Lipid: Another word for "fat." (Please see the various meanings of fat.

) A lipid is chemically
defined as a substance that is insoluble in water and soluble in alcohol, ether, and chloroform.

Lipids are an important component of living cells. Together with carbohydrates and proteins,
lipids are the main constituents of plant and animal cells.

It is now known that lipids play a much more important role in the body than previously
believed. It was previously known that lipids played the role of storage of energy or forming cell
membranes alone. Researchers have found that lipids have a much more diverse and widespread
biological role in the body in terms of intracellular signalling or local hormonal regulation etc.

Lipids are synthesized in the body using complex biosynthetic pathways. However, there are
some lipids that are considered essential and need to be supplemented in diet.

In 1929, for example, George and Mildred Burr demonstrated that linoleic acid was an essential
dietary constituent. Bergström, Samuelsson and others in 1964 added to the knowledge of role of
lipids in the body by finding that essential fatty acid arachidonate was the biosynthetic precursor
of the prostaglandins with their effects on inflammation and other diseases.

In 1979 the first biologically active phospholipid, platelet activating factor was discovered and
there was a raised awareness regarding phosphatidylinositol and its metabolites in cellular
signally and messaging.

Role of lipids in the body

Lipids have several roles in the body, these include acting as chemical messengers, storage and
provision of energy and so forth.

Chemical messengers
All multicellular organisms use chemical messengers to send information between organelles
and to other cells. Since lipids are small molecules insoluble in water, they are excellent
candidates for signalling. The signalling molecules further attach to the receptors on the cell
surface and bring about a change that leads to an action.

The signalling lipids, in their esterified form can infiltrate membranes and are transported to
carry signals to other cells. These may bind to certain proteins as well and are inactive until they
reach the site of action and encounter the appropriate receptor.

Storage and provision of energy

Storage lipids are triacylglycerols. These are inert and made up of three fatty acids and a
glycerol.
Fatty acids in non esterified form, i.e. as free (unesterified) fatty acids are released from
triacylglycerols during fasting to provide a source of energy and to form the structural
components for cells.

Dietary fatty acids of short and medium chain size are not esterified but are oxidized rapidly in
tissues as a source of ‘fuel”.

Longer chain fatty acids are esterified first to triacylglycerols or structural lipids.

Maintenance of temperature
Layers of subcutaneous fat under the skin also help in insulation and protection from cold.
Maintenance of body temperature is mainly done by brown fat as opposed to white fat. Babies
have a higher concentration of brown fat.

Membrane lipid layer formation

Linoleic and linolenic acids are essential fatty acids. These form arachidonic, eicosapentaenoic
and docosahexaenoic acids. These for membrane lipids.

Membrane lipids are made of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Polyunsaturated fatty acids are
important as constituents of the phospholipids, where they appear to confer several important
properties to the membranes. One of the most important properties are fluidity and flexibility of
the membrane.

Cholesterol formation
Much of the cholesterol is located in cell membranes. It also occurs in blood in free form as
plasma lipoproteins. Lipoproteins are complex aggregates of lipids and proteins that make travel
of lipids in a watery or aqueous solution possible and enable their transport throughout the body.

The main groups are classified as chylomicrons (CM), very low density lipoproteins (VLDL),
low density lipoproteins (LDL) and high density lipoproteins (HDL), based on the relative
densities

Cholesterol maintains the fluidity of membranes by interacting with their complex lipid
components, specifically the phospholipids such as phosphatidylcholine and sphingomyelin.
Cholesterol also is the precursor of bile acids, vitamin D and steroidal hormones.

Prostaglandin formation and role in inflammation

The essential fatty acids, linoleic and linolenic acids are precursors of many different types of
eicosanoids, including the hydroxyeicosatetraenes, prostanoids (prostaglandins, thromboxanes
and prostacyclins), leukotrienes (and lipoxins) and resolvins etc. these play an important role in
pain, fever, inflammation and blood clotting.

The "fat-soluble" vitamins

The "fat-soluble" vitamins (A, D, E and K) are essential nutrients with numerous functions.

Acyl-carnitines transport and metabolize fatty acids in and out of mitochondria.

Polyprenols and their phosphorylated derivatives help on transport of molecules across

membranes.

Cardiolipins are a subtype of glycerophospholipids with four acyl chains and three glycerol
groups. They activate enzymes involved with oxidative phosphorylation.

Lipids perform several biological functions:

 Lipids are storage compounds, triglycerides serve as reserve energy of the body.
 Lipids are important component of cell membranes structure in eukaryotic cells.
 Lipids regulate membrane permeability.
 They serve as source for fat soluble vitamins like A, D, E, K.
 They act electrical insulators to the nerve fibres, where the myelin sheath contains
lipids.
 Lipids are components of some enzyme systems.
 Some lipids like prostaglandins and steroid hormones act as cellular metabolic
regulators.
 Cholesterol is found in cell membranes, blood, and bile of many organisms.
 As lipids are small molecules and are insoluble in water, they act as signalling
molecules.
 Layers of fat in the subcutaneous layer, provides insulation and protection from cold.
Body temperature maintenance is done by brown fat.
 Polyunsaturated phospholipids are important constituents of phospholipids, they provide
fluidity and flexibility to the cell membranes.
 Lipoproteins that are complexes of lipids and proteins, occur in blood as plasma
lipoprotein, they enable transport of lipids in aqueous environment, and their transport
throughout the body.
 Cholesterol maintains fluidity of membranes by interacting with lipid complexes.
 Cholesterol is the precursor of bile acids, Vitamin D and steroids.
 Essential fatty acids like linoleic and linolenic acids are precursors of many different
types of ecosanoids including prostaglandins, thromboxanes. These play a important role
in pain, fever, inflammation and blood clotting.
 Oils and Fats
 Oils and fats have the same chemical arrangement but differ functionally in that oils are
liquid at room temperature, while fats are solid. The structure consists of a glycerol
"backbone" to which three fatty acids are attached. A fatty acid is a chain of carbon and
hydrogen atoms with a "carboxyl head," an entity made of a carbon and two oxygen
 atoms, giving it special properties. It is through the carboxyl head that the fatty acids
attach to the glycerol via ester linkage. With all three carbons of the glycerol linked to a
fatty acid, the compound is known as a "triglyceride."

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 Saturated, Mono-Unsaturated and Poly-Unsaturated
 The term "saturation" refers to the number of "double bonds" in the hydrocarbon chain of
a fatty acid, and this relates to the number of hydrogen atoms. As opposed to the more
common single bond, a double bond between two carbon atoms is more rigid. By
inhibiting rotation between the atoms, and drawing them close together, double bonds
place kinks in a fatty acid chain. Triglycerides with fatty acids containing more double
bonds tend to be liquid at room temperature, and thus are oils. If there is one double
bond, a fatty acid is called "mono-unsaturated"; if there are many, it is called "poly-
unsaturated."

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 Sources of Oils and Fats
 Most oils come from plants and are largely unsaturated, although certain plant oils, such
as palm and coconut, are highly saturated. Fats, on the other hand, tend to come from
animals and have more saturated fatty acids.

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 Trans Fats
 Unsaturated fatty acids can be saturated, and more often "partially saturated," through
industrial processing. When fatty acids are partially saturated, the double bonds fare
different from the kind that usually occur in nature. They are called "trans" double bonds,
and fats that contain them are called "trans fats." Not only does the presence of trans fats
in foods have implications for the melting point--and thus for cardiovascular health--but
evidence suggests dietary trans fats may contribute to cancer.

 Kraivuttinun/iStock/Getty
Images
 Sources of Waxes, Cholesterol and Steroids
 Wax sources include bees, plants such as jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis) and carnauba
palm (Copernicia cerifera), and sheep, whose wool contains the wax lanolin. Cholesterol
comes from animal tissue, found in cell membranes and as a parent compound for a
variety of steroid hormones. While waxes are long hydrocarbon chains with one or two
 functional groups, cholesterol and its steroid derivatives contain various hydrocarbon ring
structures.

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 Phospholipids
 Forming the bulk of cell membranes, phospolipids are similar to tryglycerides, except
with one of the three fatty acids replaced with a phosphate group to which other highly
polar (aka hydrophillic, water-loving) entities are attached. The two hydrocarbon chains,
being hydrophobic, mix well with fat, while the polar heads of the compounds mix with
water. This allows phospholipids to serve as carriers in blood for hydrophobic
compounds like cholesterol, or to line up into membranes around cells.

Different Types of Lipids

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The classification of lipids can be structural based or based on their functions. Mainly lipids are
classified in five types.

 Fatty acyl (FA)

 Glycerolipids (GL)
 Glycerophospholipids (GP)
 Sterol lipids (ST)
 Sphengolipids (SP)

The relation between different types of lipids is as follows.

1. Fatty acyls

 Fatty acyls, a generic term are used for fatty acids and their derivatives.
 The fatty acid composed of one hydrocarbon chain which terminates with a carboxylic
acid group.
 The carboxyl end is polar and soluble in water; hydrophilic.
 The long hydrocarbon chain is non-polar in nature and hydrophobic.
 The carbon chain in fatty acids can be saturated or unsaturated and can have some other
functional groups.
 In case of unsaturated fatty acids, cis-trans isomers can be possible. Cis-fatty acids are
found naturally while trans can be synthesized artificially by partial hydrogenation of fats
and oils.

2. Glycerolipids (triglycerides)

 They also known as triglycerides or triglycrols which composed of mono-, di- and tri-
substituted glycerol.
 They formed by the esterification of glycerols with different fatty acids.
 During fat metabolism, glycerolipids releases glycerol and fatty acids from adipose
tissue, thus they function as a food store comprise in the bulk as storage fat in animal
tissues.
 Glycosylglycerols is a class of glycerolipids which composed of one or more sugar
residues with glycerol through a glycosidic linkage and fatty acids.
  The plant membranes having Digalactosyldiacylglycerols and the mammalian sperm
containing seminolipid are best example of glycosylglycerols.

3. Glycerophospholipids

 They also called as phospholipids, composed of fatty acids, glycerol with phosphate
groups.
 Phospholidis are the main constituents of the lipid bilayer of cells and also are involved
in metabolism.

4. Sphingolipids

 These lipids are quite different from first two lipids and more complex compare to them.
 They composed of a sphingoid base backbone which is synthesized from serine; an
amino acid and a fatty acyl CoA long-chain.
 This further converted into ceramides, glycosphingolipids, phosphosphingolipids and
other compounds.
 Some common examples of sphingolipids are Ceramides, sphingomyelins( a
phosphosphingolipids) are found in mammals.
 Whereas, ceramide phosphoethanolamines are found in insects and phytoceramide
phosphoinositols, mannose-containing headgroups are found in fungi.
 Examples of glycosphingolipids are cerebrosides and gangliosides.

5. Sterol lipids

 These lipids are main components of membrane lipids along with sphingomyelins and the
glycerophospholipids.
 The best common examples of sterol are cholesterol and its derivatives.
 Steroids are composed of fused four-ring core structure but show different biological
roles such as hormones like estrogen, testosterone and androsterone.
 Some vitamins like vitamin-D also composed of one of the sterol; secosteroids.
 Other examples of sterols are bile acids in mammals, phytosterols in plants like β-
sitosterol, brassicasterol and stigmasterol.

6. Prenol lipids

 These lipids are synthesized from the 5-carbon precursor dimethylallyl diphosphate and
the isopentenyl diphosphate.
 The simple isoprenoids are classified according to the terpene units number.
 Carotenoids is a terpene act as antioxidants as well as precursors of vitamin A.
  However if there are more than 40 carbons present in lipids, they are called as
polyterpenes.
 If an tail of isoprenoid gets attached to an quinonoid core of non-isoprenoid origin, they
are exemplified by the quinones and hydro quinones.

7. Saccharolipids

Those fatty acids which are directly linked with a sugar backbone are known as saccharolipids.

8. Polyketides

 These lipids are synthesized by the polymerization method of acetyl subunit and
propionyl subunit in the presence of enzymes which share mechanistic features with the
fatty acid syntheses.
 Generally these molecules are cyclic in nature whose backbones are then further modified
by hydroxylation, glycosylation, methylation, and oxidation.
 Polyketides are used as anti-microbial, anti-cancer agents and anti-parasitic.
 Some common examples of polyketides are tetracyclines, avermectins, erythromycins
and anti-tumor epothilones.

3 Types of Lipids
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Out of all lipid compounds; three types of lipids are more common.

 Triglycerides
 Phospholipids
 Steroids

1. Triglycerides

They are also called as neutral fats. The triglycerides have ester as functional group which
comprised of one glycerol molecule (1,2,3-trihydroxypropane) combined with three fatty acids
molecules.
Fatty acids in triglycerides can be saturated or unsecured with a long aliphatic hydrocarbon chain
and one carboxyl group. The hydrocarbon chain is hydrophobic in nature due to non-polarity,
while the polar carboxyl group is hydrophilic in nature and oriented towards water in aqueous
solution.

Generally fats formed from saturated fatty acids have a high melting point and exist in solid state
at room temperature. However unsaturated fats exist in liquid state with low melting point. For
example; butter is an animal fat found in solid state while vegetable oils are found in liquid state.

Triglycerides molecules are considered for efficient energy storing as more energy could be
stored in a pound of fat compared to a pound of carbohydrates like glycogen. Some common
triglycerides with their compositions are as follow.
2. Steroids

This class of lipids shows much similarity with triglycerides except the fact that they are
hydrophobic in nature. They are metabolic derivative of terpenes with tetracyclic skeleton of
three fused six-member and one five member ring.

The presence of different functional groups on rings makes one sterol differ from other. They are
generally part of cell membranes and also found as hormones. Some other examples of steroids
are sex hormones like testosterone, progesterone, estrogen and cortisol.
3. Phospholipids

They are phosphate derivatives of triglycerides and is composed of a glycerol molecule with a
couple of fatty acids or diglyceride and a phosphate group with some polar molecule like serine,
choline or ethanolamine,.
They also have one hydrophilic end with hydrophobic at another end and such type of molecules
are known as amphipathic. In the aqueous solution of phospholipids; the hydrophobic end will
tend to aggregate together away from water and the hydrophilic part that is polar phosphate
group are oriented towards the molecules of water and tend to dissolve in it.

Hence, these appear as small spherical solids in water in which the hydrophobic "tails" aggregate
together in the spherical center and with the phosphate "head" which is hydrophillic oriented
towards water.
Such aggregations are called as liposomes formed by phospholipids in aqueous solution. They
are differing from micelle in that fact they have both aqueous interiors and exteriors. These
phospholipids bilayers form spontaneously in an aqueous environment and called as membrane
vesicles which are used to study membrane properties experimentally.

Lecithin is the most common example of phospholipid which is a major component in the lipid
bilayers of cell membranes. Another example of phospholipid is Cephalins which composed of
ehtanolamine or the amino acid serine bonded with a phosphate group through phosphate ester
linkage. This phospholipid is found in cell membranes of brain tissues and involve in the blood
clotting process.

Initially it was believed that lipids are oily materials with two main purposes - to serve as a
source of energy and as the building blocks of membranes. In 1929, George and Mildred Burr
however dispelled this myth and showed that linoleic acid was an essential dietary constituent
and played a vital role in many processes in the body.

Bergström, Samuelsson and others in 1964 found that essential fatty acid arachidonate was the
precursor of the prostaglandins with their effects on inflammation and other disease states and
lipids gained a new importance among biochemists.

Types of lipids include:

  Storage lipids
 Structural lipids
 Other lipids

Storage lipids
Fatty acids

These are the defining constituents of lipids and are in large part responsible for the distinctive
physical and metabolic properties. They are also important in non-esterified form.

In the body these are released from triacylglycerols during fasting to provide a source of energy.

Linoleic and linolenic acids are essential fatty acids, in that they cannot be synthesised by
animals and must come from plants via the diet. They are precursors of arachidonic,
eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids, which are vital components of all membrane lipids.

Fatty acids in diet are short and medium chain length are not usually esterified. Once within the
body they are oxidized rapidly in tissues as a source of ‘fuel’.

Longer chain fatty acids are usually esterified first to triacylglycerols or structural lipids in
tissues.

Triacylglycerols

These form the primary storage form of long chain fatty acids for energy and structure formation
of cells. These are composed of glycerol (1,2,3-trihydroxypropane) and 3 fatty acids to form a
triester. Triglycerides are found in blood tests. Complete hydrolysis of triacylglycerols yields
three fatty acids and a glycerol molecule. Polyunsaturated fatty acids are important as
constituents of the phospholipids and form the membranes of the cells. Most of the natural fats
and oils of commerce consist of triacylglycerols

Tri-, Di- and Monoacylglycerols

1,2-Diacylglycerols are formed as intermediates in the biosynthesis of triacylglycerols. These

also function as second messengers in many cellular processes. Monoacylglycerols are produced
when triacylglycerols are digested in the intestines of animals.

Sterols

Cholesterol is a ubiquitous component of all animal tissues. Most of it is present in the

membranes. It occurs in the free form and esterified to long chain fatty acids (cholesterol esters)
in animal tissues, including the plasma lipoproteins. Cholesterols are precursor of bile acids,
vitamin D and steroidal hormones.
Structural lipids
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Complex Lipids in Membranes

Cellular membranes control the transport of materials, including signalling molecules and can
change in form to enable budding, fission and fusion. The cell membranes have a water loving or
hydrophilic constituent and a hydrophobic or water repelling constituent making them
amphiphilic.

Phospholipids

There are two classes of phospholipids. The first are the glycerophospholipids, which are
themselves subdivided into two groups. Phosphatides, is molecules composed of glycerol
substituted with two fatty acid esters. Three alcohols that form phosphatides are choline,
ethanolamine, and serine.

The second are sphingolipids. Sphingolipids have a long-chain or sphingoid base, such as
sphingosine, to which a fatty acid is linked by an amide bond. Sphingomyelin is by far the most
abundant sphingolipid in animal tissues. Sphingomyelin is an important building block of
membranes

Saccharolipids

These are molecules wherein fatty acids are linked directly to a sugar backbone. These form part
of the cell membrane bilayer as well. In the saccharolipids, a monosaccharide substitutes for the
glycerol backbone present in glycerolipids and glycerophospholipids.

Other lipids
Proteolipids and Lipoproteins

These are proteins that are covalently bound to fatty acids or other lipid moieties, such as
isoprenoids, cholesterol and glycosylphosphatidylinositol. These include HDL (high density
lipoprotein), LDL (low density lipoprotein), VLDL (very low density lipoprotein) etc. according
to their molecular size.

Polyketides
These are made by polymerization of acetyl and propionyl subunits using enzymes. These form
large number of secondary metabolites and natural products from animal, plant, bacterial, fungal
sources. Antimicrobials or antibiotics like erythromycins, tetracyclines and anticancer agents like
epothilones are polyketides.