronics Engineering,
Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE,
Synthetic Jet Orifice in Heat
AQ6
5
6
Sangolqui, 䊏, Ecuador
e-mail: jscano@espe.edu.ec Transfer Using a Taguchi
7 Gustavo David Cordova
8
25
9
Department of Mechanical and
Mechatronics Engineering,
Method Approach
10 Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE,
26
11 Sangolqui, 䊏, Ecuador The current study allows the recognition of the most optimal combination of excitation
12 gcordova@espe.edu.ec frequency, kind of orifice, and synthetic jet-to-surface spacing in order to obtain the fast-
est cooling time using a Taguchi experimental design. To this end, the heat transfer and
13 Christian Narvaez synthetic jet velocity behavior using different kinds of orifices are obtained experimen-
14 Department of Mechanical Engineering, tally. A piezoelectric diaphragm has been selected as a vibrating actuator. Four kinds of
15 Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE, orifices have been studied: circular, rectangular, triangular, and square. First, the study
16 Sangolqui, 䊏, Ecuador consists of recognizing the excitation frequency in which each orifice produces the high-
est flow velocity. A hotwire anemometer has been used in order to measure the synthetic
jet velocity. Additionally, a steel plate has been heated and then cooled using the syn-
17 Luis Segura thetic jet set at the excitation frequency in which the jet velocity was the largest for each
18 Department of Mechanical Engineering,
19
orifice. For the statistical analysis, the input study variables are the type of orifice and
Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE,
20 Sangolqui, 䊏, Ecuador
jet-to-surface spacing. The output variable has been the cooling time. The results show
that using a combination of a rectangle orifice, 20 mm of jet-to-surface spacing and an
excitation frequency of 2000 Hz, it is obtained the fastest cooling time. In addition, using
21 Luis Carrion these parameters, a mean heat transfer coefficient of 11.05 (W/m2K) with a coefficient of
22 Department of Mechanical Engineering,
performance (COP) of 49.21 has been obtained. Finally, for each kind of orifice, there is
23 Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE,
the presence of two resonant frequencies, the Helmholtz (acoustic resonance) frequency
24 Sangolqui, 䊏, Ecuador
and piezoelectric diaphragm natural frequency. [DOI: 10.1115/1.4042351]

Keywords: synthetic jet, heat transfer, orifice, Taguchi Design

27 1 Introduction The first studies related to heat dissipation using synthetic jets 53
have been performed in 1986 by Yassour where the behavior of a 54
28 The electronic industry has experienced tremendous growth in
synthetic jet created by the vibration of a loudspeaker was 55
29 the last few years. The development of industry has generated an
observed. A heater was aligned in front of the orifice, and the heat 56
30 improvement in information processing and complexity of elec-
transfer rate on its surface was recorded. The interaction of the 57
31 tronics [1]. Due to the miniaturization of electronic devices, there
resultant flow with the surface brought about 4 enhancements in 58
32 is a necessity of creating new solutions in order to deal with over-
the heat transfer [6]. Currently, the usage of synthetic jets in heat 59
33 heating. Through the years, the industry has adopted the use of
transfer applications has attracted the interest of many researchers. 60
34 fans for heat dissipation but they have been limited by their size
Mahalingam et al. [7] investigated a synthetic jet ejector for ther- 61
35 for new applications creating a new problem. The use of a syn-
mal management at low flow rates. A two-dimensional jet ejector 62
36 thetic jet is a new solution in order to deal with such an issue. A
to drive air through a rectangular channel was used, and the effect 63
37 synthetic jet is a pulsating flow which is created by the excitation
of the channel width on the flow characteristics and heat transfer 64
38 of a vibrating diaphragm inside of a cavity. When the diaphragm
was investigated. Pavlova and Amitay [8] compared the cooling 65
39 moves downward, the surrounding air enters the cavity through an
of a constant heat flux surface using continuous and synthetic jets. 66
40 orifice increasing the cavity’s volume and then the fluid is
A piezoelectric vibrating actuator and a circular orifice were used. 67
41 expelled through the orifice as the diaphragm is forced to move
The effect of the excitation frequency and Reynolds number at 68
42 upward [2]. According to previous studies, the vibrating actuators
different distances was investigated. The results revealed that for 69
43 used to generate a synthetic jet have been piezoelectric dia-
higher excitation frequencies, the heat removed was greater for 70
44 phragms, speakers, and electrodynamic and mechanical pistons
small distances, and for lower pulsing frequencies, the heat 71
45 [3]. Synthetic jets are also called zero net-mass flux devices since
removed was greater for higher distances. Furthermore, at the 72
46 they are able to transfer linear momentum without net mass injec-
same Reynolds number, the heat removed was three times higher 73
47 tion across the flow boundary [4]. The flow separates at the edge
for synthetic jets than continuous jets. Gillespie et al. [9] studied 74
48 of the orifice, inducing a vortex ring that moves outward under its
the effect of a rectangular orifice on heat transfer enhancement. 75
49 own momentum. In this way, a vortex shedding is created and
The velocity field between the orifice and target surface was 76
50 breakdown toward a turbulent flow. This interaction of vortical
51 structures is fundamental in thermal management applications
measured using a PIV. The study suggested that synthetic jets 77 AQ7
enhance heat transfer on a surface due to a strong mixing of the 78
52 since a turbulent flow enhances heat transfer [5].
flow that influences the thermal boundary layer. Zhang and Tan 79
[10] studied experimentally the flow and heat transfer of a syn- 80
thetic jet produced by the vibration of a piezoelectric diaphragm 81
1
Corresponding author. inside of a cavity. The synthetic jet was used to cool a heated con- 82
Contributed by the Heat Transfer Division of ASME for publication in the
JOURNAL OF THERMAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS. Manuscript received
stantan foil. The shape of the orifice was a rectangle 83
June 6, 2018; final manuscript received December 13, 2018; published online xx xx, (0.5 mm  10 mm). At the jet orifice exit, pairs of vortexes were 84
xxxx. Assoc. Editor: Cheng-Xian Lin. generated which broke down forming a steady jet. Besides, there 85

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PROOF COPY [TSEA-18-1299]

86 were two resonance frequencies in which the jet velocity and vor- synthetic jet-to-surface spacing, and kind of orifice using a Taguchi 156
87 ticity increase. Additionally, the jet-to-surface had a great influ- experimental design so as to find the fastest cooling time. 157
88 ence on the convective heat transfer coefficient. Arik [11] focused In the rest of this paper, we describe the experimental procedure 158
89 on determining the local heat transfer coefficients using a high- (Sec. 2), show the flow measurement (Sec. 3) and heat transfer 159
90 frequency mesoscale synthetic jet with a square orifice. An infra- results (Sec. 4), and summarize the results in the conclusions 160
91 red camera was used in order to acquire the local temperature of a (Sec. 5). 161
92 heated surface, and the data were used to determine the local con-
93 vective and radioactive heat transfer coefficients. Chaudari et al.
94 [12] studied the effect of the orifice shape on thermal manage- 2 Experimental Procedure 162
95 ment. Three shapes were considered: circular, square, and rectan- The study was composed of two parts. In the first part, the 163
96 gular of different aspect ratios and hydraulic diameters (3.8–8 behavior of the flow velocity was studied according to each kind 164
97 mm). The heat transfer enhancement with a square orifice was of orifice. The purpose of this stage was to recognize the excita- 165
98 found to be larger than that with rectangular and circular shapes at tion frequency in which the flow velocity was the highest for each 166
99 larger axial distances greater than 5 mm. Moreover, a rectangular kind of orifice. The second stage consisted of cooling a heated sur- 167
100 orifice with an aspect ratio between 3 and 5 performs better at face by varying the distance and kind of orifice using the excita- 168
101 smaller axial distances. Mangesh and Chaudhari [13] did a similar tion frequency previously recognized in which the flow velocity 169
102 study using an oval and a diamond shape with the same hydraulic was the highest for each kind of orifice. The purpose of this stage 170
103 diameter. A piezoelectric diaphragm was selected as the vibrating was to recognize the lowest cooling time in which the average foil 171
104 actuator, and in this case, a heated copper block was cooled using temperature decreased to a pre-established average temperature 172
105 the synthetic jet. The axial distance between the orifice and the using the most optimal combination of parameters (frequency, 173
106 copper block was varied, and the mean heat transfer coefficient distance, and kind of orifice). In order to recognize this combina- 174
107 was studied. According to the presented results, an oval or dia- tion of parameters, a Taguchi experimental design was used. 175
108 mond orifice has a better performance than a circular orifice in The synthetic jet actuator used in the experiments was com- 176
109 terms of heat transfer. Additionally, Liu et al. [14] researched the posed of a cylindrical aluminum cavity (inner diameter 177
110 effect on changing the excitation frequency of a synthetic jet actu- D ¼ 34 mm and height H ¼ 0.5 mm), which was covered at the 178
111 ator in heat transfer. The vibrating actuator was a piezo ceramic bottom part with a flexible diaphragm clamped 1 mm at its edges 179
112 disk. The optimum excitation frequency in which the highest using bolts as it is shown in Fig. 1. Four kinds of orifices were 180
113 Reynolds number was achieved was 600 Hz, while the lowest studied, circular, rectangular, square, and triangular. In Fig. 1 and 181
114 Reynolds number was registered to be in 200 Hz. When the heated
115 foil was too close to the orifice where the jet was ejected, a
116 decrease in the heat transfer rate was registered. This was related
117 to the recirculation of warm air causing low heat transfer. The
118 best distance in which the highest heat transfer was achieved was
119 15 mm from the orifice to the heated surface. At this distance, the
120 heat transfer enhancement was approximately 2–8 times higher
121 than the natural convection. Liu et al. [15] studied the impinge-
122 ment heat transfer using a diffusion-shaped orifice. The effect of
123 changing the opening angle, orifice thickness, and driven fre-
124 quency on heat transfer enhancement was studied. The highest
125 heat transfer enhancement was achieved at an opening angle of
126 60 deg, and at an angle of 90 deg, heat transfer enhancement was
127 degraded because the jet velocity decreased.
128 In the past 10 year, some authors have investigated the influ-
129 ence of jet-to surface spacing. For instance, Valiorgue et al. [16]
130 investigated experimentally the relation between the convective
131 heat transfer characteristics and the impinging synthetic jet flow
132 structure, for a jet-to-surface spacing less than two, dimensionless
133 stroke length between 1 and 22, and Reynolds number
134 1000 < Re < 4300. The results showed a power law relationship
135 between the Reynolds and Nusselts numbers for a constant stroke
136 length. McGuinn et al. [17] found four free synthetic jet flow mor-
137 phology regimes using a variety of dimensionless stroke lengths
138 between 3 and 32 and nozzle-to-surface spacing between 2 and 16
139 for a single Reynolds number (Re ¼ 1500). Zhang et al. [18]
140 investigated the convective heat transfer on a flat plate subjected
141 to normally synthetic jet and horizontally forced flow. The effects
142 of excitation frequency, orifice shape, and jet-to-surface spacing
143 between 5.3 mm and 14 mm on the flow and heat transfer charac-
144 teristics are explored. The convective heat transfer capacity is
145 enhanced up to 100% under the conjugate action of a synthetic jet
146 and forced flow. Tan et al. [19] found experimentally that the con-
147 tinuous jets exhibit stronger local heat transfer than the synthetic
148 jets in the vicinity of stagnation point. At lower jet-to-surface
149 spacing, the laterally averaged heat transfer coefficient ratios
150 between synthetic jets and continuous jets are below one.
151 To our knowledge, it has not been used yet a statistical approach
152 in order to investigate the performance of a synthetic jet phenom-
153 enon, and the majority of scientific studies are focused on numeri-
154 cal and experimental analyses. For this reason, the purpose of this Fig. 1 Schematic of the synthetic jet actuator and orifice: (a)
155 study is to obtain the most optimal combination of frequency, circle, (b) rectangle, (c) triangle, and (d) square

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PROOF COPY [TSEA-18-1299]

Table 1 Orifice parameters six sensors (LM35) were attached to the foil surface as is shown 215
in Fig. 5. The temperature measurements were compared using a 216
Case Orifice d or b (mm) l (mm) series of thermocouples in order to be sure about the measures of 217
the LM35 sensors. The data acquisition was done using a DAQ 218
Case 1 Circle 1 — (Arduino) which took the temperature measurements every 219
Case 2 Rectangle 0.5 10
Case 3 Triangle 2 1.732
100 ms. The measurements taken by the six sensors were aver- 220

Case 4 Square 2 — aged, and the average surface temperature was taken as a refer- 221
ence parameter. The accuracy of the temperature measurements 222
was 60.5  C. 223
The purpose of this study is to obtain the most optimal combi- 224
182 Table 1, the specifications for each kind of orifice are shown. The nation of excitation frequency, synthetic jet-to-surface spacing, 225
AQ8 183 vibrating diaphragm used was a piezoelectric disk, Murata (7BB- and kind of orifice using a Taguchi experimental design in order 226
184 35-3), which consisted of a metallic shim (brass) with a piezocer- to find the fastest cooling time. At this stage, the frequencies in 227
185 amic cylindrical patch bonded at its center. The diameter of the which the synthetic jet flow velocity was the highest for each kind 228
186 brass sheet was 35 mm, and its thickness was 0.3 mm. The diame- of orifice were used. These frequencies were recognized in the 229
187 ter of the piezoelectric ceramic disk was 25 mm. The diaphragm part of the flow velocity measurement. The foil was heated until 230
188 was excited with a variable frequency wave generator (GW the average temperature reached 60  C and then was cooled using 231
189 INSTEK). In the present study, a sinusoidal wave form (Vmrs: the synthetic jet actuator. The time in which the average tempera- 232
190 7.25 V) was used. ture decreased to 50  C was measured by varying the distance 233
from the orifice to the foil and the kind of orifice. For a correct 234
191 2.1 Flow Velocity Measurements. In order to appropriately cooling, after heating the surface until an average temperature of 235
192 measure the synthetic jet velocity, a testing bench was used as it is 60  C, the heat source was disconnected. In order to avoid the 236
193 shown in Fig. 2. It was composed of two holders, one for the mea- influence of external air currents, the testing bench was enclosure. 237
194 surement instrument and the other for the synthetic jet actuator. The enclosure had acoustic insulation on the inside to isolate the 238
195 The testing bench had a screw mechanism which allowed distance heater and synthetic jet from environmental effects during testing. 239
196 displacement. The schematic of the setup used for the synthetic jet The parameters used in the Taguchi experimental design were the 240
197 flow measurement is shown in Fig. 3. It was composed of a func- synthetic jet-to-surface spacing (5, 10, 15, and 20 mm) and type of 241
198 tion generator which energized the piezoelectric diaphragm in orifice (circular, square, rectangle, and triangle). Within the design 242
199 order to make it vibrate due to the piezoelectric effect. The flow of experiment field, there are several approaches, such as full fac- 243
200 velocity measurements were done using a hot wire anemometer torial design, fractional factorial design, Latin square designs, and 244
201 Testo 405i whose resolution, range, and hotwire tip size were Taguchi methods, to optimize processes. Taguchi methods have 245
202 0.01 m/s, 30.48 m/s, and 1.7 mm, respectively. The distance been widely utilized in this field, since these methods are one of 246
203 between the orifice and the hot wire anemometer was a variable the most cost effective when drawing conclusions from a set of 247
204 parameter (5, 10, 15, and 25 mm). In the same way, the excitation data. The reduced number of trials to get insight about the process 248
205 frequency varied from 0 to 3000 Hz with steps of 100 Hz. The is the main reason why this method was chosen for the purpose of 249
206 data acquisition was carried out via bluetooth. For each measure- this analysis. Dr. Genichi Taguchi proposed this methodology 250
207 ment, ten samples were taken and averaged having a total of 4800 [20] as a powerful quality improvement discipline, and it follows 251 AQ9
208 measurements. a structured process; this could be divided in four phases. Phase 1 252
is related to factor determination, test condition and noise factors 253
209 2.2 Synthetic Jet Heat Transfer Measurements. Figure 4 identification, and orthogonal array selection. Phase 2 is all about 254
210 shows the schematic of the setup used for the synthetic jet conducting the experiments, and phase 3 deals with the analysis 255
211 impingement heat transfer measurement. A steel rectangle foil of of the data. It encompasses data analysis, data performance 256
212 41  45  1 mm3 was heated using a heating element from a sol- prediction—individual factor contribution, relative factor interac- 257
213 dering gun joined to the foil by a cap screw and then cooled using tion, determination of optimum levels, analysis of variance 258
214 the synthetic actuator. In order to measure the foil temperature, (ANOVA), and signal-to-noise (S/N) analysis, and performance 259

Fig. 2 Experimental setup

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Fig. 3 Schematic of the experimental setup for flow velocity measurements: (1) data acquisi-
tion (bluetooth), (2) hotwire anemometer, (3) synthetic jet actuator, and (4) wave generator
(sinusoidal wave of 7.25 Vrms)

260 under optimal conditions. The final phase performs the validation 3 Flow Measurement Results 274
261 of the experiment by running and collecting data from the pre-
Before discussing the heat transfer results, the flow measure- 275
262 dicted model. Figure 6 shows the stepwise procedure to Taguchi
ment results are explained in order to clarify the characteristics of 276
263 method design and analysis.
the synthetic jet flow using each kind of orifice. 277
264 Finally, in order to study the cooling through time for each kind
265 of orifice, the foil was heated until it reached an average surface
266 temperature of 90  C and then was cooled during a period of time 3.1 Effect of the Frequency on the Synthetic Jet Velocity. 278
267 of 300 s. In order to study the influence of type of orifice on the Figures 7–10 show the results related to the behavior of the syn- 279
268 cooling time, a synthetic jet-to-surface spacing of 10 mm and thetic jet velocity with the excitation frequency for each kind of 280
269 time-averaged centerline velocity (Uavg) of 1 m/s were used. The orifice at different jet-to-orifice distances. In all cases, the exis- 281
270 heat released by forced convection using the synthetic jet actuator, tence of two resonant frequencies can be appreciated. This behav- 282
271 the mean heat transfer coefficient of forced convection, and coeffi- ior is a characteristic of a synthetic jet actuator, and the existence 283
272 cient of performance was calculated as follows: of a resonant frequency f1 and f2 is well known, which are related, 284
respectively, but not equivalent to, the diaphragm natural fre- 285
Qsyntheticjet ¼ Qjet  Qfreecond (1) quency and Helmholtz frequency that is related to the cavity [21]. 286
The resonant frequencies for each kind of orifice are shown in 287
 s  Tj Þ
Qsyntheticjet ¼ hAðT (2) Table 2. 288 AQ10
When the synthetic jet actuator is working at the resonant fre- 289
mcðTi  Tf Þ quency related to the diaphragm, the vibration is much higher and 290
Qjet ¼ (3)
tjet getting much more energy to force the environment air to enter 291

mcðTi  Tf Þ
Qfreecond ¼ (4)
tfreecond

Qjet  Qfreecond
h ¼ (5)
AðTs  Tj Þ

Qsyntheticjet
COP ¼ (6)
Psyntheticjet
273

Fig. 4 Schematic of the experimental setup for foil surface

temperature measurements Fig. 5 Temperature sensors location on the foil

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Fig. 6 Taguchi method stepwise procedure

292 the cavity and then be ejected with a larger velocity. As it is other creating a vortex shedding that loses energy while moving 316
293 shown in Table 2, the resonant frequencies related to the dia- downstream. It is noticed that no matter the kind of orifice, this 317
294 phragm and Helmholtz vary according to each kind of orifice. behavior takes place (See Refs. [23] and [24]). 318 AQ11
295 This problem was discussed by Mohsemi and Mittal [3] where it
296 is manifested that the resonance frequencies may vary depending
297 on the coupling between the diaphragm and the cavity, as well as 3.3 Effect of the Kind of Orifice on the Synthetic Jet 319
298 the orifice. In the present study, the mentioned behavior could be Velocity. Figures 7–10 show the responses of flow velocity for 320
299 seen and confirmed since different kinds of orifices were studied. each kind of orifice while the excitation frequency varies. Accord- 321
ing to the results, the synthetic jet velocity behavior was inversely 322
proportional to the distance for all kinds of orifice as was 323
explained previously. To begin, Fig. 7 shows the behavior of the 324
300 3.2 Effect of the Jet-to-Orifice Distance on the Synthetic
circular orifice. At the frequency of 1300 Hz, the first peak of 325
301 Jet Velocity. According to Figs. 7–10, it is evident that for the
the velocity was registered, and the second peak was registered at 326
302 circular, square, triangular, and rectangular orifices, the maximum
the frequency of 2200 Hz. The resonant frequency related to the 327
303 flow velocity takes place when the distance from the orifice is
piezoelectric diaphragm corresponds to 2200 Hz, and the resonant 328
304 5 mm. On the other hand, the lowest flow velocity takes place
Helmholtz frequency related to the cavity corresponds to 1300 Hz. 329
305 when the axial distance is 20 mm. Table 3 shows the maximum
In the case of the rectangular orifice, in Fig. 8, the results are 330
306 averaged centerline velocity for each kind of orifice with a calcu-
shown. It was observed that the synthetic jet velocity was zero 331
307 lated uncertainty of 0.42%. According to the measurements taken,
until the excitation frequency reached the value of 1500 Hz. When 332
308 while the flow moves away from the orifice, it loses energy
the frequency was 2000 Hz, the first velocity peak was observed, 333
309 decreasing the velocity and finally dissipating into the environ-
and a second peak was observed when the frequency was 334
310 ment. This behavior was already verified by Smith and Glezer
2800 Hz. In this case, the resonant frequency related to the piezo- 335
311 [22]. It was identified that the jet reaches a maximum velocity
electric diaphragm and Helmholtz corresponds to the value of 336
312 near the orifice and then begins to decrease as it moves away.
2000 Hz and 2800 Hz, respectively. Additionally, Fig. 9 shows the 337
313 This might be brought about by the presence of vortex rings near
triangular orifice’s behavior. When the excitation frequency was 338
314 the orifice which are created by the interaction of the flow with
1500 Hz, the first peak in the flow velocity was registered, and the 339
315 the edges of the orifice. The vortical structures interact with each
second peak took place when the frequency was 2400 Hz. For this 340

Fig. 7 Behavior of the flow velocity with respect to the fre- Fig. 8 Behavior of the flow velocity with respect to the fre-
quency for the circular orifice quency for the rectangular orifice

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PROOF COPY [TSEA-18-1299]

Fig. 9 Behavior of the flow velocity with respect to the fre- Fig. 10 Behavior of the flow velocity with respect to the fre-
quency for the triangular orifice quency for the square orifice

the area increased, the velocity decreased. Finally, Fig. 12 shows 366
Table 2 Resonant frequencies for each kind of orifice the comparison of the flow velocity behavior with a previous 367
study done by Gallas et al. [25] with a 1/3 reduction factor. The 368
Orifice f1 ðHzÞ f2 ðHzÞ
tendency and behavior of the flow velocity with respect to the fre- 369

Circle 2200 1300 quency agree between studies. However, the values are different 370
Rectangle 2000 2800 since the applied voltage in the present research was lower pro- 371
Triangle 2400 1500 ducing a smaller deflection and vibration of the piezoelectric dia- 372
Square 1700 2600 phragm. The synthetic jet velocity results for each kind of orifice 373
are shown as follows. 374

Table 3 Maximum flow velocity at different jet-to-orifice distan-

ces using the diaphragm natural frequency of each kind of
4 Heat Transfer Results 375
orifice 4.1 Taguchi Design Results. The factors taken into account 376
with their levels are shown in Table 4. The present study used an 377
Orifice 5 mm 10 mm 15 mm 20 mm
orthogonal array L16 as it is shown in Table 5 where A represents 378

Circle 3.225 3 1.97 1.504 the kind of orifice and B the distance of measurement between the 379
Rectangle 1.345 1.185 1.075 0.955 orifice and the heated foil. 380
Triangle 2.23 2.115 1.858 1.532 The results of the experiments are shown in Table 6. The time 381
Square 1.54 1.22 0.95 0.78 in which the average surface temperature decreased from 60  C to 382
50  C was taken for each kind of orifice and distance. A signifi- 383
cance level of 0.05 was assigned for all the statistical analysis. 384
341 orifice, the resonant frequency related to the piezoelectric dia- The S/N ratio was calculated. There are several relations to com- 385
342 phragm was 2400 Hz, and the resonant frequency related to the pute the (S/N) ratio, and this depends on the characteristic of the 386
343 cavity corresponds to 1500 Hz. This kind of orifice registered a parameters that want to be optimized. Since the main objective of 387
344 similar behavior to the circular orifice. Finally, Fig. 10 shows the this study was to minimize the cooling time, a smaller-is-better 388
345 square orifice behavior. As in the case of the rectangular orifice,
346 the synthetic jet velocity was zero until a certain frequency. In
347 this case, it was 1300 Hz. At a frequency of 1700 Hz, the first peak
348 in the velocity was obtained, and the second one was at 2600 Hz.
349 For this orifice, the resonant frequency related to the piezoelectric
350 diaphragm was 1700 Hz, and the resonant frequency related to the
351 cavity corresponds to 2600 Hz. The similar behavior between the
352 square and rectangular orifices may be attributed to the similarity
353 in the geometric pattern between orifices. Moreover, the maxi-
354 mum flow velocity for each kind of orifice took place when the
355 synthetic jet actuator was operating at the resonant frequency
356 related to the diaphragm. As was mentioned previously, the dis-
357 tance in which the maximum velocity was achieved for each kind
358 of orifice was 5 mm from the orifice. Figure 11 shows the compar-
359 ison of the behavior between orifices at this distance. According
360 to the results, the maximum synthetic jet velocity obtained for the
361 circular, triangular, square, and rectangular orifices where
362 3.225 m/s, 2.24 m/s, 1.54 m/s, and 1.345 m/s, respectively. The
363 area for the circular, triangular, square, and rectangular orifices
364 calculated was found to be 0.785–1.73–4–5 mm2, respectively. Fig. 11 Comparison between kinds of orifices at the jet-to-
365 According to the measurements of the synthetic jet velocity, while orifice axial distance of 5 mm

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PROOF COPY [TSEA-18-1299]

Table 6 Result of the experiment and its corresponding S/N

value. Cooling time (min) and distance (mm)

No. Orifice Distance tjet1 tjet2 tjet3 Mean S/N

1 Circle 5 1.58 1.52 1.60 1.57 –3.9

2 Circle 10 1.40 1.42 1.35 1.39 –2.86
3 Circle 15 1.57 1.65 1.55 1.59 –4.03
4 Circle 20 1.33 1.43 1.45 1.41 –2.96
5 Rectangle 5 1.42 1.30 1.38 1.37 –2.72
6 Rectangle 10 1.30 1.25 1.25 1.27 –2.05
7 Rectangle 15 1.07 1.13 1.17 1.12 –1.01
8 Rectangle 20 1.03 1.12 1.10 1.08 –0.7
9 Triangle 5 1.50 1.48 1.53 1.51 –3.55
10 Triangle 10 1.27 1.22 1.28 1.26 –1.98
11 Triangle 15 1.18 1.20 1.18 1.19 –1.5
12 Triangle 20 1.13 1.10 1.20 1.14 –1.18
13 Square 5 1.58 1.67 1.67 1.64 –4.29
14 Square 10 1.67 1.67 1.68 1.67 –4.47
15 Square 15 1.58 1.55 1.58 1.57 –3.93
16 Square 20 1.45 1.52 1.52 1.49 –3.49

Fig. 12 Comparison of the flow velocity between a previous

study using a circular orifice

Table 4 Details of the factors and levels for the experiment

Factor Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4

(A) Circle Rectangle Square Triangle

(B) 5 mm 10 mm 15 mm 20 mm

389 relation was established which is governed by the following

390 equation:
" n #
S 1X 2
¼ 10 log yi (7)
N n i¼1

391
392 where n is the number of measurements and yi is the response
393 value which in this case was the cooling time. Figure 13 shows Fig. 13 Response of the main effect factors in the cooling time
394 the result of the Taguchi design.
395 For the validation of the results, it was necessary to calculate a
396 confidence interval (CI) using the following expression: where Fð1;DFe Þ is taken from tables at 95% confidence. In this 398
case, F(1,8) ¼ 5.318. R is the number of test repetitions which is 399
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 ffi 3. The parameter neff is the effective number of replications, and it 400
1 1 is computed as follows [18]: 401
CI ¼ Fð1;DFe Þ Ve þ (8)
neff R
N
neff ¼ (9)
397 1 þ Vt

where N is the total number of trials, which is 16 for this study. 402
403
Table 5 L16 Orthogonal array utilized for the Taguchi design Vt ¼ 6 is the total degrees-of-freedom related to the factors that in 404
significantly influence the response. Finally, Ve correspond to the 405
No. A B
variance of the error taken from the ANOVA having a value of 406

1 1 1 0.00728. The ANOVA is shown in Table 7. 407

2 1 2 As additional information, the interaction between parameters 408
3 1 3 in the cooling time is shown in Fig. 14. As can be seen, there is an 409
4 1 4 interaction between the cooling time and the distance as well as 410
5 2 1 the kind of orifice. Which means that the cooling time reduction 411
6 2 2
7 2 3
8 2 4
9 3 1 Table 7 ANOVA results
10 3 2
11 3 3 Source DF Adj SS Adj MS F-value P-value
12 3 4
13 4 1 A 3 0.38937 0.12979 17.91 0
14 4 2 B 3 0.11576 0.03858 5.32 0.022
15 4 3 Error 9 0.06523 0.00724
16 4 4 Total 15 0.57037

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PROOF COPY [TSEA-18-1299]

produces the lowest value (h ¼ 2:61 W=m2 K). This result matches 439
with the Taguchi statistical analysis, where for the present research, 440
the rectangular orifice cooled the heated foil in less time for a varia- 441
tion of 10  C. The results show that using the circular and square 442
orifices, the response related to heat transfer enhancement was 443
poor. Meanwhile, using the rectangular and triangular orifices, the 444
best results were obtained. Regarding the role of the distance, it is 445
evident that at 20 mm from the orifice to the foil, the highest mean 446
heat transfer coefficient for all the orifices is reached. When the dis- 447
tance is 5 mm away from the orifice, the heat transfer decreases. 448
This behavior is due to the fact that the synthetic jet actuator uses 449
the environment’s air, and when the foil is too close to the orifice, it 450
blocks the air’s entrance in the cavity, which affects the rings vor- 451
tex formation around the orifice. Moreover, once the flow is ejected 452
from the orifice, a warm air recirculation phenomenon takes place, 453
resulting in a poor cooling action since the temperature difference 454
Fig. 14 Interaction of the cooling time with the distance as between the flow and the heated foil decreases. It is important to 455
well as the distance mention that even though the flow velocity was much higher at 456
5 mm away from the orifice, the heat transfer did not benefit from 457
412 depends on a good combination of the kind of orifice and the the increase in the synthetic jet velocity. On the other hand, in the 458
413 distance. flow velocity measurement stage, it was registered that the lowest 459
414 Using the expression (8), a confidence interval of 60.172 [min] flow velocity took place when the distance was 20 mm away from 460
415 was calculated. According to the Taguchi design results, the most the orifice for the four kinds of orifices. Although the flow velocity 461
416 optimal combination of parameters with the lowest cooling time was the lowest at this distance, an increase in the heat transfer was 462
417 was the combination of a rectangular orifice, 20 mm of distance obtained. This behavior was proven by Zhang and Tan [10]. For 463
418 using an excitation frequency of 2000 Hz. With these parameters, distances greater than 20 mm, according to previous studies, it is 464
AQ12 419 a cooling time of 1 min 3 s was achieved. Compared to the natural expected a reduction in synthetic jet intensity that will bring about 465
420 convection condition without using the synthetic jet actuator, a a decrease in heat transfer. 466
421 cooling time of 2 min was registered. Which means an improve- In Fig. 16, the results related to the behavior of the coefficient 467
422 ment of 46%. According to the ANOVA, the kind of orifice of performance (COP) are shown. It is evident that the COP is 468
423 parameter got a F-value ¼ 17.91 much higher than the distance affected in the same way as the mean heat transfer coefficient by 469
424 (F-value ¼ 5.32), which means that cooling time is much more the distance and kind of orifice. Even though the maximum mean 470
425 affected by the kind of orifice. Nevertheless, its value does not heat transfer coefficient reached (h ¼ 11:05 W=m2 K) was not too 471
426 stop depending on the kind of orifice–distance interaction. high, the COP values were considerably high. This is because the 472
required energy for making the piezoelectric diagram vibrates is a 473
very small value (0.01445 W) even though the heat dissipated was 474
427 4.2 Effect of the Kind of Orifice and Distance on the Heat too much. The greatest COP value reached was 49.21, and the 475
428 Transfer. Figure 15 shows the behavior of the mean heat transfer lowest value was 13.05. These are related to the rectangular and 476
429 coefficient by forced convection related to the synthetic jet. For the square orifices, respectively. 477
430 heat transfer calculation, the expressions (1)–(6) were used. a varia- Finally, Fig. 17 shows the behavior of the cooling through time 478
431 tion of temperature (60–50  C) in the time was established. The fre- for each kind of orifice and natural convection. In this case, a con- 479
432 quency in which the velocity was the highest for each orifice was stant flow velocity of 1 m/s was established for all orifices at a dis- 480
433 used. These frequencies were previously recognized in the part of tance of 10 mm away from the orifice. This was possible by 481
434 flow measurements. It can be clearly seen that the kind of orifice modifying the excitation frequency. A cooling time of 300 s was 482
435 and distance significantly influence the dissipated heat. Having as a
436 reference the kind of orifice, the rectangular orifice generates the
437 maximum mean heat transfer coefficient (h ¼ 11:05 W=m2 K),
438 much higher than the other orifices. Meanwhile, the square orifice

Fig. 15 Mean heat transfer coefficient versus jet-to surface axial Fig. 16 Coefficient of performance versus jet-to surface axial dis-
distance for each of orifice. Excitation frequency (circle 5 2200 Hz, tance for each of orifice. Excitation frequency (circle 5 2200 Hz,
rectangle 5 2000 Hz, triangle 5 2400 Hz, and square 5 1700 Hz). rectangle 5 2000 Hz, triangle 5 2400 Hz, square 5 1700 Hz).

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PROOF COPY [TSEA-18-1299]

type of orifice, and the second one was associated with the heat 504
transfer results. In this last stage, a Taguchi experimental design 505
was used since the main goal was to recognize the most optimal 506
combination of a variety of parameters (frequency, kind of orifice, 507
and distance) that allow the cooling of a heated foil in the mini- 508
mum time. The conclusions that summarize the study are pre- 509
sented below. 510
According to the Taguchi design, the most optimal combination 511
of parameters that produced the least cooling time for a tempera- 512
ture variation of 10  C was the combination of a rectangular ori- 513
fice with a distance of 20 mm and an excitation frequency of 514
2000 Hz. Using these parameters, a cooling time of 1 min 3 s, an 515 AQ13
average heat transfer coefficient of h ¼ 11:05 W=m2 K, and a 516
COP ¼ 49.21 were obtained. 517
The F-value of the ANOVA shows that the kind of orifice 518
affects the cooling time in a greater way than the distance. How- 519
ever, the cooling time does not stop depending on the interaction 520
of these two parameters. 521
Each kind of orifice has its own behavior in response to the var- 522
iation of the excitation frequency. For this reason, the diaphragm 523
and Helmholtz resonant frequencies are independent for each ori- 524
Fig. 17 Cooling through time (jet velocity for each orifice, 1 m/ fice. At the diaphragm excitation frequency, the synthetic jet 525
s at jet-to-surface distance of 10 mm) velocity had the highest value. The synthetic jet flow velocity for 526
all kinds of orifices had the greatest value when it was near the 527
orifice and when the distance, increased the velocity decreased. 528
Comparing the orifices areas, when the area increased, the syn- 529
thetic jet velocity decreased. 530
While the distance between the heated foil decreased, the heat 531
transfer coefficient and the COP decreased. This was due to the 532
warm air recirculation between the orifice and the foil. When the 533
distance increased, there was an improvement in heat transfer. In 534
terms of heat transfer, the kind of orifice can be ordered from the 535
best to least efficient in the following way: rectangular, triangular, 536
circular, and square. At the best cooling distance of 20 mm, the 537
maximum average heat transfer coefficient registered for the rec- 538
tangular hole was h ¼ 11:05 W=m2 K, followed by the triangular 539
hole with h ¼ 9:98 W=m2 K, then the circular hole with 540
h ¼ 5:59 W=m2 K, and finally, the square hole h ¼ 4:54 W=m2 K.

Acknowledgment 541

The authors want to thank to the “Universidad de las Fuerzas 542

Armadas (ESPE)” for providing the necessary equipment for the 543
Fig. 18 Comparison of the mean heat transfer coefficient study presented. 544
between previous studies

Funding Data 545

483 established starting from an average surface temperature of 90  C.
484 After the period of time using the rectangular orifice, the average  Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE (Access to
485 surface temperature reached was 49.32  C, with the triangular ori- research labs and the required equipment). 546
486 fice, it was 52.08  C, and finally, with the circular and square orifi-
487 ces, the temperatures reached were 53.30  C and 53.14  C,
488 respectively. These results were compared using natural convec- Nomenclature 547
489 tion without using the synthetic jet actuator, and the final average A¼ convective area, m2 548
490 surface temperature was 56  C. It is evident that the rectangular c¼ specific heat of steel, J/(g  C) 549
491 orifice had the best performance through time, which is consistent CI ¼ confidence interval 550
492 with the results of the Taguchi experimental design. COP ¼ coefficient of performance 551
493 As it is shown in Fig. 18, in the present research, the behavior m¼ steel foil mass, g 552
494 and tendency of the mean heat transfer coefficient with respect to n¼ number of measurements 553
495 the distance agreed with previous studies [2,26], but the values are N¼ number of trials 554
496 different since the experimental parameters between studies are neff ¼ effective number of replications 555
497 different as well as the design parameters of the synthetic jet Psyntheticjet ¼ input energy, W 556
498 actuator. Qfreecond ¼ heat released during an interval of time without 557
using the synthetic jet actuator 558
Qjet ¼ heat released during an interval of time using the 559
499 5 Conclusions synthetic jet actuator where other forms of heat 560
500 In this research, the incidence of changing a synthetic jet orifice transfer such as radiation and natural convection are 561
501 in heat transfer using a Taguchi experimental design was pre- involved 562
502 sented. The study was divided in two stages. The first stage was Qsyntheticjet ¼ net heat released by forced convection related to the 563
503 related to the synthetic jet flow velocity measurement for each synthetic jet flow 564

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PROOF COPY [TSEA-18-1299]

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569 Tf ¼ final cooling temperature,  C Eng., 29(9), pp. 763–773.
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