Airport Engineering

# History

 1266-Reger bacon studied the flight of birds (energy from fire).

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 17 Dec, 1903-Orville Wright, 1 Flight 35m, North Carolina.
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 1 world war- 1914-18 ‘Zeppelin’ by Germans for passenger.
 May 1918, USA, long distant air mail service, Washington to Newyork.
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 1 Jet flight, 27 Aug 1933, German.
 ICAO (International Civil Aviation organization) – formed in 1947.Developed standard and laws for
international flight.
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 1911, ‘Henri Piquet’ a French man 1 flight was planned from Allahabad to Naimi junction (7.0km).

# Aircraft Characteristics Related to Airport Design:

The following terms related to aircraft dimensions that are important to airport planning and design.

(1)The size, length, wing span and height:

The size of aircraft involves following important dimension- (a) Wing span (b) Weight (c) distance between main
gears (d) Wheel base and tail width

The length of an aircraft is defined as the distance from the front tip of the fuselage, or main body of the aircraft,
to the back end of the tail section, known as the empennage. The length of an aircraft is used to determine the
length of an aircraft’s parking area, hangars. In addition for a commercial service airport, the length of the largest
aircraft to perform at least five departures per day determines the required amount of aircraft rescue and
firefighting equipment on the airfield.

The wingspan of an aircraft is defined as the distance from wingtip to wingtip of the aircraft’s main wings. The
wingspan of an aircraft is used to determine the width of aircraft parking areas and gate spacing, as well as
determining the width and separations of runways and taxiways on the airfield.

The maximum height of an aircraft is typically defined as the distance from the ground to the top of the aircraft’s
tail section. Only in rare cases is an aircraft’s maximum height found elsewhere on the aircraft, for example, the
Airbus Beluga’s maximum height is noted as the distance from the ground to the top of the forward fuselage
entry door when it is fully extended upward in the open position.

(2) Wheel Base and Wheel track:

The wheelbase of an aircraft is defined as the distance between the center of the aircraft’s main landing gear
and the center of its nose gear, or tail-wheel, in the case of a tail-wheel aircraft. An aircraft’s wheel track is
defined as the distance between the outer wheels of an aircraft’s main landing gear. The wheelbase and wheel
track of an aircraft determine its minimum turning radius, which in turn plays a large role in the design of taxiway
turnoffs, intersections, and other areas on an airfield which require an aircraft to turn.

(3) Minimum Turning radii:

Turning radii are a function of the nose gear steering angle. The larger the angle, the smaller the radii. From the
center of rotation the distances to the various parts of the aircraft, such as the wingtips, the nose, or the tail, result
in a number of radii. The largest radius is the most critical from the standpoint of clearance to buildings or adjacent
aircraft. The minimum turning radius corresponds to the maximum nose gear steering angle specified by the
aircraft manufacturer. The maximum angles vary from 60° to 80°, although for design purposes a steering angle
of approximately 50° is often applied.

Figure 1: Aircraft Dimension

Figure 2: Turning radius.

(4) Landing Gear Configurations

Aircraft currently operating in the world’s civil use airports have been designed with various configurations of their landing
gear. Most aircraft are designed with one of three basic landing gear configurations; the single-wheel configuration, defined
as a main gear of having a total of two wheels, one on each strut, the dual-wheel configuration, defined as a main gear of
having a total of four wheels, two on each strut, and the dual-tandem configuration, defined as two sets of wheels on each
strut. These configurations are illustrated in Fig.

Fig3: Traditional landing gear configurations (Federal Aviation Administration)

The landing configurations of the largest of commercial service aircraft have become more complex than
the simple configurations illustrated Fig.

Figure 4: Complex landing gear configurations (Federal Aviation Administration).

The landing gear configuration plays a critical role in distributing the weight of an aircraft on the ground
it sits on, and thus in turn has a significant impact on the design of airfield pavements. Specifically, the
more wheels on a landing gear, the heavier an aircraft can be and still be supported on a ramp, taxiway,
or runway of a given pavement strength.

(5) Aircraft Weight:

The aircraft weight is important for determining the thickness of runway, taxiway and apron pavements.

(6) Taking and landing distance: Influence runway length.

(7) Noise: Jet engine gives more noise than conventional engine. Taking off noise is more than landing
noise.

(8) Speed: Influence runway length.

(9) Capacity: Passenger capacity determines the facility within and adjacent to the terminal building.
(10) Type of propulsion: The size of aircraft speed characteristics, weight carrying capacity, noise
nuisance etc depends upon the type of propulsion. Various types of propulsion

a) Piston Engine
b) Turbojet
c) Turbofan
d) Run jet
e) Rocket

# Component of Aircraft Weight:

Weight is one of the major factors which govern the runway pavements thickness.

(I)Operating empty weight (OEW), the basic weight of the aircraft including crew and all the necessary
gear required for flight but not including payload and fuel. The OEW of an aircraft is considered for the
design of aircraft that may occupy maintenance hangars, aircraft storage facilities, or any other areas
that are not intended to support the weight of an aircraft when loaded with fuel or payload.

(II) The zero fuel weight (ZFW) is the OEW of an aircraft plus the weight of its payload. The ZFW is the
weight of the aircraft at which all additional weight must be fuel, so that when the aircraft is in flight,
the bending moments at the junction of the wing and fuselage do not become excessive.

(III) The payload is a term which refers to the total revenue-producing load. This includes the weight of
passengers and their baggage, mail, express, and cargo. The maximum structural payload is the
maximum load which the aircraft is certified to carry, whether this load be passengers, cargo, or a
combination of both. Theoretically, the maximum structural payload is a difference between the zero
fuel weight and the operating empty weight. The maximum payload actually carried is usually less than
the maximum structural payload because of space limitations. This is especially true for passenger
aircraft, in which seats and other items consume a considerable amount of space.

(IV) The maximum ramp weight is the maximum weight authorized for ground maneuver including taxi
and run-up fuel. As the aircraft taxis between the apron and the end of the runway, it burns fuel and
consequently loses weight.

(V) The maximum gross takeoff weight is the maximum weight authorized at brake release for takeoff.
It excludes taxi and run-up fuel and includes the operating empty weight, trip and reserve fuel, and
payload. The difference between the maximum structural takeoff weight and the maximum ramp
weight is very nominal, only a few thousand pounds for the heaviest aircraft.

(VI) The maximum gross landing weight actually varies with certain atmospheric conditions (namely, air
density, which is a function of field elevation and ambient air temperature). This is due to the fact that
at times of low air density (such as at high elevations and/or high temperatures), an airplane of a given
weight may simply not have the engine power to get takeoff, while at the same weight it may be able to
at a higher air density, found at lower elevations and/or lower air temperatures.
(VII) Zero fuel weight: It is the weight above which all additional weight must be fuel. It is important for
structural safety of aircraft.

# Noise

 Source of noise:
(i) Machinery noise: Machinery noise is generated primarily by the moving part of engine such
as fan, compressor and turbine blades.
(ii) Primary jet engine: The primary jet engine noise is generated by the mixing of high velocity
exhausted gas from the main body of the engine with the ambient air.

The domestic source of noise during takeoff is the primary jet, whereas on approach the dominant
source is machinery noise

The intensity of sound is expressed by decibel (dB) & is defined as- 20log10

Where,

P = Stander press (20 N/m2)

P = Press of sound which is to be measured

Actual Unit is EPNdB (Effective perceive noise in dB)

Figure 5: Jet engine-source of noise.

# Noise Limit:

(a) For approach and side line: Maximum 108 EPNdB for aircraft weight off 600,000lb or more, This
value is reduced by 2 EPNdB by each having of maximum takeoff weight of 600,000 lb down to
102 EPNdB for maximum wt of 75000 lb or less.
(b) For takeoff: 108 EPNdB for aircraft weight off 600,000lb or more, This value is reduced by 5
EPNdB by each having of maximum takeoff weight of 600,000 lb down to 93 EPNdB for
maximum wt of 75000 lb or less.
(c) The noise level above prescribed may be exceeded at one or two of the measuring points, if the
sum of two exceeding points is not greater than 3 EPNdB or at one point EPNdB.

Formula:

(a) Approach & sideline = 102+( ) EPNdB

 (b) Take off = 93+( ) EPNdB
Where, W=Maximum takeoff Wt. in 1000lb

# Atmospheric Condition (Noise level are prescribed)

(a) Sea level

(b) 77°F (tem.)
(c) 70% relative humidity.
(d) Zero wind on runway.