THE EFFECT OF AIR POLLUTION ON YIELD AND QUALITY OF

MUNG BEAN GROWN IN PERI-URBAN AREAS OF VARANASI

M. AGRAWAL1 , B. SINGH1 , S. B. AGRAWAL1 , J.N.B. BELL2 and F. MARSHALL3,∗

1
Department of Botany, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221 005, India; 2 Department of
Environmental Policy, Imperial College London, Silwood Park, Ascot, Berks, SL5 7PY; 3 Science and
Technology Policy Research, Freeman Centre, University of Sussex, Brighton, BN1 9QE, U.K.
(∗ author for correspondence, email: f.marshall@sussex.ac.uk)

Received 27 October 2003; accepted 16 August 2005

Abstract. There is growing concern that air pollution may have adverse impacts on crops in develop-
ing countries, yet this has been little studied. This paper addresses this issue, for a major leguminous
crop of the Indian sub continent, examining the effect of air pollution in and around an Indian city.
A field study was conducted using a gradient approach to elucidate the impact of air pollutants on
selected production characteristics of Vigna radiata L. cv. Malviya Jyoti (mung bean) plants grown
from germination to maturity at locations with differing concentrations of air pollutants around peri-
urban and rural areas of Varanasi. The 6 -h daily mean SO2 , NO2 and O3 concentrations varied from
8.05 to 32.2 ppb, 11.7 to 80.1 ppb and 9.7 to 58.5 ppb, respectively, between the sites. Microclimatic
conditions did not vary significantly between the sites. Changes in plant performance at different sites
were evaluated with reference to ambient air quality status. Reductions in biomass accumulation and
seed yields were highest at the site experiencing highest concentrations of all three gaseous pollutants.
The magnitude of response indicated that at peri-urban sites SO2 , NO2 and O3 were all contributing
to these effects, whereas at rural sites NO2 and O3 combinations appeared to have more influence.
The quality of seed was also found to be negatively influenced by the ambient levels of pollutants. It
is concluded that the air pollution regime of Varanasi City causes a major threat to mung bean plants,
both in terms of yield and crop quality, with serious implications for the nutrition of the urban poor.

Keywords: India, mung bean, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, plant response, seed quality, sulphur dioxide,
yield

1. Introduction

Crop production is highly dependent upon environmental conditions among which

air quality can play a major role. Studies conducted in North America and Europe
have clearly shown significant yield losses in a range of major crop species due to
ambient air pollutant levels in rural areas (Heck et al., 1988; Jäger et al., 1994). The
crop loss is mainly attributed to the widespread occurrence of ozone (O3 ) in agricul-
tural regions (Heck et al., 1988). Studies conducted on the adverse effect of O3 on
crops also confirmed reductions in rice yield in Japan (Kobayashi et al., 1995), bean
yield in UK and France (Sanders et al., 1992), and Netherlands (Tonneijck and Van
Dijk, 1998). Whilst the number of experimental studies from developing countries
is very limited, there are indications of major yield reductions due to ambient air
Water, Air, and Soil Pollution (2006) 169: 239–254 
C Springer 2006
240 M. AGRAWAL ET AL.

pollution. For example, Wahid et al. (1995) demonstrated a grain yield reduction of
46 and 38% for two cultivars of winter wheat in an open top chamber study in the
vicinity of Lahore, Pakistan using ambient and charcoal filtered air. Maggs et al.
(1995) have further shown significant reductions in various yield parameters of both
wheat and rice near Lahore at annual mean nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ) concentrations
of 20–25 ppb and 6 h mean O3 concentrations reaching 60 ppb in certain months. In
both cases the effect was attributed primarily to O3 . A study conducted in the United
Kingdom simulating Chinese agriculture and an O3 concentration regime similar
to Chongquing (15–75 ppb, 7 h daily mean > 59 ppb, over 28 day period) showed
typical foliar injury to rice, egg plant, tomato and pepper and growth reductions in
wheat, maize, radish and zucchini along with those showing foliar injury (Zheng
et al., 1998).
In India, high levels of SO2 can result in localised impacts on crops as demon-
strated in the vicinity of industrial complexes. For example, Singh et al. (1990) have
shown yield reductions in several field grown crop species downwind of industrial
sources of SO2 in the Obra- Renukoot- Singrauli area of the Sonbhadra district
in India. Agrawal et al. (2003) have shown significant reductions in physiological
characteristics, pigments and above ground biomass of Beta vulgaris, Triticum aes-
tivum, Brassica compestris and Vigna radiata at sites experiencing higher ambient
concentrations of SO2 , NO2 and O3 as compared to sites with very low levels of
pollutants.
Air pollution is one of a number of specific environmental threats to crop yield
in urban and peri-urban areas. The definition of ‘peri-urban’ is subject to debate,
but in the present study is taken to be the urban fringe, where pockets of agriculture
occur within and close to built up areas. Urban and peri-urban agriculture will
characteristically be subject to a mixture of both primary and secondary pollutants,
but there are very limited field based data to demonstrate the impacts on crop
production in these areas.
Urban populations have increased dramatically in India over the past few
decades, with consequent increases in the number of vehicles and industries. Open
burning of solid wastes and domestic combustion of coal are additional sources
of urban pollution. The Indian national ambient air quality data demonstrate the
increasing emissions of a range of phytotoxic air pollutants. Annual average SO2
concentrations range from 4 to 15 ppb in the majority of the regions where mea-
surements have been made. Industrial belts and metropolitan cities show annual
average SO2 concentrations ranging from 23 to 32 ppb. (Agrawal et al., 1999). The
annual average NO2 concentrations ranged from 5 to 47 ppb, with high levels in
metropolitan cities. (Agarwal et al., 1999). High concentrations of the secondary
photo-oxidant, O3 , have also been reported from some urban, periurban and forested
parts of the country (Pandey et al., 1992; Khemani et al., 1995; Singh et al. 1997),
but it is difficult to make generalisations due to an extremely limited amount of
monitoring for this pollutant.
 MUNG BEAN YIELD AND AIR POLLUTION IN VARANASI 241

If there is a direct impact of air pollutants in cities on crop yield this has impli-
cations in terms of the livelihoods of producers and food security for inhabitants of
urban and peri-urban areas. In contrast to many industrialised countries, increased
food production is a major goal in the developing world, and urban and peri-urban
agriculture plays a vital role in the nutrition of city dwellers, particularly the poor,
in many developing countries (UNDP, 1996).
Mung bean is widely grown by local producers in and around Varanasi, but little
is known about the response of this plant to increasing ambient air pollution levels
under field conditions (Varshney et al., 1997; Agrawal et al., 2003). This paper
reports the results of an experiment conducted to assess the impacts of ambient air
pollution in Varanasi city on yield and quality of a local cultivar of mung bean plants
(Vigna radiata) at peri-urban and rural locations with differing concentrations of
air pollutants.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. STUDY A REA

The study was conducted in the peri-urban and rural environment of Varanasi located
in the eastern Gangetic Plain of the Indian subcontinent at 25◦ 18 N 83◦ 01 E and
76.19 m above sea level. The city has a population of about 1.8 million.
The climate of the area is tropical monsoonic with three distinct seasons: summer
(March to June), rainy (July to October) and winter (November to February). The
present experiment was conducted during summer 1998 (March to June), when
the mean monthly maximum temperature ranged from 34 to 41 ◦ C, mean monthly
minimum temperature from 23 to 29◦ C and the daylight duration from 11 to 14 h.
The mean monthly maximum relative humidity varied from 60 to 90% and minimum
from 35 to 80%. The first half of the summer season experienced strong hot winds
and high temperatures, while the second half was generally hot and humid. The
wind direction was predominantly easterly or north westerly and wind speed varied
from a minimum of 3.04 km h−1 in April to a maximum of 5.8 km h−1 in June. Total
rainfall during the experimental period was 41.5 mm.

2.2. STUDY SITES

Nine study sites were selected along a NW-SE transect in peri-urban and rural
locations of Varanasi city based on an earlier report of a gradient of declining
air pollutant levels towards the SE in 1989 (Pandey et al., 1992) (Figure 1). The
characterisation of sites in terms of location from the city centre, land use and
pollutant sources around are detailed in Table I. Plants were kept in an unshaded
open area, and received uniform light at all sites. Micrometeorological variations
in temperature were 0.1 to 0.5 ◦ C and relative humidity 1–2% between the sites.
242 M. AGRAWAL ET AL.

Figure 1. Map of Varanasi city indicating the experimental study sites and major land use categories.

2.3. AIR POLLUTION MONITORING

Air quality monitoring was performed for 6 h daily between 0.900 and 15.00 twice
a week for SO2 , NO2 and O3 using wet chemical methods at sites 1, 3, 4, and
9. Monitoring commenced directly after transfer of germinated plants (March 1,
1998) to the field and continued up to crop maturity (June 30, 1998). No continuous
monitors are available in Varanasi and this wet chemical-sampling regime, which
produced data in the form of six hourly means, was the best available option. At
the other sites, gaseous monitoring was conducted occasionally (twice a month
 MUNG BEAN YIELD AND AIR POLLUTION IN VARANASI 243

TABLE I
Characteristics of the study sites
Direction
from the city
Sites Name of the area centre Land use/pollution sources

1. Tikari South Rural area with agricultural land; a bypass

linking Varanasi and Allahabad within 1km N.
2. Seer Goverdhan Southeast Peri-urban area with agricultural land; a
bypass linking Varanasi and Allahabad within 1km S.
3. Banaras Hindu South Residential locality with official buildings,
University South dense plantations and cultivated land
4. Sunderpur Southwest Residential locality, vegetable growing
fields and gardens, road transections
5. Hedgawar nagar West Cultivated land, orchards and plant
nurseries; close to diesel locomotive works
6. Lahartara West Medium density population, motor
workshops, small scale industries, cold
stores, transport companies
7. Chandpur West Small scale industries, nurseries, residential
localities; 1 km S from a highway.
8. Government Northwest Cultivated land, road intersections, small scale
Agricultural. scale industries and petrol stations; along a
Farm major highway
9. Bhullanpur Northwest Cultivated land, road intersections, small
scale industries and petrol stations; along a
major highway

at fortnightly interval for 6 h) to improve understanding of the overall pattern of

pollutants. SO2 NO2 and O3 were scrubbed separately in tetrachloromercurate,
NaOH (0.1 N) and buffered KI (0.1 N), respectively, from 08.00 to 14.00. These
absorbing solutions were later analysed colorimetrically for SO2 (West and Gaeke,
1956), NO2 (Merryman et al., 1973) and O3 (Byers and Saltzman, 1958; ISC, 1972).
For SO2 , the values were calibrated with an automatic SO2 analyzer (Model 319,
Kimoto Japan). Ozone concentration was calibrated with ozone generator (Standard
Appliances Model SA – 112- LP- 230c India). Six-hour average concentrations were
calculated for each site for the whole experimental period. The O3 burden was also
estimated by means of assessing leaf injury on a bioindicator species of tobacco
(Nicotiana tabacum L. cv. Bel W3) over a 30 day period. Since the wet chemistry
methods were used for pollutant monitoring, interferences due to other pollutants
may not be completely ruled out.

2.4. TEST SPECIES

The plant species chosen for this study was mung bean (Vigna radiata L. (Wilczek)
cv. “Malviya Jyoti”, bred by the Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu
244 M. AGRAWAL ET AL.

University, and Varanasi. This cultivar is widely used as a protein supplement in the
eastern part of India. Mung bean plants are known for their high sensitivity to SO2
and NO2 in the laboratory (Varshney et al., 1997) and in field studies conducted
around point sources of pollution (Singh et al., 1990).

2.5. RAISING OF PLANTS

Five uniform seeds of moong bean were sown in 30 cm diameter earthen pots of
30 cm height filled with well manured garden soil (pH 7.2, organic carbon 1.2%,
total N 0.09%, available P 0.05%, exchangeable K 0.1%, cation exchange capacity
15.4 m equiv. 100 g−1 ) and allowed to germinate. The soil was prepared by mixing
garden soil and farmyard manure in a 3:1 ratio, according to normal local agri-
cultural practice; diamine phosphate was added at a rate of 100 kg ha−1 to the soil
before sowing. After germination, seeds were thinned to three per pot. Twelve days
after sowing, twenty pots were transferred to each site. The pots were uniformly
watered every day throughout the experiment in order to maintain constant soil
moisture. For biomass and yield determinations, two different sets of plants were
kept for harvesting on two occasions.

2.6. PLANT SAMPLING AND A NALYSIS

For biomass determination, plants were sampled destructively at 85 days after

sowing (DAS) and separated into root, shoot, leaf and pod components, before
being dried at 80 ◦ C to constant weight. Plants were finally harvested at maturity at
120 DAS and numbers of seeds pod−1 , weight of seeds pod−1 , no. of pods plant−1 ,
weight of pods plants−1 , no. of seeds plant−1 and weight of seeds plant−1 were
measured.
Reproductive biomass carbon allocation was calculated as the ratio of total
vegetative biomass to total reproductive biomass on a dry weight basis (Fekete
et al., 1988), root:shoot ratio, leaf weight ratio and harvest index (Hunt, 1982).
Seed quality was analysed for selected metabolites (starch, total soluble sugars,
reducing sugars and protein). In order to extract sugars and starch, powdered seed
samples were boiled with 5 ml 80% ethanol and then centrifuged. The pellets were
then washed with distilled water and centrifuged again. The supernatant collected
after each washing was used for estimating soluble sugars using the colorimetric
method of Dubois et al. (1956) and reducing sugar by the colorimetric copper
method of Somogyi-Nelson (Herbart et al., 1971). For starch extraction, pellets were
washed twice with 52% perchloric acid and centrifuged successively (McCready
et al.,1950). Finally the pellets were washed with distilled water and the supernatant
was used for starch determination by the phenol/H2 SO4 colorimetric method of
Dubois et al. (1956). For protein estimation, the method of Lowry et al. (1951) was
followed.
 MUNG BEAN YIELD AND AIR POLLUTION IN VARANASI 245

2.7. STATISTICAL A NALYSIS

Assumptions of normal distribution and homogenous variance were tested by the

Kolmogrov-Smirnov test and Cochran’s C test, respectively prior to subjecting the
pot means to a one way analysis of variance test (ANOVA) using site as the factor
for biomass accumulation, yield measurements and seed quality parameters. Data
exhibiting non-Gaussian distribution were log transformed prior to ANOVA. For
determining significant differences between treatments, Duncan’s multiple range
test was used. The correlation coefficient and regression equations were determined
for individual pollutant concentrations and different growth and yield parameters
for sites where regular air monitoring was done. All statistical analyses were done
using SPSS/PC+ programme for microcomputers.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. AIR POLLUTION MONITORING

The 6 hr means concentrations of gaseous pollutants and their variations from March
to June during crop growth measured regularly at the four locations are shown in
Table II. The air quality data clearly indicate that spatial variations in SO2 and NO2
concentrations showed a similar pattern of distribution, the concentrations from
maximum to minimum being sites 8 > 4 > 1 > 3. Ozone, however, showed a
pattern of 8 > 1 > 4 > 3. On the basis of occasional monitoring at other sites, four
groups of sites can be identified. Site 1 and 2 showing similar ranges of pollutants
formed group I, site 3 showing lowest pollutant levels formed group II, sites 4, 5,
6 and 7 at similar variations in pollutant concentrations formed group III and sites
8 and 9 showing highest pollution load formed group IV. Group IV comprising
sites 8 and 9 showing the highest pollutant load is situated downwind of a national
highway, small scale industries and intersections and hence is in the proximity
of numerous emission sources. The city plume from east to west may also have

TABLE II
Six hr mean pollutant concentrations (ppb) at selected
sites around Varanasi city
Sites SO2 NO2 O3

1. 13.3 (11–16) 31.9 (24–39) 55.7 (46–66)

3. 8.04 (6–10) 11.7 (8–15) 9.73 (8–13)
4. 17.18 (14–24) 31.9 (27–37) 25.1 (18–27)
8 32.2 (24–40) 80.1 (60–99) 58.5 (49–73)

Minimum and maximum concentrations in parentheses.

246 M. AGRAWAL ET AL.

contributed to high ambient pollutant concentrations at these sites. Site 3, which

showed the minimum pollutant load, is characterised by residential and official
buildings, and hence low emission levels, and dense plantations of perennial tree
species, which may have provided a sink for pollutants. Pandey et al. (1992) have
also reported maximum concentrations of pollutants around the zone having 8 and
9 as sub sampling sites and minimum at site 3 in 1989. The average concentration
of SO2 recorded at site 8 in the present study (32.2 ppb) was slightly higher than
the average summer concentration of 27 ppb reported by Pandey et al. (1992) for
the same zone. In contrast, the NO2 average recorded during the present study
(80.1 ppb) was triple the concentration of 25 ppb reported by Pandey et al. (1992)
around sites 8 and 9. This trend might have occurred due to a switch to natural gas
from coal burning for home cooking and also due to an increase in vehicle numbers
leading to more emissions of NOx . Concentrations of pollutants were intermediate
at group III, which includes sites 4, 5, 6 and 7.
The results indicated a different pattern of spatial variation for O3 than SO2 and
NO2 . Ozone showed comparable concentrations at group IV and I sites. Group I
sites 1 and 2 represent rural and periurban areas, respectively with no specific source
of pollution. The concentrations of O3 and NO2 showed different relationships in
rural and periurban areas. At group I sites (rural area) O3 concentration was higher
that NO2 due to no other specific source of NO2 in this area other than transport
of precursors leading to high O3 formation. In contrast at group III and IV sites
NO2 concentration was higher than O3 due to proximity of sources close to these
sites. Agrawal et al. (2003) also showed a similar pattern of O3 in different areas
of Varanasi city. Pandey et al. (1992) did not monitor any site close to 1, but
higher O3 levels were recorded from urban sites than suburban areas. Hassan et al.
(1995) have however, observed higher levels of ambient oxidant in a rural area
of Egypt compared with a nearby urban site in Alexandria. Aneja et al. (1992)
have observed a similar pattern in southeastern area of United States and Schenone
and Lorenzini (1992) in urban and rural areas of Italy. Pandey et al. (1992) and
Pandey and Agrawal (1994) have shown positive significant correlations between
temperature and O3 concentration which may be ascribed to higher oxidant levels
in summer. A similar result was reported by Nasralla and Shakour (1981) in Egypt.
Ozone levels recorded during the present study were higher than those reported
by Pandey et al. (1992) in 1989. For example O3 concentration at site 8 in the
present study was 58.5 ppb, whereas the earlier study reported a concentration
of 34 ppb in the zone including site 8. This may be ascribed to the increase in
traffic emissions of O3 precursors at present compared to the earlier study. Tobacco
biomonitoring also indicated highest O3 levels at sites 1, 2, 8 and 9, as white
flecks on the upper leaf surfaces were observed at these sites only. Other sites
did not show O3 symptoms on tobacco. Since all the pollutant concentrations are
lowest at site 3, the data for this site were used as the reference for comparing
the changes in plant parameters obtained at other sites in relation to pollutant
concentration.
 MUNG BEAN YIELD AND AIR POLLUTION IN VARANASI 247

TABLE III
Biomass accumulation in different parts of mung bean plants kept at different sites around Varanasi
city at 85 days age (Mean of 10 replicates ± SE)
Site Root Shoot Leaf Pod Total

1 0.56 ± 0.06ab 2.42 ± 0.26abc 2.19 ± 0.23b 6.40 ± 0.39b 11.58 ± 0.66bc
2 0.61 ± 0.07ab 2.82 ± 0.19ab 2.43 ± 0.30b 7.42 ± 0.47b 13.27 ± 0.43b
3 0.71 ± 0.10a 3.07 ± 0.23a 3.17 ± 0.40a 10.45 ± 1.03a 17.40 ± 1.35a
4 0.50 ± 0.08ab 2.69 ± 0.33ab 2.30 ± 0.14b 4.68 ± 0.47c 10.18 ± 0.41cd
5 0.47 ± 0.10b 2.21 ± 0.21bc 2.08 ± 0.22b 4.68 ± 0.18c 9.44 ± 0.52de
6 0.40 ± 0.06bc 2.28 ± 0.10bc 2.02 ± 0.19bc 3.05 ± 0.32de 7.76 ± 0.25e
7 0.40 ± 0.07bc 1.98 ± 0.28cd 1.94 ± 0.31bcd 3.70 ± 0.46cd 8.01 ± 1.01e
8 0.20 ± 0.02c 1.37 ± 0.18d 1.22 ± 0.15d 2.53 ± 0.16de 5.33 ± 0.41f
9 0.21 ± 0.02c 1.37 ± 0.19d 1.30 ± 0.12cd 1.95 ± 0.15e 4.83 ± 0.31f

Within each parameter, values not followed by the same letter are significantly different at p ≤ 0.05.

3.2. GROWTH AND YIELD

The foliage of the mung bean plants did not show any specific lesions at any of the
study sites. However, the biomass accumulation pattern (F = 33.44; p < 0.001)
varied significantly between sites (Table III). Maximum site-wise variations were
observed for pod biomass (F = 23.21; P < 0.001) followed by leaf (F = 5.70;
P < 0.001), then shoot (F = 6.93; P < 0.001) and root (F = 6.11; P < 0.001)
(Table III). Biomass accumulation in all plant parts showed a trend of maximum
to minimum as 3 > 2 > 1 > 4 > 5 > 6 > 7 > 8 > 9. The relationship between
the individual pollutants levels at sites 1,3,4 and 9 and total biomass accumulation
was found to be significantly negative, suggesting a negative impact of air quality
across the sites. The trend of total biomass accumulation at all sites clearly showed
that plants at pollutant group II had highest values and at group IV had lowest
biomass accumulation values (Table VIII). The impact of SO2 and NO2 appears
more important than O3 , the latter having a lower correlation coefficient. Ashmore
et al. (1988) have also reported a decline in biomass accumulation in different
plant parts along a gradient of air pollution out of London. In this case a multiple
regression analysis also provided evidence that SO2 and NO2 levels of 20 and
25 ppb, respectively were inversely related to the yield of Trifolium pratense and
Hordeum vulgare, respectively; however effects of O3 appeared to be less important.
Thus the present work is very much in accord with the results of Ashmore et al.,
(1988), which were obtained at somewhat lower concentrations of SO2 and NO2
but under temperate conditions.
Growth indices further reflect the mechanism of biomass allocation under dif-
ferent levels of air pollutants. Root/shoot ratio (RSR) did not show significant vari-
ations due to sites. Leaf weight ratio (LWR) (F = 5.32; P < 0.001), vegetative
248 M. AGRAWAL ET AL.

TABLE IV
Final harvest leaf weight ratio (g g ), root:shoot ratio (g g−1 ), reproductive to vegetative ratio (g g−1 )
−1

and harvest index (g g−1 ) of moong bean plants kept at different sites around Varanasi city (Mean of
10 replicates ± SE)
Site LWR RSR RVR HI

1 0.188 ± 0.01b 0.053 ± 0.007a 0.82 ± 0.08de 0.97 ± 0.09ab

2 0.183 ± 0.02b 0.048 ± 0.005a 0.83 ± 0.1de 0.96 ± 0.08abc
3 0.180 ± 0.02b 0.045 ± 0.007a 0.70 ± 0.09e 1.12 ± 0.017a
4 0.227 ± 0.01ab 0.053 ± 0.009a 1.30 ± 0.20abc 0.68 ± 0.08bcd
5 0.218 ± 0.01ab 0.053 ± 0.01a 1.02 ± 0.08cde 0.74 ± 0.08bcd
6 0.263 ± 0.03a 0.056 ± 0.01a 1.73 ± 0.27a 0.51 ± 0.06d
7 0.242 ± 0.02ab 0.054 ± 0.008a 1.23 ± 0.14bcd 0.71 ± 0.11bcd
8 0.228 ± 0.02ab 0.041 ± 0.004a 1.09 ± 0.06cde 0.66 ± 0.04cd
9 0.271 ± 0.03a 0.046 ± 0.004a 1.55 ± 0.18ab 0.56 ± 0.10d

Within each parameter, values not followed by the same letter are significantly different at p ≤ 0.05.

reproductive ratio (F = 12.23; P < 0.001) and harvest index (F = 9.23;

P < 0.001), however, varied significantly among sites with differing concen-
trations of air pollutants (Table IV). Leaf weight ratio increased significantly at
sites of group III and IV receiving a higher pollution load as compared to refer-
ence site (Table IV). Higher LWR suggests partitioning of a large amount of fixed
carbon into leaf growth to enable the plants to overcome the adverse impact at the
place of impingement. Cooley and Manning (1987) have indicated that reduction
in total biomass due to air pollutants is often accompanied by a change in parti-
tioning of photosynthate in different plant components. No significant change in
RSR of plants suggests that pollutants do not alter the partitioning pattern between
below and above ground parts. This, however, is contradictory to some reports in
the literature (Cooley and Manning, 1987; Kasana and Mansfield, 1986). Since the
experiment was conducted on pot grown plants, such a response may be attributed
to limited space for root growth. The vegetative/reproductive biomass ratio was
increased significantly at all sites compared to the reference site which further sug-
gests that the photosynthate produced is utilized more for maintaining vegetative
parts than for allocation to yield components (Cooley and Manning, 1987).
At the time of final harvest, numbers of seeds pod−1 , pods plant−1 and seeds
plant−1 and weight of seeds pods−1 , pods plant−1 and seeds plant−1 showed a trend
of maximum to minimum 3 > 2 > 1 > 4 > 5 > 7 > 6 > 8 = 9 (Table V).
Analysis of variance test further showed that numbers of seed pod −1 (F = 17.10;
P < 0.001), pod plant−1 (F = 27.04; P < 0.001) and seed plant−1 (F = 33.44;
P < 0.001) and weight of seeds pod−1 (F = 12.80; P < 0.001), pods plants−1
(F = 32.21; P < 0.001) and seeds plants−1 (F = 31.02; P < 0.001) varied
significantly between the sites. As compared to plants at reference site 3, weight
of seeds plant−1 (yield) was lowered by 18, 22, 34, 50, 53, 59, 66, 74 and 79% at
 TABLE V
Different yield parameters of moong bean plants kept at different sites around Varanasi city at the time of final harvest (Mean of 10
replicates ± SE)
Wt. of one No. of seeds Wt. of seeds No. of pods Wt. of pods No. of seeds Wt. of seeds
Sites pod (g) per pod per pod (g) per plant per plant (g) per plant per plant (g)

1. 0.28 ± 0.004c 5.60 ± 0.16c 0.183 ± 0.006b 23.13 ± 1.41a 6.40 ± 0.39b 130.37 ± 10.77b 4.20 ± 0.19b
2. 0.37 ± 0.02a 6.25 ± 0.36abc 0.25 ± 0.01a 19.75 ± 0.73b 7.42 ± 0.47b 123.40 ± 7.72bc 4.96 ± 0.32b
3. 0.40 ± 0.02a 7.08 ± 0.30a 0.25 ± 0.01a 25.75 ± 1.78a 10.45 ± 1.03a 181.33 ± 13.86a 6.40 ± 0.59a
4. 0.24 ± 0.02cd 4.73 ± 0.28d 0.17 ± 0.01bc 19.13 ± 0.88b 4.68 ± 0.47c 90.18 ± 6.49de 3.20 ± 0.27c
5. 0.28 ± 0.01c 5.93 ± 0.22bc 0.18 ± 0.01bc 17.25 ± 1.08b 4.68 ± 0.18c 101.65 ± 6.23cd 3.00 ± 0.17cd
6. 0.24 ± 0.01cd 4.23 ± 0.34d 0.17 ± 0.01bc 12.50 ± 0.85cd 3.05 ± 0.32de 53.10 ± 5.75f 2.15 ± 0.22de
7. 0.33 ± 0.01b 6.70 ± 0.15ab 0.23 ± 0.01a 11.38 ± 1.38cd 3.70 ± 0.46cd 76.02 ± 9.08e 2.60 ± 0.33cd
8. 0.23 ± 0.01d 4.03 ± 0.17d 0.15 ± 0.005c 11.38 ± 0.94cd 2.53 ± 016de 45.28 ± 3.30f 1.63 ± 0.13e
9. 0.22 ± 0.02d 4.25 ± 0.39d 0.15 ± 0.02bc 9.00 ± 0.42d 1.95 ± 0.15e 37.93 ± 3.19f 1.34 ± 0.14e

Within each parameter, values not followed by the same letter are significantly different at p ≤ 0.05.
MUNG BEAN YIELD AND AIR POLLUTION IN VARANASI
249
250 M. AGRAWAL ET AL.

TABLE VI
Site wise changes in selected metabolite contents (mg g−1 ) of seeds of mung bean plants kept at
different sites around Varanasi city (Mean of 10 replicates ± SE)
Site Total sugar Red. Sugar Starch Protein

1 29.78 ± 0.16bc 3.26 ± 0.11de 332.35 ± 3.15b 321.00 ± 3.79b

2 27.65 ± 0.09e 3.08 ± 0.09ef 292.60 ± 3.31c 322.33 ± 3.38b
3 29.51 ± 0.24c 3.94 ± 0.07ab 354.71 ± 3.40a 357.67 ± 8.64a
4 30.40 ± 0.15ab 3.57 ± 0.07bcd 271.57 ± 3.63d 311.00 ± 6.08b
5 30.98 ± 0.21a 3.68 ± 0.09bc 270.23 ± 3.40d 366.67 ± 3.71a
6 26.79 ± 0.30f 2.82 ± 0.16f 253.03 ± 3.99e 362.00 ± 5.69a
7 28.64 ± 0.25d 4.17 ± 0.16a 270.23±3.99d 367.33 ± 4.41a
8 28.16 ± 0.25de 3.86 ± 0.14ab 173.72±5.20g 317.67 ± 4.67b
9 22.92 ± 0.29g 3.31 ± 0.17cde 223.22±3.64f 364.67 ± 4.33a

Within each parameter, values not followed by the same letter are significantly different at p ≤ 0.05.

TABLE VII
Correlation coefficients and linear regression between selected parameters of mung bean
plants and mean pollutant concentrations
Correlation between Correlation coefficient Regression Equation

SO2 vs. Biomass −0.847∗∗ Y = 19.123 − 0.452x

NO2 vs. Biomass −0.839∗∗ Y = 17.302 − 0.160x
O3 vs. Biomass −0.697∗∗ Y = 17.177 − 0.162x
SO2 vs. Yield −0.824∗∗ Y = 7.026 − 0.179x
NO2 vs. Yield −0.805∗∗ Y = 6.271 − 0.062x
O3 vs. Yield −0.639∗∗ Y = 6.117 − 0.060x
SO2 vs. Starch −0.984∗∗ Y = 418.95 − 7.685x
NO2 vs. Starch −0.952∗∗ Y = 385.812 − 2.652x
O3 vs. Starch −0.560NS Y = 354.306 − 1.910x
SO2 vs. Protein −0.548NS Y = 348.443 − 1.222x
NO2 vs. Protein −0.522NS Y = 342.94 − 0.416x
O3 vs. Protein −0.579∗ Y = 347.86 − 0.564x
SO2 vs. Reducing Sugar 0.187NS Y = 3.548 + 0.006x
NO2 vs. Reducing Sugar 0.144NS Y = 3.592 + 0.002x
O3 vs. Reducing Sugar 0.389NS Y = 3.873 − 0.006x
SO2 vs. Total Sugar −0.680∗ Y = 30.626 − 0.066x
NO2 vs. Total Sugar −0.731∗ Y = 30.440 − 0.025x
O3 vs. Total Sugar −0.483NS Y = 30.223 − 0020x
∗∗ ∗
p < 0.01; p < 0.05 and N S not significant.

sites 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 6, 8 and 9, respectively. The relationship between the individual

pollutants levels at sites 1, 3, 4 and 9 and yield was found to be significantly negative
(Table VII). The variation in weight of seeds directly corresponded to the pollutant
concentrations in different pollution groups (Table VIII). Pollution group II having
 MUNG BEAN YIELD AND AIR POLLUTION IN VARANASI 251

TABLE VIII
Comparison of selected parameters (mean values) of mung bean plants kept at different groups
of pollutant concentrations around Varanasi
Pollution Group

Parameters I II III IV

Total Biomass (g plant−1 ) 11.58–13.27 17.40 7.76–10.18 4.83–5.83

Weight of seeds (g plant−1 ) 4.20–4.96 6.40 2.15–3.20 1.34–2.53
Weight of pods (g plant−1 ) 6.40–7.42 10.45 3.05–4.68 1.95–2.53
Protein content (mg g−1 ) 321.00–322.33 357.67 311.00–367.33 317.67–364.67
Starch content (mg g−1 ) 292.60–332.35 354.71 253.03–270.23 173.72–223.22

lowest concentrations of pollutant showed maximum value for weight of seeds

(6.40 g plant−1 ) followed by group I sites having higher pollutant concentrations
than group II site. Minimum value for weight of seeds plant−1 was observed at group
IV sites (1.34–1.63 g plant−1 ) having highest pollutant concentrations. Weight of
pods also showed a similar trend (Table VIII).
The reductions in weight of seeds plant−1 were attributed to reductions in
numbers of seed pod−1 , no of pods plant−1 and no of seeds plant−1 and also in
their respective weights. Ozone, SO2 and NO2 individually and in combination are
known to reduce the yield of many crop plants (e.g. Renaud et al., 1997; Heggestad
and Lesser, 1990). Upon comparison of the coefficient values of linear correlation
matrics, it is evident that SO2 and NO2 have greater impact on yield compared to
O3 (Table VII).
The harvest index (HI) showed a significantly higher value at site 3 as compared
to other sites. The reduction in HI further suggests that photosynthate allocation to
pods is minimised during pollution stress and the photoassimilate is utilised more
for repair and maintenance of assimilatory surfaces. Such a strategy makes the
plants most vulnerable during the pod filling stage. Post anthesis O3 exposure had
maximum impact on grain yield of wheat (Pleijel et al., 1998).

3.3. SEED Q UALITY

Seed quality also showed significant variations between sites with respect to Starch
(F = 202.67; P < 0.001), total sugar (F = 115.40; P < 0.001), reducing sugar
(F = 12.47; P < 0.001) and protein (F = 22.03; P < 0.001) contents (Table VI).
The carbohydrate pool in seeds showed the highest starch content at site 3, while
reducing sugar content was highest at site 7 and soluble sugar at site 4 (Table VI).
Starch content was highest at pollution group II site, followed by group I sites, group
III sites and minimum was observed at group IV sites (Table VIII). Protein content,
however, did not show a similar trend. Protein content at sites 3, 5, 6, 7 and 9 were
significantly higher than contents at sites 1, 2, 4 and 8 suggesting no definite trend
252 M. AGRAWAL ET AL.

of protein content in seeds in response to ambient air pollutants (Table VII). One
trend is however, clear that the sites having high concentration of O3 had lower seed
protein. There was no significant relationship between atmospheric NO2 or SO2 and
foliar protein in the present study, although there was an indication of an O3 effect.
Starch content of seeds showed a significant negative correlation with both ambient
SO2 and NO2 concentration (Table VII). Reducing sugar showed no relationship
with pollutant concentrations but total sugar was significantly negatively correlated
with both SO2 and NO2 . Possibly, reduced photosynthetic efficiency of plants at the
more polluted sites has reduced accumulation and allocation of photosynthates to
their seeds. Agrawal et al. (1983) have also reported significant reduction in starch
content of grains of Panicum miliaceum plants exposed to O3 and SO2 individually
and in combination. Total soluble and reducing sugars did not show a specific trend
in relation to ambient air pollutant concentrations. Starch content in seeds, however,
was found to be directly correlated with total sugar.

4. Conclusion

Reductions in biomass accumulation and yield at sites having high levels of SO2 ,
NO2 and O3 clearly depict a marked negative influence of air quality on mung bean
plants grown at different sites in periurban fringes of Varanasi city. It should be borne
in mind that this study was undertaken over the summer growing season when slower
rates of metabolism, as a result of the extremely hostile environmental conditions,
may have predisposed plants to susceptibility to pollutants. The experimental design
did not permit clear elucidation of the relative contribution by the individual gases,
although it is clear that O3 forms an important component of the airshed in the more
rural sites with no specific source of the primary pollutants NO2 and SO2 .
The present study clearly demonstrated that air pollution could be a major con-
straint on peri-urban crop yield and its nutritional quality in India. Research to
establish exposure response relationships for a range of important crops, using
long term chamber filtration experiments under local field conditions, is urgently
required. These studies could lead to recommendations for changes in agricultural
practices to ameliorate the impacts of air pollution. Concern over air pollution
today is largely based on direct impacts to human health. However, in view of
need to maintain yields and address malnutrition in the developing world, there
is a strong case for raising the policy profile of the indirect health impacts of air
pollution through reduced crop yield and nutritional quality. These factors should
be considered when assessing the true benefit of pollution abatement strategies.

Acknowledgements

This publication is an output from a research project (R6992 Environment Re-

search Programme) funded by the United Kingdom Department for International
 MUNG BEAN YIELD AND AIR POLLUTION IN VARANASI 253

Development (DFID) for the benefit of developing countries led by Dr F Marshall.

The views expressed are not necessarily those of DFID. The authors gratefully
acknowledge the financial support of DFID. The authors would like also to thank
Mr. Raj Kumar Singh and Ms Madhu Rajput for their help in experimental work.
We would also like to thank the Head, Department of Botany, Banaras Hindu Uni-
versity for providing permission for this research programme and colleagues in the
Environmental Modelling, Monitoring and Assessment group of the Department
of Environmental Sciences and Engineering at Imperial College for their helpful
inputs.

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