CIVE302 Fall 2013 Dr.

Dowell
T. Johnson

Lab 1. Tensile Test of Steel

A computer-controlled Tinius-Olsen testing machine will be used to perform experiments on

steel coupons by loading them to failure in tension. This lab project will demonstrate typical
stress-strain responses of hot-rolled (Figure 1-1) and cold-rolled (Figure 1-2) steels, starting with
the initial linear-elastic behavior and going through yield, the yield plateau, strain-hardening,
and finally rupture. Failure occurs when the single axial member fractures into two pieces
following necking – a strain localization signified by a visible reduction of the cross-sectional
area.

Strain is defined as the change in length L of a member, for a given load, divided by the
member length. While there are several methods for defining strain, engineering strain is the
most common and is very useful for structural engineering, and herein will be referred to
simply as strain. Engineering strain  considers the original member length L prior to being
loaded and may thus be written as

L
 (1-1)
L

For an axially loaded member, stress is defined as the force divided by the cross-sectional area.
Engineering stress considers the member force F and the original, un-stressed, cross-sectional
area A when determining axial stress. As with strain, there are varying definitions of stress that
allow for the changing cross-sectional area as the member is being loaded. However,
engineering stress  is the most useful definition for practical applications and from here on will
be referred to simply as stress. Thus stress is given as

F
 (1-2)
A
For the axially loaded member discussed here the stresses and strains are the same at all
locations within a cross-section; however, it is important to realize that the concepts of stress
and strain are not limited to axial loading as in this lab project, but can be used for 2-D and 3-D
objects. In 3-D analysis these values can vary from point to point, with stress and strain
quantities defined at a single point rather than over a member length as in Eq. (1-1). In the
finite element approach, for example, solid objects of arbitrary shape can be modeled by many
interconnected elements, with stress and strain contours developed that provide an
understanding of locations of high stress and strain.

Stress Useful range of

stress-strain curve Necking

su

sy Fracture

ey eh eu Strain

Figure 1-1. Typical stress-strain diagram for hot-rolled steel

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In Eq. (1-1) the member length can be replaced by a gage length (shorter than the member
length), providing a different measured displacement while retaining the same strain. For
example, if the elongation were measured over half of the member length (gage length = 1/2 of
the member length) the measured elongation would also be 1/2 of the full member length
value, resulting in the same strain. This is an important concept that regardless of the chosen
gage length the measured strain will be the same, with one exception as discussed below.

As the member begins to experience significant deformation, local imperfections in material

structure cause a large increase in strain over a short length of the member and typically only
over a portion of a chosen gage length. When this localization takes place the measured strain
will directly depend on the gage length and, therefore, the very concept of strain will lose
meaning and any engineering significance. This is why the useful range of the stress-strain
curve for steel ends at peak stress (as indicated in Figures 1-1 and 1-2). Note that peak stress is
equal to the ultimate stress. Thus, regardless of the gage length the stress-strain curve will be
consistent until the peak stress and associated strain are reached. The shape of the stress-
strain curve at strains larger than the ultimate strain (necking) will depend on the chosen gage
length and is, therefore, not unique – that is, the measured strain value will vary for a given
stress dependent upon a selected gage length.

Figure 1-3 shows a coupon fixed at the base and loaded at the top. The dark lines on the left
figure indicate the initial geometry of the coupon with length L. With load F applied, an equal
and opposite reaction develops at the fixed base and the member elongates L as shown with
the light gray outline on the same figure on the left. In addition to elongating, the cross-section
reduces in size as shown in the figure. It is assumed here that the fixed base allows the cross-
section to reduce size (fixed axially only). It is clear that the figure on the left is below the
ultimate stress because there is no localization with the same strains throughout the member
length. The figure in the middle shows necking (localization) leading to the failure and fracture

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shown on the right figure. Ductile materials develop extensive necking while brittle materials
fracture abruptly.

Stress Useful range of

stress-strain curve Necking

su

sy Fracture

E
E

0.002 ey eu Strain

Figure 1-2. Typical stress-strain diagram for cold-rolled steel

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 F F F

DL

R=F R R

Figure 1-3. Constant strain, necking and fracture of steel coupon

Experiment

Tension tests will be conducted for hot-rolled and cold-rolled steels using circular test coupons
that have two threaded ends. The threaded end regions are larger diameter than the center
portion of interest, resulting in lower stresses due to the larger cross-sectional area (stress =
force/area) and preventing yield in the attachment regions. Proper attachment of the
specimen to the machine grips will ensure most of the deformations will occur over the
member length that has constant cross-section. Displacements will be recorded by computer,
measuring the elongation of a machined length using a potentiometer. Since most of the

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specimen deformations occur between the threaded ends, and because the machine is stiff, use
this distance as the gage length (member length with constant cross-section). Axial force will
also be recorded throughout the experiment and saved to computer. Using a digital caliper, the
diameter of the specimen at the center of the gage length should be measured before testing.
Force and Displacement data will be posted on Blackboard for each test, with one column
providing measured axial displacement and a second column giving measured force.

Students will be responsible for changing the force and displacement data to stress and strain
and plotting the axial stress-strain curve for each experiment. From the recorded data the
following is required.

REQUIRED CALCULATIONS:

Hot-Rolled Steel

Plot of stress versus strain

Plot of force versus displacement (this should be presented in data section)

Member-end-stiffness K (kips/inch) at yield stress and at ultimate stress*

Modulus of elasticity E (ksi)

Yield stress (ksi)

Yield strain

Strain at first hardening

Ultimate stress (ksi)

Ultimate strain (strain associated with ultimate stress)

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Strain ductility

Modulus of toughness (ksi)

Cold-Rolled Steel

Plot of stress versus strain

Plot of force versus displacement (this should be presented in data section)

Initial member-end-stiffness K (kips/inch)

Modulus of elasticity E (ksi)

Yield stress (ksi) – from 0.2% offset

Yield strain (strain associated with yield stress) – from 0.2% offset

Ultimate stress (ksi)

Ultimate strain (strain associated with ultimate stress)

Strain ductility

Modulus of toughness (ksi)

REQUIRED DISCUSSION:

From the measured results, discuss any differences and similarities between hot-rolled steel
and cold-rolled steel (numerically and/or conceptually). Comment on the overall behavior of
the materials in the force-displacement and stress-strain curves (be specific). Provide example
applications in the real world for both types of steel.

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Definitions:

Modulus of elasticity E (ksi). This is the initial, linear slope of the stress-strain diagram. In this
range the material (and any structure that is made of this material) will be linear-elastic,
meaning that if the load is doubled the deformations will double (linear), and upon removal of
the load it will return to its original position (elastic) with no permanent deformation.

Yield stress (ksi). For hot-rolled steel the yield stress is the stress at the end of the proportional
limit, which is followed by the yield plateau. For cold-rolled steel there is no well-defined yield
stress due to the nonlinear nature of the stress-strain curve. Therefore the yield stress is found
by drawing a line on the stress-strain diagram with the same slope as the initial E, but offset by
a strain of 0.002 (0.2%), and finding where it intersects the measured stress-strain diagram.

Yield strain. Yield strain is the strain associated with the yield stress (at the same point on the
stress-strain diagram).

Strain at first hardening. For hot-rolled steel, strain hardening occurs at the end of the yield
plateau. Beyond yield strain, the stress remains approximately constant (equal to the yield
stress) for quite a while until strain hardening begins. This does not apply to cold-rolled steel
due to the shape of the stress-strain curve.

Ultimate stress (ksi). This is the maximum stress achieved. At strains beyond this point the
stresses decrease and necking develops, followed soon after by fracture and failure of the
specimen.

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Ultimate strain (ksi). This is the strain associated with ultimate stress. It is not the strain at
rupture as this strain is not unique, with different values for different arbitrary gage lengths.

Strain ductility. This is the ratio of ultimate strain to yield strain.

Modulus of toughness (ksi). This is the area under the stress-strain curve to ultimate stress
and strain (not to rupture).

Member-end-stiffness (kips/inch). Axial force divided by displacement, which is the slope of

the force-displacement curve. In the plastic region stiffness is defined as the tangent slope to
the stress-strain curve.