FLOW MEASUREMENTS & FRICTION LOSSES

7. 1 Objectives

•To calibrate an orifice meter or a venturi meter by measuring the total flow of fluid.

•To determine friction losses through a pipe, a valve, and a fitting in a piping system measuring the
pressure drop.

7. 2 Theory
The principles of the orifice and the venturi meters are described in the lecture notes for 06-152.

Values of equivalent pipe lengths or numbers of velocity heads for various valves and fittings may be found
in McCabe, Smith, and Harriott, Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering, McGraw-Hill, 1985; Streeter,
Handbook of Fluid Dynamics, pp. 3-23, McGraw-Hill, 1961.

7.3 Experimental
Piping System
The piping system for this experiment is the Fluid Circuits Apparatus by Lab Sciences. Figure 1 shows a
schematic of the piping network. The fluid circuit assembly consists of three sizes of Type L hard copper
tubes with the following dimensions:

Nominal Size, inches Inside Dia., inches

1/2 0.545
3/8 0.430
1/4 0.315

Each one of the first three basic branches consists of one tube length and two valve components. Each
component has two static pressure taps for the measurement of gauge pressure at any point and of pressure
drop across the component. All tube lengths are 42 inches between taps. The 1/2 inch tube assembly
includes one 1/2 inch gate and one 1/2 inch globe valve. The 3/8 inch and 1/4 inch tubes include a 3/8
inch gate and a 3/8 inch globe valve. Pressure loss measurements are made across all of these valves. Such
measurements may be made with the valves completely open or at a reproducible partial opening.1 In
addition there are two 1/2 inch elbows, one 3/8 inch tee, one 1/4 inch tee, a sharp edged orifice, and a
venturi arranged with pressure measurement connections. There are a total of 15 elements from which
pressure loss data can be taken. Other valves are provided for directional control of various circuits.

The sharp edged orifice is installed in a 1/2 inch line. The orifice diameter is 0.312 inches. The
diameter ratio is 0.572. The throat diameter in the venturi (also in a 1/2 inch tube) is 0.245 inches and its
diameter ratio is 0.450.

There are twenty-two pressure taps including Number 1 for inlet and Number 20 for outlet pressures.
These taps are connected to a like number of manometer tubes. All manometer tubes may be closed and
isolated from the fluid circuit by using the valves provided.

Any of the following nine (9) circuits may be selected, as well as several variations of these.

Single tube circuits Parallel circuits

1
The amount of valve opening can be set by estimating the degrees the valve handle has turned from fully
open (or closed) relative to the total handle turns possible.
 1/2 tube only 1/2 and 3/8 tubes in parallel
3/8 tube only 1/2 and 1/4 tubes in parallel
1/4 tube only 3/8 and 1/4 tubes in parallel

Series circuits Series parallel circuit

1/2 and 1/4 tubes in series 1/2 and 3/8 tubes in parallel with
3/8 and 1/4 tubes in series 1/4 in series

pressure
tap 1/2"
open
valve
3/8"

1/4"

closed
valve venturi meter 1/2"

1/2"

orifice

Figure 1. Fluid Circuit and valves, fittings, and measurement devices.

Figure 2 represents the single 3/8 inch tube circuit. Shown are valve positions and the approximate
levels of the fluid in the manometer tubes.

Figure 3 shows a circuit made up of the 1/2 and 3/8 inch tubes in parallel and the 1/4 inch tube in series
together with the manometer panel.

Several things should be observed from the diagrams.

1. The small circles in the manometer lines shown at the bottom of the diagram of the manometer
represent miniature valves. Each of these serves to open or close a plastic manometer tube
connection.

2. In these diagrams the tubes shown open are the ones indicating the pressure distribution throughout
the active parts of the system. Most of the others are shown closed. For example, in Fig. 2, tubes 6-
9 and 14-17 are shown as closed. Tubes 2 and 3 are open, but there is no flow in the meter.
 10
11
12
13
14
15
16

18
19
20

22
17

21
4
5

8
9
1
2
3

6
7

6 7 8 9

1 10 11 12 13

14 15 16 17

2
3
18

20 19

5 4

Figure 2. Fluid Circuit Diagram with Single 3/8 Tube Circuit.

 10
11
12
13
14
15
16

18
19
20

22
17

21
4
5

8
9
1
2
3

6
7

6 7 8 9

1 10 11 12 13

14 15 16 17

2
3
18

20 19

5 4

Figure 3. Fluid Circuit Diagram with 1/2" and 3/8" in Parallel with 1/4" in Series.
 By having only active pressure points indicating, the active pressures are more easily observed and
confusion is avoided when considering the measurements which are of interest.

3. It should be noted that the pressure loss through any element is indicated by the difference in the
height of the water columns representing the terminal points on each side of the element. For
example, the loss through a 42 inch length of 3/8 inch tube is shown by manometers 11 and 12. The
loss through a 3/8 inch gate valve is indicated by points 10 and 11. The tube length between this
valve and station 11 is made long purposely to allow sufficient room for pressure recovery in the
fluid after it has passed through the valve. A slightly more accurate determination of the loss
chargeable to a valve may be obtained by subtracting from the loss, as measured, the appropriate loss
assigned to the length of tube included in the measurement upstream and downstream. For the
reason given above, pressure loss readings through valve stations reading from higher to lower
numbers should not be taken. For example, a reading in the direction 15 to 14 would give a
fictitious value for the loss through valve 14-15.

The pressure at any point in the circuit may be subtracted from the entering pressure at point 1 to
obtain the loss between the two points. The total pressure loss through the entire circuit is the
difference between points 1 and 20.

Fluid
Water at near ambient conditions (Note: Record temperature of water in reservoir frequently.)

Preparation for Operation

The piping and manometer circuit should be prepared for filling with fluid by opening all valves.
Open all manometers. The five gallon container on the floor near the left end of the horizontal table will
serve as a supply tank. The submersible pump which accompanies the equipment should be placed in this
container. The plastic hoses attached to the piping outlet should drain back into the tank. About three
gallons of purified water (RO) should be put into the supply tank.

The first operation in preparation for an experiment is to bleed the circuit and manometers free of air.
Start the pump outlet and, using both hands, partially open and close the inlet and outlet valves rapidly.
This will create surges in the system which will help expel the air. It is necessary to watch number 3
manometer tube and the top of the manometer assembly. Care should be taken not to completely drain
number 3 (the lowest one) and not to surge the water out of the manometers excessively. Do not open the
outlet valve completely as this will create a suction which may draw air into the system from the
manometer manifold.

Close both inlet and outlet and unplug the pump. Then set a circuit arrangement up by opening and
closing the necessary valves and closing all manometer tubes which are not desired.

After this, the inlet and outlet valves are used to adjust the flow rate and fluid height as desired for
steady state operation and readings may be taken. Adjust the inlet and outlet valves carefully until the fluid
in the No. 3 manometer falls just below the zero mark.

7.4 Scope of experiments

Calibration of orifice or venturimeter

1. Measure the pressure drop across the orifice or the venturi for at least three flow rates ranging from 1
GPM to 4 GPM.

2. The flow rate can be determined by collecting and weighing the water from the outlet over a given
time interval. (Return water collected to reservoir.)

3. Record water temperature and barometric pressure.

Friction losses
At each of the flow rates, measure the pressure drop through

1. The 42" length in two of the three basic branches.

2. The globe valve and the gate valve in each branch.

3. The elbow in the 1/2" branch.

Circuits

1. Pick a parallel circuit and run two different flow rates through it. Measure the appropriate pressure
drops to allow for a subsequent analysis of how the flow divides through the circuit (i.e. based on
your characterization of component resistances, does everything "add up" correctly when you account
for flow division.

7.5 Treatment of data

1. Use the data for the orifice or the venturi meter to determine an average discharge coefficient, Cd.

2. Calculate the values of the Fanning friction factor from the data for the 42" pipe lengths and
compare these values with those predicted by the published equations with appropriate values for the
constants.

3. Correct the pressure drop data for valves and fittings for pressure drops through the pipe lengths
upstream and downstream.

4. Calculate the pressure drop for the globe, the gate, and the elbow as numbers of velocity heads or
K F.

5. Compare the values of KF obtained with those in handbooks.

6. Using the frictional characteristics, calculate how the flow should of divided in the parallel circuit
and compare to your determination of the flow in each branch.

7.6 Discussion questions and points

1. Is the value of the meter discharge coefficient constant over the entire range of flow rate? Why
would you expect the discharge coefficient to vary with Reynolds number?

2. Can the discharge coefficient obtained for water be used for another liquid of different density and
viscosity without additional measurements?

3. Can the discharge coefficient obtained for water be adapted for use with a gas? If so, how?

4. Is there a difference in pressure drop between a globe valve and a gate valve and why/why not?

5. Discuss the comparison of values of the friction factor based on your data and those from published
correlation. Explain any differences.

6. How closely do the values of KF for valves and fittings based on your data agree with those in
handbooks. Explain the differences. Are the fitting's contribution to the total friction significant?
7.7 Prelab for flow measurements & friction losses

Calculations
1. Estimate Co for the orifice from Fig. 5-19 Perry's 6th ed. The downstream pressure tap is 2 pipe-
diameters away. D orf. = 0.3 in. and D pipe = 0.43 in. Plot Q(gal/min) vs. (∆P in. H2O) for water flow.

2. The pressure drop vs. flow rate data for flow through the 3/8 in. elbow is given below.

Q(gal/min) 1 2 3 4

∆P(in. H2O) 0.7 2.75 6.2 11.0

Calculate Kf for the elbow and compare it to literature values.

3. The pressure drop vs. flow rate data for the 3/8 in. gate valve is given below. Calculate Kf and compare
it to literature values.

Q(gal/min) 1 2 3 4

∆P(in. H2O) 1.8 7.3 16.5 29.2

4. Calculate the fanning friction factor in the 3/8 in. pipe and plot f vs. NRe . D = 0.43 in. and L = 3.5 ft.

Q(gal/min.) 1 1.5 2.0

∆P(in. H2 O) 1.1 1.9 3.2

Lab Planning

1. What flow rates present the upper bound of laminar flow in each line and can both laminar and
turbulent flow be studied with the apparatus?

2. The pressure drop you will actually measure across each fitting is the sum of how many contributions?

3. Submit your workplan and schedule.