GLOSSARY

Glossary
Absorption spectra
When the sun light is first filtered through a tube containing atoms of gases, some
wavelengths are selectively absorbed by the atoms, leaving dark lines known as
absorption lines in the spectrum.

Acid/base reactions.
Because an acid can be defined either as a proton donor or as an electron acceptor;
there are two definitions of acid/base reaction.
According to the Brǿnsted-Lowry definition an acid is a donor of proton (H+) and a
base is an acceptor of proton. Acid/base reaction thus is an exchange of proton.
According to the Lewis definition an acid is an acceptor of an electron pair and a
base is a donor of an electron pair. An acid/base reaction thus is an exchange of an
electron pair where a Lewis base donates an electron pair to a Lewis acid to form a
Lewis adduct by covalent bond formation.

Aufbau principle
The Aufbau principle (from the German Aufbau: “construction, building up”) is used to
determine the electronic configuration of an atom molecule or ion in its ground state
(i.e. in its lowest possible energy). This principle guides the process by which the
electronic structure of an atom is built by progressively adding electrons with each
successive electron filling an available orbital of the lowest possible energy.

Atomic radius
The atomic radius is defined as the distance between the nucleus and the boundary
of the outermost occupied atomic orbital.

Balmer series
The emission spectrum of the hydrogen atom is divided into spectral series according
to the energy level to which the electrons move down. The Balmer series is due to
electrons from higher energy levels (n = 6, 5, 4, 3) moving to the level n = 2; the
wavelengths of the emission associated with these transitions are within the region of
visible light.

Bond energy
The bond energy is the energy required to break up the bond. It is always positive.
When a bond is made; energy is released (exothermic).

Bond order
Bond order (bo) is the number of chemical bonds between two atoms.

Chirality
Chirality derived from the Greek (“cheri”), hand. Hands are mirror images of
each other and are non-superimposable. A molecule with a sp3 C centre with four
different groups attached is chiral.
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Conformation
Conformations are different three-dimensional shapes related by rotations about
single bonds. Each conformations (or conformational isomers) can be interconverted
by rotations about single bonds.

Co-ordinate covalent bond

This is also known as a dipolar bond or a dative covalent bond. It is a covalent bond
in which the two electrons of the bond are provided by the same atom.

Core electrons
Core electrons occupy the inner orbitals and are not generally available for bonding.
Core electrons are responsible for the shielding effect.

Core shells
The core shells are fully filled by the core electrons. Core electrons do not generally
take part in chemical reactivity. When writing electron configurations, the core
electrons are replaced with the name of the noble gas in brackets that has the same
configuration.

Covalent bonding
A covalent bond is formed when two electrons are shared between two atoms,
generally allowing each of them to have the electronic configuration of a noble gas.

Electron affinity
Electron affinity is the energy obtained when an electron is added to an atom in the
gas phase.

Electronegativity
Electronegativity is the ability of an atom in a molecule to attract bonding electrons.
It is measured on Pauli scale (from 0.7 to 4.0).

Electronic configuration
The electronic configuration describes the distribution of electrons around the
nucleus in shells and sub-shells.

Element
An element X is characterised by a number of protons Z (the atomic number) and
identified by its chemical symbol X. One element can have several isotopes.

Emission spectra
When the atoms of gases contained in a tube are heated they glow, the atoms emit
light at certain wavelengths, showing colored lines known as emission lines in the
spectrum.

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GLOSSARY

Empirical Formulae
Empirical formula indicates the ratio of each type of atom in a chemical compound. It
does not give any information on structure. The formula is called empirical because it
is measured by experiment. When an unknown compound is analysed by elemental
analysis; it is combusted and the products of its combustion (e.g. CO 2, H2O, N2, SO2)
are measured. The result of an elemental analysis is presented as a percentage (%)
by mass of C, H, N and S. A percentage (%) is expressed in gram per 100 gram.

Enantiomers
Two molecules, mirror images of each other and non-superimposable are two
enantiomers.

First ionisation energy

The first ionisation energy Ei1 is the energy necessary to remove one electron from
the outermost occupied orbital

Geometry (molecule)
The geometry of a molecule is the three-dimensional arrangement of the molecule’s
valence electrons (bond pairs, lone pairs and unpaired electrons). The molecular
geometry determines many of the substance’s properties such as chemical reactivity,
polarity, colour or magnetism.

Greek alphabet

 alpha  eta  nu  tau

 beta  theta  xi  upsilon
 gamma  iota  omicron  phi
 delta  kappa  pi  chi
 epsilon  lambda  rho  psi
 zeta  mu  sigma  omega

Hund’s rule
For degenerate atomic orbitals, the ground-state electronic configuration is that with
the greatest number of parallel spins.

Hybrid orbital
Atomic hybrid orbitals are the result of mixing atomic orbitals (s, p, d, etc) from the
same atom and have their own shape and energy. Hybrid orbitals are very useful in
explaining molecular geometry and bonding properties.

Hydrogen bonding
Hydrogen bonding is a strong electrostatic interaction that occurs between the
positively charged hydrogens and negatively charged atoms (N, O, F, Cl) within the
same molecule (intramolecular bonding) or between two molecules (intermolecular
bonding).

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GLOSSARY

Hypervalence
A hypervalent molecule contains one or more main group elements formally bearing
more than eight electrons in their valence shells.

Inert pair effects

The inert pair effect is a tendency of the s valence electrons to remain as a lone pair
in compounds of post-transition metals.

Ionic bonding
The ionic bond is a chemical bond formed through electrostatic attraction between a
cation and an anion.

Ionisation energy
Is the energy required to remove an electron from the atom (Ei = lEaol). The greater
the attraction with the nucleus the greater the Ei of an electron.

Isotopes
Isotopes of the same element have the same number of protons Z therefore share
the same chemical symbol X, but have a different number of neutrons (a different
mass number A).

Quantum number
Solving the Schrödinger wave equation gives a set of quantised orbitals
(wavefunctions  each characterized by its energy and by 3 quantum numbers:
principal (n), azimutal or angular (l) and magnetic (m l).

Law of mass conservation

The law of mass conservation implies that atoms can neither be created nor
destroyed during a chemical reaction, although they may be rearranged, and/or their
state of matter may change.

Light spectrum
When the sun light passes through a prism it is dispersed into a continuous spectrum
of wavelengths (the rainbow).

Limiting reagent
A limiting reagent is the reagent that will be totally consumed when the chemical
reaction is complete.

Lyman series
The emission spectrum of the hydrogen atom is divided into spectral series according
to the energy level to which the electrons move down. The Lyman series is due to
electronic transitions from higher energy levels to n = 1; the wavelengths of the
emissions are in the ultra-violet region (short wavelength; high energy).

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GLOSSARY

Madelung (energy ordering rule)

The order in which the orbitals are filled is given by the n+l rule. Orbitals with a lower
n+l value are filled before those with higher n+l values (n and l are the principal and
the azimutal quantum numbers respectively). When two orbitals have identical n+l
values; the orbital with a lower n value is filled first.

Metalloids
Metalloids or semi-metals show intermediate conduction properties (they are semi-
conductors). Their electronegativity values are close to 2. The valence electrons of
metalloids are localised around the nucleus but can also be moved (and therefore
conduct electricity) when excited by small inputs of energy. Semi-conductors
elements such as Si, As, Sb play an important part in microelectronic devices.

Metals
Metals are electrical conductors; they have a low electronegativity value (under 2).
The valence electrons of metals are more loosely attracted to the nucleus and are
free to conduct electricity. Metals make crystal lattice structures in which electrons
can flow freely.

Non-metals
Non-metals are not electrical conductors, they are characterised by a high
electronegativity value (over 2). The valence electrons of non-metals are strongly
attracted to their positively charged nucleus and are not available to conduct
electricity.

Oxidation state
The oxidation state (or oxidation number) is an indicator of the oxidation degree of an
atom.

Oxo-acid
Oxo-acids are polyatomic ions with polar hydrogen-oxygen bonds that can be broken
to form ions. Oxo-acids can lose one or more protons (from H-O bond breaking).

Percentage yield
Percentage yield is used to measure the effectiveness of a process. When the
process is optimal, the reaction is quantitative; the yield is 100%.

Precipitation
Precipitation is the formation of a solid in solution. The solid formed is called the
precipitate, it could fall to the bottom of the solution or remain in suspension.

Polarity (bond)
When one of the two atoms involved in a covalent bond attracts the bonding electron
pair more than the other atom, partial charges appear and the bond is polar. A
negative partial charge (-) appears over the atom attracting the electronic density
and a positive partial charge (+) appears over the other one.

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GLOSSARY

Racemate
A racemate (or a racemic mixture) is a 1:1 mixture of enantiomers.

Reaction yield
The reaction yield is the amount of product obtained in a chemical reaction,
expressed in gram. The theoretical yield is the amount of product expected to be
formed and is calculated using the chemical equation. The actual yield is the amount
of product physically measured by the experimentalist.

Redox reactions
Redox reactions are reactions involving electron transfer between species. During a
redox reaction, oxidants are reduced (they gain electron(s): their oxidation states
decrease) and reducers are oxidised (they lose electrons: their oxidation states
increase).

Shape (molecule)
The shape of a molecule is the disposition of all the molecule’s atoms. It is
determined by the arrangement of the bond pairs (bp) around central atoms.

Solute
Solute can be any substance dissolved in a solvent.

Solution
A solution is made of solute dissolved in a solvent. The solution is defined as a
homogeneous mixture of one phase only.

Solvation
When ionic solids are dissolved in water, a phenomenon of solvation occurs: water
molecules form shell-layers around both anions and cations. Solvation stabilises the
charges of the ions and also separates the ions from each other.

Solvent
Solvents can be liquid, solid or a gas.

Spectator ion
A spectator ion is not modified by the chemical reaction and is found unchanged
when the reaction is complete. Spectator ions are identical on both side of the
chemical equation (as reagents and as products).

Valence electrons
Valence electrons reside in the outer atomic orbital, the “valence orbital” and are
available for bonding and chemical reactions. They are responsible for the shapes of
molecules. The number of valence electrons possessed by an element determines its
group in the Periodic Table – elements of the same group have the same number of
valence electrons.

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GLOSSARY

Valence shell
The Valence Shell is the outer-shell of an atom, where valence electrons are found.
The valence electrons are responsible for the chemical properties of the elements.

Valency
The valency or valence number of an atom is the number of chemical bonds that an
atom may form to satisfy the octet rule. It is equal to the number of unpaired electron
(upe). The lone pair electrons are not counted as bonding, therefore the valency is
the number of valence electrons, less the lone pair electrons (lp).

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GLOSSARY

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