PT 8 Potable Water Supply

GOVERNMENT OF BALOCHISTAN
BALOCHISTAN COMMUNITY IRRIGATION AND AGRICULTURE PROJECT
DESIGN MANUAL
PART 8 – POTABLE WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................1
2 VILLAGE EVALUATION AND FEASIBILITY STUDY...........................................3
2.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................3
2.2 Village Enthusiasm and Motivation...................................................................................3
2.3 Water Sources..................................................................................................................3
2.3.1 Flow Available.......................................................................................................3
2.3.2 Water Quality........................................................................................................3
2.4 Tapstand Locations and Pipeline Alignment......................................................................3
2.5 Vertical Alignment of Pipeline...........................................................................................4
2.6 Topographic Survey..........................................................................................................4
3 TYPES OF SYSTEMS...........................................................................................5
3.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................5
3.2 Open Systems Without Taps.............................................................................................5
3.3 Open Systems With Taps..................................................................................................5
3.4 Closed System With Reservoir.........................................................................................5
3.5 Closed System With Intermittent Service.........................................................................6
3.6 Closed System With Float (Ball) Valves...........................................................................6
3.7 Open System versus Closed System...............................................................................6
3.8 System Expansion............................................................................................................6
4 POPULATION, WATER DEMAND AND RESERVOIR TANKS.............................7
4.1 Population and Water Demand.........................................................................................7
4.1.1 Population Forecast..............................................................................................7
4.1.2 Design Water Demand.........................................................................................7
4.1.3 Demand Fluctuations............................................................................................8
4.2 Tapstand Flows.................................................................................................................8
4.3 Reservoir Tanks................................................................................................................8
4.3.1 General.................................................................................................................8
4.3.2 Capacity................................................................................................................9
5 HYDRAULICS OF PIPE FLOW AND PIPELINE DESIGN..................................11
5.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................11
5.2 Energy.............................................................................................................................11
5.3 Static Head and Dynamic Heads....................................................................................11
5.3.1 Static Equilibrium................................................................................................11
5.3.2 Dynamic Equilibrium...........................................................................................12
5.4 Hydraulic Grade Line......................................................................................................12
5.5 Continuity and Bernoulli’s Equations...............................................................................12
5.5.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................12
5.5.2 Equation of Continuity.........................................................................................12
5.5.3 Bernoulli’s Equation............................................................................................13
5.6 Friction Headlosses.........................................................................................................13
5.6.1 Pipe Friction........................................................................................................13
5.6.2 Valves: Variable Friction Devices.......................................................................15
5.6.3 Equivalent Pipe Lengths of Fittings....................................................................15
5.7 Plotting the Hydraulic Grade Line...................................................................................15
5.8 Residual Head: Excess Energy.......................................................................................16
5.9 Combination Pipe Sizes..................................................................................................16
5.10 Pressure Limits...............................................................................................................17
5.10.1 Maximum Pressure Limits...................................................................................17
5.10.2 Minimum Pressure Limits....................................................................................17
5.11 Flow Velocity Limits.........................................................................................................18
5.12 Air-blocks and Washouts................................................................................................18
5.12.1 Air-blocks............................................................................................................18
5.12.2 Washouts............................................................................................................19
5.13 Distribution System.........................................................................................................19
5.13.1 Distribution System Arrangement.......................................................................19
5.13.2 Distribution System Design Flows......................................................................19
5.14 Pipe Fittings....................................................................................................................20
6 STRUCTURES.....................................................................................................21
6.1 Reservoir Tanks..............................................................................................................21
6.2 Break-pressure Tanks.....................................................................................................22
6.3 Tapstands........................................................................................................................23
6.3.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................23
6.3.2 Tapstand Locations.............................................................................................23
6.3.3 Flow....................................................................................................................24
6.3.4 Residual Head....................................................................................................24
6.3.5 Structural Consideration.....................................................................................24
6.3.6 Maintenance.......................................................................................................25
6.4 Valve Boxes.....................................................................................................................25
6.4.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................25
6.4.2 Design Characteristics........................................................................................25
6.5 Wuzu Structures..............................................................................................................25
7 WATER TREATMENT..........................................................................................27
7.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................27
7.2 Slow Sand Filters............................................................................................................27
7.3 Aeration...........................................................................................................................27
7.4 Chemical Treatment........................................................................................................27
8 COMMISSIONING...............................................................................................29
BIBLIOGRAPHY
DESIGN MANUAL
CONTENTS OF OTHER PARTS
Part 1 Site Investigations

Part 2 Flood Estimation
Part 3 Weirs
Part 4 Infiltration Galleries
Part 5 Irrigation Canals
Part 6 Irrigation Structures
Part 7 Flood Protection Structures
Part 8 Potable Water Supply Systems
Part 9 Structural Design Criteria
Part 10 Draughting Standards
Part 11 Value Engineering
Part 12 Selected Drawings
Annex 1 Monthly Rainfall Data
DISCLAIMER
This Design Manual was prepared under the Balochistan Community Irrigation and Agriculture Project (BCIAP)
for the design of schemes constructed under the Project. While every effort to check for mistakes in this
Manual has been made, no liability for the use of this Manual for any other purpose can be accepted by BCIAP,
or the Project’s Consultants.
No credit is claimed here for original research or thought. As far as possible all reference material has been
quoted and acknowledged in the appropriate places.
DESIGN MANUAL
Conversion Factors
Length
1 inch = 25.4 mm
1 foot (12 inches) = 0.3048 m
1 mile (5280 ft) = 1609 m
Area
1 ft2 = 0.093 m 2
1 acre (43,560 ft2) = 0.4047 hectares (4047 m 2)
1 sq. mile (640 acres) = 259 hectares
Volume
1 ft3 = 0.028 m 3
35.315 ft3 = 1 m 3 (=1,000l)
1.0 Imp. gallon (=0.16 ft3) = 4.546 l
1.0 US gallon = 3.785 l
Discharge
1 cusec (ft3/s) = 0.028 cumecs (m 3/s)
1 Imp. gallon/minute = 0.076 l/s
Weights
1 lb = 0.454 kg
2.2 lb = 1.0 kg
1 ton (US) = 907.2 kg (0.907 tonnes)
Force
0.2248 lbf = 1 N (0.1020 kgf)
0.06852 lbf/ft = 1 N/m (0.1020 kgf/m)
145.0 lbf/in2 = 1 N/mm 2 (10.20 kgf/cm 2)
Moment
0.7376 lbf ft = 1 Nm (0.1020 kgf m)
Useful Data
Density of Water = 1,000 kg/m 3 = 62.4 lb/ft 3
Nominal weight of reinforced concrete = 23.6 kN/m3 (2,400 kg/m 3) = 150 lb/ft3
Nominal elastic modulus of concrete = 14 kN/mm 2 (140x103 kg/cm 2) = 2 x 106
lb/in2
Co-efficient of Linear expansion of concrete = 10 x 106 per oC =
5.5x106per oF
Acceleration of gravity, g = 9.806 m/s2 = 32.3 ft/s2
BCIAP DESIGN MANUAL PART 8: POTABLE WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS PAGE 11
1 INTRODUCTION
Under BCIAP potable water
supply systems were
constructed alongside perennial
irrigation systems on 11
schemes.
The criteria for construction of a

potable water supply system
were:
 A clean source of water
such as a karese, spring
or infiltration gallery so
that water requires no
treatment to be potable;
 Villages must not have
improved water
supplies;
BCIAP Reservoir Tank with Taps
 Supply must be by
gravity;
 FO or water right holders must agree to all community members having access to
water even during months of peak agricultural water requirements;
 Community members must want a PWS system and be prepared to: (i) form
water groups to assist in design and undertake operation and maintenance, as
well as collecting O&M contributions; (ii) receive health, hygiene and safe water
use training (by the project’s women and development unit staff); and (iii)
contribute 100% of O&M costs.
In the context of BCIAP, the principal components of the potable water supply systems
comprised:
 Offtake: usually incorporated as part of the main headworks for the irrigation
system;
 Main Pipeline: this is the pipeline leading from the offtake to the reservoir tank (if
there is one);
 Distribution Pipe System: these are the branch or looped net work of pipelines
which take off from either the Main Pipeline or from the reservoir tank, and supply
the tap stands;
 Break Pressure Tanks: these may be required in either the Main pipeline or the
Distribution pipe system if there is any possibility that the pressure in the pipe
might exceed its design limit;
 Reservoir Tank: provides a buffer storage between the Main Pipeline and the
Distribution Pipe System. Flow is usually continuous in the Main Pipeline, while
flow in the distribution system supplies water to meet peak demands;
 Tapstands, control valves, etc
In addition, it is also possible that the system could include water treatment units
such as roughing filters, slow sand filters, sedimentation tank, chlorination, etc.
However, this is beyond the scope of the potable water supplies provided for under
BCIAP.
This part of the design manual covers the feasibility, design and construction aspects of
the gravity potable water supply systems developed under BCIAP.
PAGE 2 BCIAP DESIGN MANUAL PART 8: POTABLE WATER SUPPLIES
2 VILLAGE EVALUATION AND FEASIBILITY STUDY
2.1 Introduction
Under BCIAP formal feasibility studies for the potable water supply systems were not
carried out. However, as part of the reconnaissance and screening studies for the
irrigation systems, the criteria listed in Chapter 1, were used to determine whether or not
to provide a PWS system.
2.2 Village Enthusiasm and Motivation

In addition to the formal project criteria, the enthusiasm and motivation of villagers should
be assessed by talking to a large number of people, examining past community
construction efforts, and checking for any disputes, particularly over water, which may
effect the success of the scheme. For example, BCIAP found that the construction of
PWS systems increases the suspicion between households that precious water may be
wasted for washing.
2.3 Water Sources
2.3.1 Flow Available

Flow measurement of the source(s), by current metering or other method, needs to be
carried out to determine the total flow available. This needs to be done during the low
flow months of the year (usually in June before the onset of the summer rains), and
preferably over many years.
As the main use of the available water is likely to be for irrigation, the willingness of the
FO and water right holders to let all community members have access to tap water even
during months of peak agricultural water requirements must be checked.
2.3.2 Water Quality

Under BCIAP no water treatment is proposed, and the source of water must be potable.
Villagers will know if the water of a source is drinkable and should be consulted.
If the water is drinkable, but with turbidity (cloudiness), taste, and/or odour problems,
these might be remedied by the simple treatment works discussed in Chapter 7.
2.4 Tapstand Locations and Pipeline Alignment

The location of tapstands and the pipeline alignment usually generates heated debate in
a rural community; as much amongst the women as the men. It is therefore vitally
important that the whole community, men and women, is fully consulted about possible
tapstand locations and the proposed alignment of the pipeline before detailed survey
work begins.
Before starting discussions about tapstand locations, the approximate number of taps
that would be built should be determined. This may be based on the following criteria:
 1 tap per 50-60 people; and/or
 provision of 10 imperial gallons (45 litres) per person per day (see Section 4.1:
Population and Water Demand). It may be that the available water will limit the
number of tap stands.
As the primary users of tapstands are women, priority should be given to determining the
women=s view in relation to tapstand locations. In BCIAP, this is done by asking the
women to form themselves into Aclusters@; each of which will share one tapstand.
Whether this tapstand has one or two taps will depend on the total number of people
living in the cluster on the basis of 1 tap per 50-60 people. Within the cluster, the women
should be left to decide amongst themselves where the best site is though the design
team may offer advice in relation to providing adequate drainage, and the project=s own
criterion that no-one should need to walk more than about 100m (330ft) to a tap to fetch
water.
Notwithstanding any specific requests about the pipe alignment, the pipe should be laid
where costs will be minimised and where it can be easily located if it should ever need to
be dug up. Laying the pipeline adjacent to the main irrigation channel is often appropriate
because it does mean that the pipe is easy to locate. Given that any storage reservoir
will usually be located near the channel as well, so that the overflow can discharge into it,
this is often also the most obvious route. This also allows the Contractor to work on both
components simultaneously. Elsewhere, the pipeline should ideally follow existing
footpaths. One of the main reasons for this is that if the pipeline is located where people
are normally passing, it will quickly become obvious to everyone if the pipe is leaking.
2.5 Vertical Alignment of Pipeline

The following points should be taken into account when walking over the scheme to
determine the pipeline route, to ensure that the designed system operates well. Failure to
takes these into account at an early stage will result in time wasted to resurvey alternative
routes.
 the minimum permissible dynamic head in a pipeline (refer Section 5.10:
Pressure Limits);
 the minimum earth cover to the pipeline of 0.9m (3 ft);
 the pipe should never be laid horizontally because this makes it difficult for
trapped air to escape;
 the minimum recommended rising slope (in the direction of flow) is 0.003 over a
maximum distance of 2,500 ft;
 minimum recommended falling slope (in the direction of flow) is 0.006 over a
maximum distance of 1,200 ft;
 trying to minimise the number of rising and falling sections of pipeline (ie
minimising the number of peaks and troughs): many troughs will require
washouts and all peaks will require air valves (refer Section 5.12: Air-blocks and
Washouts)
The reason why a shallower slope is permitted on a rising section of the pipeline than on
a falling section is concerned with removal of air from the pipeline. Even with a shallower
slope, the flow of the water in the same uphill direction will assist in pushing the air
towards an air valve or tank where it can escape. On a falling slope, the air has to escape
in the opposite direction to the flow of water, and therefore the minimum pipe slope
needs to be steeper.
2.6 Topographic Survey

Once the pipeline route has been walked over, selected in accordance with the above
criteria, and agreed with the community, then detailed survey should be carried out. The
same benchmarks established for the irrigation system survey should be used (see Part
1: Site Investigations).
The survey should result in the following maps and drawings being prepared:
 Layout maps showing alignment of pipeline and location of tapstands, source of
water, and key features such as housing, public buildings, roads and tracks,
electricity lines, rivers, etc. In most cases a separate layout map is needed for the
main pipeline and for the distribution pipelines.
 Longitudinal drawings showing ground levels along the pipelines routes, and
clearly marking any gullies, river crossings, etc. The suggested RDs (chainages)
of offtaking branch lines should be noted on the longitudinal section for the main
pipeline.
3 TYPES OF SYSTEMS
3.1 Introduction
There are several types of gravity flow PWS systems, each type being determined by
certain design characteristics. These systems fall into two general categories: open
systems and closed ones.
An open system derives from the concept that the taps can be left open and flowing
continuously all day long, and still provide constant and steady flow. This means that the
safe yield of the source (s) is sufficient enough to supply all tapstands directly, without
requiring a reservoir tank. With an open system, only dynamic pressures occur in
the pipeline.
A closed system is one where the safe yield of the source cannot provide continuous flow
to all taps, or where the safe yield is such that a reservoir tank is necessary to store water
for peak demand periods which the source alone could not meet. All tapstands on the
system must have a tap, either of the self-closing or manually operated type. With a
closed system, static and dynamic pressures may occur in the pipeline.
Both categories of system may require break-pressure tanks, but an open system will
never require a reservoir tank. At all tapstands, regardless of the type of system, a control
valve must be installed to proportion and regulate the flow between taps.
From these two categories, there are five different types of systems.
3.2 Open Systems Without Taps

This type of system has continual, 24 - hour flow from the tapstands, with no taps to shut
off the water. The primary advantage to this system is that there are no taps that can be
abused, worn out, broken, stolen, etc. The primary disadvantage arises out of the copious
amounts of water issuing fourth all day and night. Strategic location of taps to make use
of wastewater (such as irrigation of nearby fields, etc) and construction of drainage
channels to carry these flows away will minimize the problems of large water quantities.
Under BCIAP, due to the high value of water and its use for irrigation, open systems
without taps are not suitable.
3.3 Open Systems With Taps

The problems of copious water flow from an open tapstand can be eliminated by
installing taps on some of the tapstands. Provision must be made for handling overflow
water from the lowest break - pressure point (ie reservoir tank, break-pressure tank, etc)
since excess water will overflow at that point.
This type of system is one of the more desirable types, since it requires no reservoir tank,
provides more than sufficient water for the villagers, and has minimal wastewater
problems.
Under BCIAP, due to the high value of water and its use for irrigation, this type of open
system, while better than one with out any taps, is not suitable unless farmers can agree
on where the overflow water discharges. For example, if overflow water can discharge
into the irrigation channel, then this may be acceptable.
3.4 Closed System With Reservoir

A reservoir tank is required when the peak water demands of the village cannot be met
by the source alone. The reservoir stores water from low-demand periods (such as
overnight) to supplement the source flow during peak demand periods (such as early
morning). A reservoir system is able to provide water at any time demanded, but depends
upon taps and pipeline being well maintained (broken taps or a leaky pipeline will not
allow the reservoir to fill). Alternatively, the outlet value from the reservoir needs to be
closed.
Provision of a reservoir allows a smaller pipe size to be used between the source and the
reservoir, than would be the case if this main pipeline had to meet peak water demand.
The saving in the pipe cost can offset the cost of the tank.
3.5 Closed System With Intermittent Service

There are some topography situations where the yield of the source and geography of the
terrain act in such a way that the system must be designed with one (or more) break
pressure tank located downstream from the reservoir tank. This arrangement requires an
intermittent supply system. Except for a few hours each day (ie in the morning and
evening), the water is shut off at the reservoir tank to allow it to refill. Without doing this,
the tank would never refill, since it would be constantly draining out through the lower
break-pressure tanks.
This intermittent system is the least-desirable type to build. Hydraulic problems, such as
air entrapment, can complicate the draining and refilling of the pipeline each day; there
will be increased wear on the control valves at the reservoir; support of the system
caretaker requires considerable village organization; negative pressures in the pipeline
during system shut down can suck in polluted groundwater via small leaks; and since the
entire water demand period is compressed in to just a few hours (rather than spread out
over the full day), the taps must be designed to deliver greater flows, which in the turn
requires larger pipe sizes and substantially increases the cost of the system.
3.6 Closed System With Float (Ball) Valves

As mentioned above, there are some situations where it is inescapably necessary to
install break - pressure tanks downstream of the reservoir.
Float - valves are installed in the break - pressure tanks, and act on the same principle
as those commonly used in household toilets. These valves automatically adjust the flow
in the pipeline to exactly match the amount demanded by any open taps. When all taps
are closed, the break - pressure tank fills with water, lifting the float and gradually closing
the valve until the flow is cut off. This allows the upstream reservoir tank to refill.
Sturdy-quality float-valves are necessary. Those used in domestic (toilet) applications will
quickly fail under high operating heads.
3.7 Open System versus Closed System

The decision to build a system as either open or closed is governed by several factors
pipeline profile, safe yield of the source and consideration of the other uses for the water
(eg for irrigation), design population, and availability of construction materials. In some
instances, the decision is an obvious one, and in other cases the designer must evaluate
the economics of both types before making a decision.
Under BCIAP, all the PWS systems built were closed systems due to the need to prevent
wastage of water. Most also had reservoir tanks provided with control valves so that
supply to tapstands could be limited to a few hours per day if desired. As the land was
generally not too steeply sloping, break-pressure tanks were usually not required.
3.8 System Expansion

The PWS systems are designed to meet the population increase predicted for the life of
the scheme (generally 20 years). Consideration to possible further expansion should be
considered at the design stage, with some spare capacity built into the system, at least
for the main pipeline.
4 POPULATION, WATER DEMAND AND RESERVOIR TANKS
4.1 Population and Water Demand
4.1.1 Population Forecast

Census information for communities is unavailable, out of date or, quite often, a source of
political tension. It is therefore much better to base the design of the PWS on survey
data carried out as part of the feasibility or screening studies. Under BCIAP, these data
were usually collected by the Community Organisers or by the Community Irrigation
Engineers.
PWS designs are usually based on a design life of 20 years. Under BCIAP a population
growth rate of 3% per annum was usually assumed. The design population in year n, Pn,
is then given by the following equation:
i
P n = (1 + )n . P0
100
Where:
P0 = number of people at time of survey
i = percentage annual growth rate
4.1.2 Design Water Demand

Design water demand for the scheme is based on the design population as calculated
above, and a per capita water demand. PWS systems built by BCIAP do not include
provision for any private connections and the design demand for public connections is 10
imperial gallons (45 litres) per person per day. This figure derives from World Health
Organisation (WHO) studies, and includes allowances for drinking, cooking, washing
dishes and clothes and personal washing. It does not make any allowance for the
institutional needs of hospitals, dispensaries, schools or other government departments.
The daily amount of water needed by these institutions is given in Table 4.1, based on
ideal target usages.
Table 4.1 Daily Water Demand for Various Institutions

Facility Daily Demand (litres)
Ideal Minimally (65% of
Ideal)
School – day school 10 l/student 6.5
School – boarding students 65 l/boarder 42
Hospitals & health posts 500 l/bed 325
Health clinics (no beds) 2500 /day 1,625
Government Offices 500-1000 l/day 325-560
(depending on size)
The village’s total daily water requirements will be the sum of the per capita demand,
plus the demand for any of the above institutions in the scheme area, as projected for the
end of the design period, plus an allowance for transmission losses, say 20%.
4.1.3 Demand Fluctuations

The daily life in a village, as anywhere else, means that all people tend to draw their
water at the same times of day.
For BCIAP PWS systems, the design of the system (essentially the reservoir and
distribution system) is based on people drawing their water in two four-hour periods: from
6am to 10am and from 3pm to 7pm.
This gives a “peak factor” of 3.0 (24/8) to be applied to the average demand over 24
hours, and used to design the distribution system.
4.2 Tapstand Flows

The standard tapstand flow is 0.225 l/s (13.5 liters/minute; 3.0 gallons/minute). For each
person to get 10 gallons per day, over a period of eight hours, required at least one such
tap per 150 persons. Practically this is difficult, and the aim should be for one tap per 100
persons at the end of the design life of the system. When planning and designing the
system, one such tap should be provided per 50-60 persons; this assumes an annual
population growth of 3% and a design life of 20 years for the PWS system.
A typical family of seven would therefore use such a tap for about 30 minutes in the day.
In addition, no person should need to walk more than about 100m (330 ft) to a tap to fetch
water.
4.3 Reservoir Tanks
4.3.1 General
One of the main functions of a reservoir is to provide a buffer between fluctuating
demand and a steady supply. This has three potential benefits:
 the cost saving in the main pipeline is often much more than the cost of the
reservoir since the main can be sized for average daily demand rather than peak
demand;
 taking the flow from the irrigation source around the clock can avoid disputes later
if the situation arises that a farmer objects because his share always coincides
with times of peak demand;
 it allow supplies to be maintained (though perhaps at a lower level) whilst

maintenance is carried out on the source and/or main pipeline.
It is always better to build a single reservoir to serve a whole PWS system than a series
of small tanks scattered throughout the distribution system. Small tanks in the distribution
system are a maintenance headache because the proper functioning of the system as a
whole requires that all the tanks are working properly: ie the outlet taps are not leaking
and the ball-valves are functioning. This is a rare situation in a rural water supply and the
result inevitably is wastage of water. This in turn leads to disenchantment and possible
pressure to abandon the system; particularly from those shareholders in the scheme who
feel that they are giving up their water which they would otherwise use for agriculture. A
single reservoir, on the other hand can be managed more easily. Villages often come to
an agreement about times during which the outlet from the reservoir to the distribution
system will be open. It can also be sited such that the overflow discharges back into the
irrigation channel; removing the need for a ball-valve (always a weak link in any PWS
system) and the farmers can see that waste is being avoided.
4.3.2 Capacity
When it comes to designing the reservoir tank, the most common attitude of villagers is
“the bigger the better!” While this is understandable, there is no point in building any tank
so large that the source will never be able to fill it up during the overnight re-filling period.
The storage capacity of the reservoir is calculated by balancing inflows and outflows
throughout a 24 hour period so that design demand can always be met.
Worked Example
A PWS system is to be provided to a village where the present population is 1,129

persons. A closes system is to be provided with a reservoir tank fed by a main pipeline.
Determine the capacity of the reservoir tank, and the approximate number of tapstands
required.
Step 1: Design Population

For a 20 year design life, and assuming an annual population growth rate of 3%, gives
at design population of:
P20 = (1 + 3/100)20 x 1,129 = 2,039 persons
Step 2: Water Demand

To provide 10 gallons per day, and assuming 20% transmission losses, requires a daily
volume of: = 2,039 x 10 x 1.2 = 24,468 gallons/day
= 111 m 3/day
= 4.63 m3/hr (1.3 l/s; 0.046 cusecs)
(Note: minimum design discharge for main pipe line is therefore 1.3l/s)
Step 3: Demand Fluctuations

The water demanded is to be available for use in two four hour periods, from 6 to 10
am; and from 3 to 7 pm. During these periods the design outflow from the storage
reservoir is to be: = 24/8 x 4.63 = 13.9 m 3/hr (5.1 l/s)
(Note: minimum design discharge capacity for distribution pipeline system is therefore
5.1l/s)
Step 4: Reservoir Capacity

Water balance is carried out as shown in the table below to determine the reservoir
storage capacity.
Time Period Inflow Outflow Balance Cumulative

Volume Balance
(hrs) m3 m3 m3 m3
6-10am (4hrs) 18.5 55.6 -37.1 -37.1
10am -3pm (5 hrs) 23.1 0 +23.1 -14.0
3-7pm (4 hrs) 18.5 55.6 -37.1 -51.0
7pm – 6 am (11 hrs) 50.9 0 +50.9 0.9
Totals 111 111 0 0
The reservoir will fill over night, partly empty in the morning from 6-10am, fill up a little
over midday, and then empty in the evening from 3-7pm. The required storage capacity
of the reservoir is 51m 3.
Step 5: Number of Tapstands

Based on the projected population, nr = 2,039/100 = 21 Nr
Based on a flow of 0.225l/s, nr = 5.2/0.225 = 23 Nr
The exact number may increase slightly if the population is spread over a large area.
5 HYDRAULICS OF PIPE FLOW AND PIPELINE DESIGN
5.1 Introduction
In this chapter, the basic hydraulic principles that govern the behavior of gravity-flow
water systems are presented, and factors that need to be taken into account when
designing the pipeline are discussed.
5.2 Energy
To move water, whether moving it uphill, downhill, or horizontally, requires energy. As its
name implies, in a gravity flow water system the source of energy is the action of gravity
upon water.
A gravity-flow water system is “powered” by gravitational energy. The amount of such

energy in the system is determined by the relative elevations of all points in the system.
Once it has been constructed, all points in the system are immovably fixed (buried in the
ground) and their relative elevations cannot change. Thus, for any system, there is a
fixed, specific quantity of gravitational energy available to move water.
As water flows through pipes, fittings, tanks, etc, energy is lost, dissipated by friction.
Due to the changing topographic profile of the system, at some points there may be a
minimal amount of energy (ie low pressure), while at other points there may be an
excessive amount of energy (ie high pressure). A poorly designed or constructed system
will not conserve energy properly enough to move the desired quantities of water through
the pipelines.
The purpose of pipeline design, therefore, is to properly manipulate frictional energy

losses so that the desired flows are moved through the system, by conserving energy at
some points and burning it off (by friction) at other points. This is accomplished by careful
selection of pipe sizes and the strategic location of control valves, break-pressure tanks,
reservoir tanks, tap stands, air valves, etc.
5.3 Static Head and Dynamic Heads
5.3.1 Static Equilibrium

The water pressure at any point in a water supply system is determined by the depth of
water at that point:
P = hg [N/m 2]
Where:
h = depth of water [m]
 = density of water [1,000 kg/m 3]
g = acceleration of gravity, =9.806 [m/s 2]
The pressures at other points are likewise determined by the height of the vertical
distance from those points to the level of the free water surface.
In hydraulic work, rather than repeatedly calculate water pressure, it is usual practice to
report the equivalent head of the water column [in meters].
In a pipeline where no water is flowing, the system is in static equilibrium. In such

systems, the level of the water surface is called the static level, and the pressures are
static heads.
If small tubes were inserted into the pipeline, the water level in each tube would rise
exactly to the same static water level. The height of water in each tube is the pressure
head exerted on the pipeline at that point.
Since no water if flowing, there is no energy lost to friction and the static level is perfectly
horizontal.
5.3.2 Dynamic Equilibrium

If flow occurs through the pipeline, the water levels in each tube would decrease a bit. As
the flow through the pipeline increases, the water levels in the tubes drops more.
For a constant flow, the water heights in these tubes form a sloping line, which remains
steady. The system is in dynamic equilibrium. The slope of the line depends on the
amount of flow: steeper slopes for higher flows. This line is the hydraulic grade line,
commonly abbreviated as HGL.
5.4 Hydraulic Grade Line

The Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) represents the new energy levels at each point along
the pipeline. For any constant flow through the pipe there is a specific, constant HGL. The
vertical distance from the pipeline to the HGL is the measure of pressure head (ie
energy) in the pipe, and the difference between the HGL and the static water level is the
amount of head lost by the friction.
The water pressure at air/water interfaces (such as the water surfaces in tanks or
discharges at tapstands) is zero. Thus, the HGL must always come to zero wherever the
water comes into contact with the atmosphere.
Friction losses are not recovered, and the HGL always slopes down in the direction of
flow. The steepness of the slope is determined by the rate at which energy is lost to
friction. Only under static conditions is the HGL perfectly horizontal, although for practical
purposes the HGL may be plotted as horizontal for extremely low flows in large pipes
(where the head loss is less than 0.5m per 100 meters of pipe). For practical purposes,
the HGL will never slope upwards.
5.5 Continuity and Bernoulli’s Equations
5.5.1 Introduction
The two mainstay principles of all hydraulic behavior are expressed in the Equation of
Continuity and Bernoulli’s Equation.
Bernoulli’s Equation is used in any fluid calculations, and can be applied to determine the
lift of an airplane wing, the height that a column of mercury will rise in a barometer due to
atmospheric pressure, or even the rate at which a sinking ship will flood. It is as easily
applied to a system of several different fluids, or a single fluid only.
The Equation of Continuity is easy to comprehend and is no less important. It allows one
to determine the velocity of a fluid flowing through a pipe, or a series of different sized
pipes.
5.5.2 Equation of Continuity

The Equation of Continuity, when applied to water flowing through a pipeline, relates flow,
velocity and pipe size. The equation is:
QA = VA AA [m3/s]
Where:
QA = flow at point A [m 3/s]
VA = velocity at point A [m/s]
AA = cross section area of pipe at point A [m 2]
Explained, the equation means that for a constant flow through a pipeline, at any point
the flow must be equal to the flow at any other point. If the pipe size changes, then the
velocity of the flow will change to keep the flow constant.
A direct application of the Equation of Continuity is determining the maximum and
minimum desirable flows for each pipe size. The maximum desirable flow velocity is
about 3.0 m/s and minimum is about 0.7 m/s, and since the cross sectional areas of the
pipe can be calculated, it is possible to determine the corresponding flows for these
velocities.
5.5.3 Bernoulli’s Equation

In a gravity-flow water system, energy is present in four forms: potential (elevation) head,
pressure head, velocity head, and frictional head(loss). Bernoulli’s Equation is an energy
equation which relates each of these different energy forms together, for any fluids(s) in a
gravitational field. In a gravity-flow water system, the fluid is water, in the Earth’s
gravitational field.
Along the pipeline the amount of energy in each form will fluctuate. For a frictionless
system, the total energy (H) will remain constant. Bernoulli’s Equation is as follows:
H = P/(g) + h + v2/2g [m]
Where:
H = total energy [m]
P = water pressure [N/m 2]
 = density of water, 1,000 [kg/m 3]
g = acceleration of gravity, 9.806 [m/s 2]
h = height above reference level [m]
v = velocity of flow [m/s]
Note: The maximum desirable flow velocity in a plastic pipe is about 3.0 m/s, which
yields a velocity head of 0.46 m. This is such a small amount of head compared
to the other terms that it is negligible.
In a real system, some energy is converted into heat by the friction and turbulence of the
flow. This heat is absorbed by the pipe walls and is lost from the system (ie the water no
longer holds the energy). The HGL is separated from the total energy line by the amount
of friction head lost.
Various equations are available to calculate the friction head loss.
5.6 Friction Headlosses
5.6.1 Pipe Friction

A system has a specific amount of gravitational energy, determined by the relative
elevations of points in the system. As water flows through the pipeline, energy is lost by
the friction of the flow against pipe walls, or through fittings (such as reducers, elbows,
control valves, etc), or as it enters/discharges from pipes and tanks. Any obstruction to
the flow causes frictional losses of energy.
The magnitude of energy lost due to friction is determined by several factors. The major
factors are roughness (of the conduit) and velocity of the flow. Minor factors include water
temperature, suspended particles, dissolved gases, etc.
Early equations, such as Chezy’s and Manning’s equations, are empirical, and
extrapolation of their use outside the data sets on which they are based may lead to
serious error. When the need for dimensional homogeneity was appreciated, and non-
dimensional parameters such as Reynolds number were available to represent the
relationships in problems containing many variables, the physics of fluid friction became
more apparent. In the 1930’s, Karman and Prandtl published theories of turbulent flow,
which, coupled with experiments on smooth pipes (Stanton and Pannell) and on
artificially roughened pipes (Nikuradse), provided the foundations for major advances in
design techniques.
These theories were used as a basis by Colebrook and White in their derivation of their
equation describing the frictional resistance of pipes. The pipelines built under BCIAP
were designed by spreadsheet using the Colebrook-White Equation:
V = - 2 (2gDS)0.5 log [ (ks/3.7D) + (2.51 / (D (2gDS)0.5))]
Where:
V = velocity [m/s]
g = acceleration of gravity, 9.806 [m/s 2]
D = pipe diameter [m]
S = hydraulic gradient, head loss per unit length [dimensionless]
ks = linear measure of effective roughness [m]
 = kinematic viscosity of fluid, for water at 18oC = 1.01 x 10-6 [m2/s]
Discharge, Q in the pipe is given by the product of flow velocity and pipe area, A (= 
2
D /4).
Effective roughness values (k s) are available for most surfaces. Table 5.1 summarises
recommended design values for most types of construction materials. The k s values bear
some relationship to the physical dimension of the roughness projections, and therefore a
visual examination of a particular surface will give a guide to its roughness. For the uPVC
pipes used under BCIAP, the ks values as recommended by one Manufacturer 1 were
0.00001m (for pipe diameters less than 200mm); and 0.00005m (for pipe diameters
greater than 200mm).
Design charts are available 2, corresponding to a series of roughness values of

commercial surfaces, carrying water at 150C, and may be used for convenience.
Table 5.1 Recommended Roughness Values

Material Suitable values for ks (mm)
(assumed clean and new unless Good Normal Poor
otherwise stated)
Asbestos cement 0.015 0.03 -
Galvanised iron 0.06 0.15 0.30
Precast concrete pipes with “O” ring joints 0.06 0.15 0.60
Spun precast concrete pipes with “O” ring 0.06 0.15 0.30
joints
UPVC pipes with chemically cemented joints - 0.03 -
UPVC pipes with spigot and socket joints, - 0.06 -
“O” ring seals at 6-9 m intervals
Using this, or another other similar equation, friction headloss factors can be determined
for the pipe type and diameter being used. Friction headloss factors are usually
expressed in m/100m length of pipe.
5.6.2 Valves: Variable Friction Devices

Excessive pressure can cause the pipe to burst. One method of controlling excessive
pressure is to install control valves at strategic points throughout the system. A valve is a
device which can be adjusted to create greater frictional losses as the water flows
through it. There are two types of control valve: gate valves, and globe valves.
Gate Valves: Gate valves serve as on/off control valves, for the purpose of completely
cutting off the flow. Generally, they are located at the outlets of intakes, reservoir tanks,
strategic break-pressure tanks, and at major branch points. They are not recommended
1 Shirakat PVC Pipe, Quetta
2 Charts for the hydraulic design of channels and pipes, Hydraulic Research, Wallingford, UK
for use in regulating flow (ie partially open or closed) since the water will erode the
bottom edge of the gate and result is a leaky valve whenever it is meant to be closed.
Direction of flow through the valve is unimportant.
Globe Valves: These valves are designed for regulating flow through the system. They
are best located near discharge points, so that it is easier to measure the flow through the
valve. They are generally located at discharge points in reservoir tanks, strategic break-
pressure tanks and at every tapstand. The direction of flow through a globe valve is
important: there is an arrow stamped on the valve that indicates the proper direction of
flow, and care must be taken to see that the valve is installed correctly.
5.6.3 Equivalent Pipe Lengths of Fittings

A pipeline fitting (such as an elbow, tee, valve, etc) acts as a concentrated point of
frictional losses. The amount of headloss in the fitting depends upon the shape of the
fitting, and the flow through it. The headlosses are computed by determine the equivalent
length of pipe necessary to create the same amount of headloss. For fittings, this is
commonly given as the L/D ratio (length/diameter). The L/D ratios for various fitting are
given below:
Fitting L/D Ratio

Tee (flow from run to side) 68
Tee (flow from run to run) 27
Elbow (90O, short-radius) 33
Union 7
Gate valve (fully open) 7
Free entrance 29
Screened entrance 150
Where fitting are located at isolated points along a long pipe length, the amount of
headloss they generate is minor compared to the normal headloss through the pipe. One
common way of accounting for additional losses due to fittings is to add 10% to the actual
length of each section of pipeline.
When several fittings are located close together, however, the total headloss must be
estimated (as indicated above), and special concern must be given to selecting the
proper pipe sizes for the GI plumbing of a tank outlet.
As a general rule, the outlet pipe size should be at least one size bigger than the
downstream pipeline diameter; 0.5” diameter GI pipe must never be used for outlet
pipes.
Since a valve is adjustable, it can be set for any equivalent pipe length.
5.7 Plotting the Hydraulic Grade Line

Following the topographic survey of the selected pipeline route, and the fixing of tapstand
locations and the reservoir tank (if provided), the design flows in each reach (section) of
the Main and Distribution system pipelines are determined. Design is carried out to
determine the pipe diameters to be used for each reach (section) of the pipelines.
To do this the Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) is plotted on the long section drawings
prepared for the pipelines. These drawings show structure locations (RDs), and ground
levels along the route of the pipeline. Known energy points are marked on the long
section (eg at the source and at reservoir tanks where there is a free water surface). The
HGL is then plotted following the direction of flow (ie from upstream to downstream).
The HGL will only change slope at points of new pipe sizes and/or new flows. To allow
only the desired 0.225 l/s out of each tap, globe valves must be installed in the tap
pipeline just upstream of each tap, and adjusted so that precisely 0.225 l/s comes out of
the taps. When adjusted the globe valves will burn off excess (or residual) head.
The HGL is plotted for all taps open (dynamic equilibrium), and for all taps closed (static
equilibrium). Normally, it is not necessary to calculate the HGL profiles for the various
combinations of open/closed taps in a system. This allows the designer to easily
determine points of high and low pressure in the system, to ensure that they are within
allowable limits.
5.8 Residual Head: Excess Energy

Residual head is the amount of energy remaining in the system by the time that the
desired flow has reached the discharge point, the tapstand, or perhaps a tank. It
represents excess gravitational energy.
Installing a control valve at the discharge point will burn off residual head. For this
purpose a globe valve, not a gate valve, should be used.
If the excess head is not burnt off by a control valve, then the natural flow of a pipeline
will increase. If the flow is greater than the source supply, then the pipe will drain faster
than it can be filled, and the pipe will not flow full. A non-full flowing pipe is not under
pressure (except where the pipe flows full in U-profiles), and any tap stands will not
operate properly. Air blockages may also be a problem.
Pipelines that otherwise will not flow full must have a control valve at the discharge point.
This control valve will burn off the residual head, rather than allowing the flow to increase
too much. The control valve is adjusted until the desired flow is discharged; at that
setting, it is burning off exactly the correct amount of head.
In practice, control valves are adjusted under the hydraulic conditions where all taps are
opened. As mentioned earlier, different HGL profiles will occur when different
combinations of taps are opened and closed. For each possible combination, new
residual heads will occur at the discharge points. Since it is not desirable to have the
villagers constantly re-adjusting control valves every time a tap is opened or closed the
actual discharges will fluctuate. However, such fluctuations will be small and are
negligible.
Since every tapstand requires some amount of residual head, then it is obvious that
every tapstand requires a control valve. Control valves at discharges into reservoir or
break-pressure tanks are only required when it is necessary to keep a specific flow in the
pipeline, or to keep the upstream section of the pipeline flowing full (due to tapstands or
breakpoints along that section). Without the control valves, the desired flow cannot
happen in the pipeline, and the real hydraulic profile will not match the plotted HGL.
Pipe sizes should be chosen so that the residual head at tapstands is about 15m (50ft)
(see Section 6.3.4). This allows for losses in the tap whilst still getting a healthy flow rate.
5.9 Combination Pipe Sizes

When designing a pipeline section, there may be no single pipe size available that gives
the desired frictional head loss factor. In that case, a combination of pipe sizes is used:
one pipe which is “too small” and one which is “too large”. The lengths of each pipe must
be long enough so that the sum of the head loss of each is equal to the total desired head
loss.
Since the total pipe length, design flow, and desired head loss are all known, the lengths
of the two pipe sizes can be determined by the following equation:
X = [100 H – (Fl x L)] / (Fs – F1)
Where:
H = desired head loss in reach [m]
L = total pipe (reach) length [m]
X = small-size pipe length [m]
Fl = friction headloss factor for large pipe, m/100m [dimensionless]
Fs = friction headloss factor for small pipe, m/100m [dimensionless]
When the length of the smaller-sized pipe is calculated, it is the subtracted from the total
pipe length to determine the length of the larger-sized pipe.
5.10 Pressure Limits
5.10.1 Maximum Pressure Limits

As discussed above, the sizes of the pipes are selected from considerations of frictional
headlosses for the required flows. Design must also ensure that the pressure in the
pipes, (which are always the result of static pressure levels), are within the pressure
limits for the pipes being used.
Such data will be supplied by the manufacturer of the pipes.
For the uPVC pipes used on BCIAP PWS schemes, four classes of pipe are available,
and their maximum sustained working pressure, based on water at a temperature of
20oC are as follows:
Class B 6.0 bar; (60 m; 200ft water head)

Class C 9.0 bar; (90 m; 300ft water head)
Class D 12.0 bar; (120 m; 400ft water head)
Class E 15.0 bar; (150 m; 500ft water head)
5.10.2 Minimum Pressure Limits

It is possible when plotting a HGL to discover that, that due to the a rise in the natural
ground level along the pipeline route, that it will actually “go underground”; that is, it will
cross below the ground-level profile and pass some distance underground before
emerging again.
The pressure in the pipe along the section where the HGL is underground is a negative
pressure. This means that the water is being siphoned through (ie sucked from below
rather than pushed from above), a condition that is undesirable in water supply systems.
Such negative pressures can suck in surrounding polluted groundwater via leaky joints.
Large negative pressures can also cause problems with dissolved air in the water, as
such air can come out of solution in the water and form trapped pockets of air at high
point in the pipeline. This may cause flow to cease (see Section 5.12).
Therefore as a general design standard the system should be designed, if possible, so

that the HGL for dynamic (flowing) conditions does not fall to less than 7m (22ft) above
the ground, except of course when leaving reservoir and break pressure tanks, and when
leaving the source. The HGL must never go underground.
5.11 Flow Velocity Limits

If the water source used had significant sediment, then for a high velocity the suspended
particles in the flow would cause excessive erosion of the pipe; and if the velocity was too
low, then these same suspended particles could settle out of the flow and collect at low
points in the pipeline, eventually clogging it up.
Under BCIAP, the water used for the PWS systems is clear as it comes from a kareze,
spring or infiltration gallery source, and a higher velocity is acceptable than if the pipes
were carrying some sediment. The minimum velocity is not critical: in the distribution
system at least, water will often come to a complete halt when there is no demand.
For design purposes the recommended velocity limits are:

 maximum: 1.8 m/s (6ft/s)
 minimum: 0.6 m/s (2ft/s)
When a pipeline carries a low flow, and the source is not clear, a sedimentation tank
should be built near the intake site, and washouts located at strategic low points to allow
flushing out of sediment.
5.12 Air-blocks and Washouts
5.12.1 Air-blocks
An air-block is bubble of air trapped in the pipeline whose size is such that it interferes
with the flow of water through the section.
When the pipeline is first constructed, or subsequently drained for maintenance

purposes, it is “dry”, that is, all points within are filled with air at atmospheric pressure.
When water is allowed to fill the pipeline, air cannot escape from high “” sections and is
trapped. As pressure builds up, these air pockets are compressed to smaller volumes. In
the process, some of the hydrostatic pressure of the system is absorbed by compressing
these air pockets, reducing the amount of energy available to move the water. If too
much energy is absorbed compressing air, then no flow will reach the desired discharge
point until some things is done about the air blocks.
Generally, there will be no problems of air-blocks in a system where a tank is located at

an elevation lower than the air-blocks, as long as the air-blocks are at least 10 m (33ft)
below the static HGL level.
During design, pipe sizes may be arranged to minimize trapped air and potential air-
blocks, as follows:
 Arrange the pipe sizes to minimize the frictional headloss between the source and
first air-block;
 Use larger sized pipe at the top, and smaller sized pipe at the bottom of the
critical section where air is going to be trapped;
 The “higher” air-blocks (ie those closer to the static HGL level) are the more
critical ones. These may have to be provided with air valves.
Air valves should be provided to release air from high “” points of the pipe, and where
the pipeline slope changes, where these points are less than 10m (33ft) lower than static
HGL level. They may also be recommended at intervals in a long pipe reach, again if the
pressure head in the pipe is less than 10m (33ft) for static (no flow) conditions.
Quality, automatic air valves are recommended. If these are not available, then a normal
control valve could be provided, or a small hole could be made in the pipe which is
sealed with a brass or aluminum screw. These alternatives are not expensive but require
manual operation by the villagers when ever the pipe is being filled.
To discourage tampering with these air release devices, they should be well buried.
5.12.2 Washouts
Over a period of time, any suspended particles carried in the flow will settle out,
particularly at low points in the pipeline or where the flows are very low. Reservoir tanks
usually allow most of the sediment to settle out, but the Main Pipeline upstream of the
tank may be vulnerable to sediment.
Beak-pressure tanks do not allow sedimentation to occur, since flows through these are
extremely turbulent.
Washouts should be located at the bottom points of major U-profiles, especially those
upstream of the reservoir tank. The number of washouts in a system depends upon the
type of source (a spring water source will not need many), whether or not there is a
sedimentation tank, and the velocity of flow through the pipeline.
The washout pipes should be of the same size as the pipeline at that point. End cap type
washouts will require that the pipeline will be completely drained before the end-cap can
be replaced (since it is almost impossible to put it back on while there is water gushing
out), and therefore gate valves are recommended. Water released from the wash out
should be led well away from the pipeline to avoid any erosion damage.
5.13 Distribution System
5.13.1 Distribution System Arrangement

The mountainous terrain in which most PWS systems in the upland area of Balochistan
are built dictates a tree-and-branch distribution system. These have the advantage, from
the designer=s point of view, of being much easier to design and analyse hydraulically. All
BCIAP PWS systems have tree-and-branch distribution systems.
For flattish land, an alternative arrangement is to have a loop or network. This has the
advantage of allowing supplies to be maintained to most of the system even when part of
the distribution has been shut down for maintenance or repair. They are, however, more
difficult to analyse since they require an iterative solution of how water is divided
travelling round each section of the loop. Software is available for this kind of analysis.
5.13.2 Distribution System Design Flows

With the number of people per tap set at about 100 (using the design population), it is
possible in theory for everyone to take their water in around six hours. However, that
assumes a continuous demand and everyone queuing for water. Assuming that the outlet
from the reservoir tank will normally be open (if it is ever shut) for about eight hours a
day, one could say that on average only 75% of all the taps will be open at any one time.
Following on from this, the design of BCIAP distribution systems to date have been
based on the premise that the design flow at any point in the system is dependent on
what percentage of taps downstream of that point will are likely to be in use at any one
time. Bearing in mind that 75% gives a practical lower limit to this approach, Table 5.2
gives the design flows for any point in the system as a function of the actual number of
taps downstream.
Table 5.2 Distribution System Design Flows
Actual No of %age Number in Design Actual No of %age in Number in Design

Taps in Use Use Flow Taps Use Use Flow
Downstream (gpm) Downstream (gpm)
1 100.0 1 3 21 89.5 18 54
2 100.0 2 6 22 89.0 19 57
3 100.0 3 9 23 88.5 20 60
4 100.0 4 12 24 88.0 21 63
5 100.0 5 15 25 87.5 21 63
6 99.0 5 15 26 87.0 22 66
7 98.0 6 18 27 86.5 23 69
8 97.0 7 21 28 86.0 24 72
9 96.0 8 24 29 85.5 24 72
10 95.0 9 27 30 85.0 25 75
11 94.5 10 30 31 84.5 26 78
12 94.0 11 33 32 84.0 26 78
13 93.5 12 36 33 83.5 27 81
14 93.0 13 39 34 83.0 28 84
15 92.5 13 39 35 82.5 28 84
16 92.0 14 42 36 82.0 29 87
17 91.5 15 45 37 81.5 30 90
18 91.0 16 48 38 81.0 30 90
19 90.5 17 51 39 80.5 31 93
20 90.0 18 54 40 80.0 32 96
40 + 80.0
5.14 Pipe Fittings

Pipe fitting include the following:
Bends uPVC - GI Adaptors Reducers (tapers)

Orifice Plates Ball Valves Flexible
Couplings
Puddle-Flanged Pipes Valves
Washouts
Air Valves Junctions
Thrust Blocks
The use of these fittings is obvious, or has been discussed in other sections. Thrust
blocks are required for 3” or greater diameter pipes, and comprise a block of mass
concrete poured around the pipe to prevent movement of the pipe, which result in
leakage. Thrust blocks are required at change in pipe direction, all bends and junctions,
and at reducers where pipe size reduces in the direction of flow.
6 STRUCTURES
In this section, design features of the structures required for a PWS system are
discussed.
6.1 Reservoir Tanks

The need for a reservoir tank, and its required capacity, is presented in Section 4.3. In
this section, guidelines for the design of the tank are discussed.
The reservoir should be sited on high ground as close to the village(s) as possible; this is
simply a cost saving measure at it maximises potential savings on the main pipeline and
reduces the cost of the distribution system.
All other factors being equal, the most economical tank shape is circular, than nearly
circular, then square, and then rectangular. For ease of construction, certain shapes are
easier than others:
 Circular tanks: the most economical shape to use, but not easy to construct,
especially for small diameters;
 Octagonal (8 - sided) tanks: the best shape to use, but no easy to construct for
diameters less than 2.5 m (or capacities smaller than 3,200 liters;
 Hexagonal (6 - sided) tanks: Good for tanks between 1,700 – 3,200 liters
(diameters not less than 2.0m;
 Square Tanks: This is the traditional shape, and easiest to construct for small
capacities (such as mini tanks, break - pressure tanks, etc;
 Rectangular tanks: The least - economical shape, especially if one side becomes
much longer than the other. However, due to physical constraints of the site, it
may be necessary to use this shape. Keeping it is nearly square - shaped as
possible will make a more economical design.
The walls of reservoir tanks are

usually stone (or brick) masonry
gravity walls for smaller tanks.
Under BCIAP, most were stone
masonry with a central core of
mass concrete to reduce
seepage, and plastered on the
inside. Reinforce concrete only
become economical for large
reservoir tanks with wall heights
of about 1.8m (6ft) or higher.
Partition walls, which divide the

inside of the tank exactly in half,
allow half the tank to be drained
for maintenance/cleaning
purposes, while the other half
still provides some service. It is, Standard BCIAP Reservoir Tank
however, doubtful if such a
facility is worth the extra cost, especially for smaller tanks (less than, say, 40m 3). For
larger tanks, more than, say, 100m 3, they should be considered.
Reservoir tanks should be covered to prevent contamination of the supply. Under BCIAP,
reinforced concrete cast in situe slabs were provided. For large spans (more than about
4.5m, 15ft), central support column(s) are recommended, unless a partition wall is being
provided. For each of placement, reinforcement in the slab should be placed to a
rectangular grid, whatever the shape of the tank (circular, octagonal, etc).
Access covers to allow entry to the tank for cleaning/maintenance should be heavy so
that it takes at least 2 grown men to open them: otherwise children are going to enter.
The access holes should have “lips” about 50mm (2”) high, to prevent rainwater runoff
getting into the tank.
Access rungs or steps should be placed as required to facilitate access into the tank.
Steel bar for access rungs should be ¾” (#6) diameter.
Unless the reservoir tank is partitioned, then it should be fitted with a bypass pipeline to
allow (admittedly much lower) supplies to continue during cleaning. Often this bypass will
have to be fitted with a break-pressure tank so that static pressures in the distribution
system do not exceed their design maximum.
Valve arrangements on twin chamber tanks should be such that each side can be
operated independently to allow cleaning, with only one side in operation.
All tanks should have an overflow pipe, the capacity of which should be bigger than the
main pipeline, and which should, wherever possible, discharge into the irrigation channel.
Inlet/outlet pipework passing through the reservoir walls near their base should be
puddle-flanged. The pipework should also be fitted with flexible jointed rocker pipes
immediately outside the structure to accommodate differential settlement between the
reservoir and the pipeline. The outlet should be complete with a screen, gate valve and
an air vent, to allow air to enter the downstream pipe if the valve is shut so as to prevent
a vacuum in the pipe. The inlet is usually provided with a globe valve to burn of excess
head.
Washout pipe work to facilitate the cleaning of the tank should be provided. Also to
facilitate cleaning, the base of the tank should slope towards the washout(s). Washout
are usually 2” GI pipes complete with gate values.
Joints to allow for thermal movement, and for shrinkage of concrete during setting, must
be provided in the concrete base, and possibly in the masonry walls, except for very
small tanks, less than (say) 3m, 10ft in diameter.
6.2 Break-pressure Tanks

The purpose of a break pressure tank is to allow the flow to discharge to a free water
surface, thereby reducing its hydrostatic pressure to zero, and establishing a new static
level. They are required on steep mountainous schemes. Strategic placing of break
pressure tanks will minimise the amount of expensive, thick-walled uPVC pipe required.
They are provided to reservoir tank bypasses so that static/dynamic heads do not
suddenly jump when the reservoir is taken out of service for cleaning.
Break pressure tanks usually comprise concrete floor and roof, with plastered stone
masonry walls. They are small, only big enough to accommodate the required control
valves, and allow easy access for their repair/replacement. Typical internal dimensions
may be 0.5m (1.6ft) wide by 0.8m (2.6ft) long.
If a globe valve is needed to regulate the discharge and burn off excess head, then it may
be fitted directly to the inlet pipe. If a float (ball) valve is to be installed, then a gate valve
should be installed as well so that the flow can be shut off when installing/removing the
float valve. The roof must be well above any float valve to allow it to rise, and cut off the
flow when the water reaches design level. The tank overflow must be set higher than this
design level. A washout is recommended.
The discharge from the inlet GI pipe must be directed towards the floor of the tank, to
prevent damage to the plastered tank walls.
The outlet GI pipe should be one size larger than the pipeline it connects to, and should
be located 100mm (3”) above the floor of the tank. This provides a “cushion” of water for
the incoming flow.
Float (ball) valves are notoriously unreliable and, being necessarily close the village, are
also vulnerable to vandalism. Use of the best quality float valves is justified. It is often
better to live with the high static heads, paying the cost for expensive pipe, and reduce
the dynamic heads smaller sized pipes and globe valves.
6.3 Tapstands
6.3.1 Introduction
The tapstands are the most
frequently used component of
the entire system. No other
structure will face more abuse
than these, and no other
structure will have to fit in so
closely with local social and
cultural needs.
A tapstand is more than just a

physical structure. It will
become a new and important
gathering point of the village,
where women will be washing
clothes and men bathing
themselves. Not only the
tapstand itself, but the Standard BCIAP Tapstand
immediate surrounding area
must also be carefully selected and planned. Properly designed and built, the tapstand
will be a clean, attractive, and inviting place. Poorly completed, and it will be a dirty,
muddy, unhygienic eyesore.
Apart from the water rights of the source, no other part of the system is apt to become so
embroiled in politics, arguments, or disputes. The number of desired tapstands, and their
locations, will be a frequent source of heated debate.
6.3.2 Tapstand Locations

Selecting the sites for the tapstands will be a process of compromises, since no single
point is apt to meet all the ideal requirements.
The number of taps required in a system will be greatly influenced by the geographical
lay-out of the village. Isolated housing areas, no matter how small, will require their own.
Any schools, mosques or health posts should also each have one. It would not be
unusual for the leading political person of the village also to desire his own tap.
These are not all unreasonable requests. While it is not desirable that the total number of
taps becomes excessively large, it is generally acceptable to add a few taps if social
conflict is to be avoided.
The location of the tapstands should be based on a number of considerations: is it well-

located to serve those families that will depend upon it; is there an adequate drainage
point for the waste-water; is the area large enough to allow for several users at once
(washing, clothes, bathing, collecting water, etc).
A site near, but not directly on, a main trail is good. A sunny, sheltered site will encourage
bathing (even in cold weather). A small water-hole for animals may be dug nearby to
collect waste-water (and prevent animals from coming directly to the tapstand).
Wastewater can be channeled to a nearby garden.
6.3.3 Flow
The standard tapstand flow is 0.225 l/s, and this will serve 100 persons (see Section
4.2). Where a tapstand will be serving just a few households then the flow can be cut
down a bit, and conversely the flow may be increased for a more densely-populated area
(or a double or triple faucet tapstand may be built.
The design flow is achieved by installing a (0.5”) globe valve at the base of the tapstand,
and adjusting it until the desired flow is delivered. This valve is then securely locked up,
to prevent further tampering. The faucet at the discharge serves only as an on/off control
valve.
6.3.4 Residual Head

The residual head at the tapstand is important: if too high, it will cause accelerated
erosion of the interior of the control valve; and if too low, will result in low flows.
The following residual heads are recommended:
Absolute minimum: 7m
Low end of desired range: 10 m
Most desirable: 15 m
High end of desired range: 30 m
Absolute maximum: 56 m
6.3.5 Structural Consideration

A tapstand may be constructed of brick or stone using mortar or dry-stone masonry.
Regardless of what it is constructed with, it must be designed and built to survive heavy
use and abuse, especially if located in a schoolyard.
For PWS systems built under BCIAP, tapstands comprised a concrete floor with drainage
pipe, and plastered stone masonry walls to support the GI pipe work.
The GI pipework comprises 0.5” GI pipe, and fittings include the tap (faucet) and a globe
valve. The height of the tap is usually about 1.2m (4ft) above the apron. However, on
BCIAP the taps were generally set about 0.8m (2.5ft) above the aprons. The control
(globe) valve should be located in a securely-locking valve box to prevent tampering.
Where the population density of a village is quite high, it is possible to economize on the
number of tapstands by constructing ones with two or three faucets. In such cases, one
faucet should be set about 30cm lower than the other.
Waste-water from tapstands must not be allowed to collect in muddy puddles where it
can stagnate and become a breeding place for mosquitoes and disease. Waste-water
should be carried away by a non-erodible channel to a suitable drainage point, such as a
water-hole for animals, or a nearby garden or field.
The ground around the tapstand should be finished in such a way that it is stable, quick-
draining, and quick-drying. Animals should be precluded from walking over, or through,
the tapstand area, and therefore some fencing may be needed.
6.3.6 Maintenance
Under BCIAP, appropriate
drainage from a tapstand is the
responsibility of the women=s
cluster group set up by the
project’s women and
development unit. These groups
are also provided with tools and
training to carry out simple
repairs to the tapstand, such as
replacement of the taps
(faucets). Part of the training
comprises awareness training
of all the components that make
up the PWS system, and their
maintenance requirements.
6.4 Valve Boxes

Training of Village Women to Repair Taps
6.4.1 Introduction
The purpose of a valve box is to protect a control valve from undesirable tampering
which can upset the hydraulic balance of the system and disrupt flows.
Valve boxes can be attached to the structures (as is common with tanks) or located
independently along the pipeline (such as at strategic branch points or near tapstands).
They can be constructed of masonry, GI pipe, uPVC pipe, reinforced concrete pipe,
depending upon the materials available, size and number of valves, how often they will
be operated, etc.
6.4.2 Design Characteristics

Regardless of what they are constructed with, all valve boxes must be built with the
following characteristics:
 Secure cover: the valve must be protected by a strong and secure cover which
cannot be undone or opened without tools;
 Free-draining: no valvebox should have a solid floor, so that any leakage or
ground seepage can quickly drain away. A bed of gravel or crushed stone is
recommended;
 Adequately large: to allow the valves to be removed easily and replaced, without
having to tear down the valve box. If constructed of masonry, it must be large
enough so that wrenches and pliers can swing freely. If constructed of GI or uPVC
pipe, they must be easily removable.
Under BCIAP, standard valve boxes comprised 9” diameter RCC pipe, backfilled with
granular material, and provided with a cast iron top fixed to a concrete surround.
6.5 Wuzu Structures

Wuzu structures are provided near Mosques under BCIAP, and the standard design is
based on a tank, with five tap outlets for communal washing.
7 WATER TREATMENT
7.1 Introduction
Under BCIAP, potable water supplies are only constructed where the source is clean and
can be easily protected from contamination. However, methods of water treatment which
may be appropriate for use in rural communities are discussed below.
Physical contaminants, such as suspended matter, can be removed or greatly reduced by

allowing sedimentation to occur in a sedimentation tank provided close to the source.
There are only two additional steps that can be practically employed towards improving
water quality: slow-sand filtration, and aeration. A general description of the procedures is
given in this Chapter.
7.2 Slow Sand Filters

A slow-sand filter is a large tank that has an under-drain system which is covered by a
base layer of gravel and then a bed of filtering sand. The filter works by mechanically
straining the water as it flows through the sand, and also by biologically attacking the
organic impurities. The filter bed develops a “slim” of bacteria, which feed upon the
organic impurities carried in the flow.
These filters are relatively simple to build and do not require highly-trained personnel for
maintenance. However, a slow-sand filter has several serious drawbacks: it can only filter
about 0.002-0.003 l/s (7-11 l/hr) per square meter of filter surface area. Thus, a large area
is required. Additionally, although simple to maintain, they do require regular, reliable
attention or else they can become sources of bacterial pollution rather than removers.
The decision to install such a filter involves much serious consideration and consultation
with the villagers.
7.3 Aeration
Aeration is the process of thoroughly mixing water with air. Oxygen-enriched water loses
its acidity (which is due to the presence of dissolved carbon dioxide ) and reduces
undesirable tastes and colors due to the presence of iron or other dissolved gases.
The easiest method of aeration is to build a tower, made up of several tiers of plastic
screens or wooden slats, with water supplied to the top of the tower and removed from
the bottom. The screens or slats mechanically break the water flow into small droplets,
which, because of their increased surface area, can absorb oxygen quicker. Such a tower
can be built as part of a sedimentation tank or even the reservoir tank.
7.4 Chemical Treatment

Chemical treatment is the least desirable of the three options. Chemicals cost money
which the villagers are unlikely to collect or pay. Dosing and monitoring water quality are
also skilled activities for which someone needs to be properly trained.
8 COMMISSIONING
When a PWS system is completed, it has to be commissioned. This involves the
following:
 Checking for leaks from the pipeline of fittings under dynamic (water flowing) and
under static (no flow) conditions;
 Checking and adjusting the flows from each tap stand under dynamic (water
flowing) conditions, using the globe valves, and also at each tank;
 Removal of air from the system, by checking air valves release air as the system
is filled up. If measured flows at key points (eg tanks) are not close to those
designed, then air blocks may be the problem;
 Carrying out a one-off disinfection of the system.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Thomas D. Jordan Jr., 1980 Handbook of Gravity Flow Water Systems for Small
Communities, United Nations Children’s Fund, Nepal
Hydraulics Research, Wallingford Charts for the hydraulic design of channels and pipes,
5th Edition
St. Gall. SKAT, 1985 Manual for Rural Water Supply
Shirakat PVC Pipe Factory Shirakat PVC Pipes

PT 8 Potable Water Supply

Enviado por

Dados do documento

Direitos autorais

Formatos disponíveis

Compartilhar este documento

Compartilhar ou incorporar documento

Opções de compartilhamento

Você considera este documento útil?

Este conteúdo é inapropriado?

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

PT 8 Potable Water Supply

Enviado por

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

GOVERNMENT OF BALOCHISTAN

BALOCHISTAN COMMUNITY IRRIGATION AND AGRICULTURE PROJECT

CONTENTS OF OTHER PARTS

Part 1 Site Investigations

Annex 1 Monthly Rainfall Data

The criteria for construction of a

2 VILLAGE EVALUATION AND FEASIBILITY STUDY

2.2 Village Enthusiasm and Motivation

2.3 Water Sources

2.3.1 Flow Available

2.3.2 Water Quality

2.4 Tapstand Locations and Pipeline Alignment

2.5 Vertical Alignment of Pipeline

2.6 Topographic Survey

3.2 Open Systems Without Taps

3.3 Open Systems With Taps

3.4 Closed System With Reservoir

3.5 Closed System With Intermittent Service

3.6 Closed System With Float (Ball) Valves

3.7 Open System versus Closed System

3.8 System Expansion

4.1 Population and Water Demand

4.1.1 Population Forecast

4.1.2 Design Water Demand

Table 4.1 Daily Water Demand for Various Institutions

4.1.3 Demand Fluctuations

4.2 Tapstand Flows

4.3 Reservoir Tanks

 it allow supplies to be maintained (though perhaps at a lower level) whilst

A PWS system is to be provided to a village where the present population is 1,129

Step 1: Design Population

Step 2: Water Demand

Step 3: Demand Fluctuations

Step 4: Reservoir Capacity

Time Period Inflow Outflow Balance Cumulative

Step 5: Number of Tapstands

A gravity-flow water system is “powered” by gravitational energy. The amount of such

The purpose of pipeline design, therefore, is to properly manipulate frictional energy

5.3 Static Head and Dynamic Heads

5.3.1 Static Equilibrium

In a pipeline where no water is flowing, the system is in static equilibrium. In such

5.3.2 Dynamic Equilibrium

5.4 Hydraulic Grade Line

5.5 Continuity and Bernoulli’s Equations

5.5.2 Equation of Continuity

5.5.3 Bernoulli’s Equation

H = P/(g) + h + v2/2g [m]

Various equations are available to calculate the friction head loss.

5.6 Friction Headlosses

5.6.1 Pipe Friction

V = - 2 (2gDS)0.5 log [ (ks/3.7D) + (2.51 / (D (2gDS)0.5))]

Design charts are available 2, corresponding to a series of roughness values of

Table 5.1 Recommended Roughness Values

5.6.2 Valves: Variable Friction Devices

5.6.3 Equivalent Pipe Lengths of Fittings

Fitting L/D Ratio

5.7 Plotting the Hydraulic Grade Line

5.8 Residual Head: Excess Energy

5.9 Combination Pipe Sizes

X = [100 H – (Fl x L)] / (Fs – F1)

5.10 Pressure Limits

5.10.1 Maximum Pressure Limits

Such data will be supplied by the manufacturer of the pipes.

Class B 6.0 bar; (60 m; 200ft water head)