Male gamete

- Head, carries payload/chromosomes, acrosome is tip of head, approaches corona radiata, to

chew through it releases hydrolytic enzymes from acrosome, when they get to zona pellucida
they meet receptors on membrane, actin filaments push out protein that can match with
receptor on membrane, izumo1 is protein on male side, juno is receptor on female side, when
they meet there is a depolarization and all other juno receptors disappear, payload can then be
delivered, cytoplasm of sperm and egg fuse
- Neck, centriole (basal body), part of motor to make tail move
- Midpiece, food vacuole that provides fuel to turn motor to make tail move
- Tail, can be long or short but normal one is favored, move through uterus and up fallopian tubes
mostly via uterine contractions

Female gamete

- Nucleus, payload/chromosomes
- Corticale granules hold enzymes and other substances to harden fertilization envelope and their
release is linked to Ca2+ wave, caused by Ca2+
- Vitelline envelope and zona pellucida, block to stop sperm entry
- Jelly layer and corona radiata (follicle cells that ring the outside of the egg), block to stop sperm
entry
- Steps to block polyspermy (slower in humans)
- Membrane depolarization, quick, wave of Ca2+ and Na2+ starting at point of sperm entry
- With depolarization you get cortical granule release causing vitelline envelop to harden
(perivitelline space), slow
- In humans, right around the time of fusion of cytoplasms you get juno turnoff immediately so
polyspermy is impossible
- Two types of twins are monozygotic/identical/maternal from one egg and one sperm that later
split into two zygotes aren’t exactly the same due to environment (where implanted on wall)
but have same genetic material and dizygotic/fraternal come from two eggs being fertilized,
cells cannot be pulled apart to make another embryo after there are eight cells, those eight cells
are totipotent and can make everything in an embryo (embryo and extraembryonic materials),
from 16 to gastrulation (separation into three tissue layers) the cells are pluripotent meaning
that there are a group of cells, trophoblast (hollow ball with mass of cells inside of it) all cells on
outside and some on inside become extraembryonic materials (amnion/chorion) mass of cells in
middle become baby

Zygote, fertilized egg

- Outside layer is fertilization envelope

- Plane of cleavage arrives after first cell division
- Cell division initially occurs with the zygote not increasing in size which is called cleavage
- Blastula
- Holoblastic means all cells divide and nothing stays whole (sea urchin frog and human),
isolecithal = yolk or food supply blended into cells, cell is both food and baby (even/yolk)
 - Meroblastic means that not all cells divide (chicken), yolk never divides, telolecithal = yolk is
separate (uneven/yolk)
- Morula then Trophoblast, inner cell mass forms and second cavity forms and then you get
amnion
- Cells on outside and some on inside become extraembryonic membrane, amnion, chorion,
allantois
- In humans first hole that forms is anus
- Two pancakes, epiblast is on top of hypoblast
- Primitive node and primitive streak
- Some epiblast cells from on top which is ectoderm get folded in and become mesoderm and
hypoblast on bottom becomes endoderm (Week 2-3)

(Week 3-4)
- Folding will lead to tubes being formed, ectoderm is ring around outside and becomes most
superficial layer of skin and will become neural tube spinal cord and brain, endoderm becomes
tube from anus to mouth gut tube, mesoderm becomes tissue
- Ectoderm epidermis, nervous tissue and spinal nerves central nervous system
- Mesoderm becomes dermis of skin, muscle tissue, connective tissue
- Endoderm is gut tube and is most inner lining of gut tube, reproductive tract and liver
- Neural plate to neural fold to neural tube makes spinal cord, nerve cord
- Gut tube is formed before neural tube and is called gastrulation
- Somite break into dermatome which becomes dermis, myotome becomes muscle, sclerotome
becomes vertebrae
- Hox genes set up how things are established from head to butt
- There’s communication between notochord and somite is endocrine signal which is paracrine
and is Sonic the Hedgehog gene and tells somite what it should become
- Notochord becomes intervertebral discs in part and is absorbed into the body of the vertebrae
- Neural crest fate map (not tested on fate map)
- Hox genes spurn development from butt to head so parts closer to butt are further in
development and dictate development in layers
- Myotome with vertebrae and spinal nerve are associated with each other and section of skin
(like salmon slice)
- Connective tissue includes cartilage bone blood tissue fat…

As an embryo develops, new cells are produced as the result of

A) differentiation.
B) preformation.
C) cell division.
D) morphogenesis.
E) epigenesis

Contact of a sperm with signal molecules in the coat of an egg causes the sperm to undergo
A) mitosis.
B) depolarization.
C) apoptosis.
D) vitellogenesis.
E) the acrosomal reaction.

Contact of an egg with signal molecules on sperm causes the egg to undergo a brief
A) mitosis.
B) membrane depolarization.
C) apoptosis.
D) vitellogenesis.
E) the acrosomal reaction.

During fertilization, the acrosomal contents

A) block polyspermy.
B) help propel more sperm toward the egg.
C) digest the protective coat on the surface of the egg.
D) nourish the mitochondria of the sperm.
E) trigger the completion of meiosis by the sperm.

The vitelline layer of the sea urchin egg

A) is outside of the fertilization membrane.
B) releases calcium, which initiates the cortical reaction.
C) has receptor molecules that are specific for binding acrosomal proteins.
D) is first visible only when organogenesis is nearly completed.
E) is a mesh of proteins crossing through the cytosol of the egg.

From earliest to latest, the overall sequence of early development proceeds as follows:
A) gastrulation → organogenesis → cleavage
B) ovulation → gastrulation → fertilization
C) cleavage → gastrulation → organogenesis
D) gastrulation → blastulation → neurulation
E) preformation → morphogenesis → neurulation

From earliest to latest, the overall sequence of early development proceeds as follows:
A) first cell division → synthesis of embryoʹs DNA begins → acrosomal reaction → cortical reaction
B) cortical reaction → synthesis of embryoʹs DNA begins → acrosomal reaction → first cell division
C) cortical reaction → acrosomal reaction → first cell division → synthesis of embryoʹs DNA begins
D) first cell division → synthesis of embryoʹs DNA begins → acrosomal reaction → cortical reaction
E) acrosomal reaction → cortical reaction → synthesis of embryoʹs DNA begins → first cell division

The cortical reaction functions directly in the

A) formation of a fertilization envelope.
B) production of a fast block to polyspermy.
C) release of hydrolytic enzymes from the sperm cell.
D) generation of a nerve-like impulse by the egg cell.
E) fusion of egg and sperm nuclei.
The ʺslow blockʺ to polyspermy is due to
A) a transient voltage change across the membrane.
B) the consumption of yolk protein.
C) the jelly coat blocking sperm penetration.
D) formation of the fertilization envelope.
E) inactivation of the sperm acrosome.

In an egg cell treated with EDTA, a chemical that binds calcium and magnesium ions, the
A) acrosomal reaction would be blocked.
B) fusion of sperm and egg nuclei would be blocked.
C) fast block to polyspermy would not occur.
D) fertilization envelope would not be formed.
E) zygote would not contain maternal and paternal chromosomes.

In mammals, the nuclei resulting from the union of the sperm and the egg are first truly diploid at the
end of
the
A) acrosomal reaction.
B) completion of spermatogenesis.
C) initial cleavage.
D) activation of the egg.
E) completion of gastrulation.

In mammalian eggs, the receptors for sperm are found in the

A) fertilization membrane.
B) zona pellucida.
C) cytosol of the egg.
D) nucleus of the egg.
E) mitochondria of the egg.

An embryo with meroblastic cleavage, extra-embryonic membranes, and a primitive streak must be that
of
A) an insect.
B) a fish.
C) an amphibian.
D) a bird.
E) a sea urchin.

The sequence of developmental milestones proceeds as follows:

A) cleavage → blastula → gastrula → morula
B) cleavage → gastrula → morula → blastula
C) cleavage → morula → blastula → gastrula
D) gastrula → morula → blastula → cleavage
E) morula → cleavage → gastrula → blastula
Cells move to new positions as an embryo establishes its three germ tissue layers during
A) determination.
B) cleavage.
C) fertilization.
D) induction.
E) gastrulation

The outer-to-inner sequence of tissue layers in a post-gastrulation vertebrate embryo is

A) endoderm → ectoderm → mesoderm.
B) mesoderm → endoderm → ectoderm.
C) ectoderm → mesoderm → endoderm.
D) ectoderm → endoderm → mesoderm.
E) endoderm → mesoderm → ectoderm.

If gastrulation was blocked by an environmental toxin, then

A) cleavage would not occur in the zygote.
B) embryonic germ layers would not form.
C) fertilization would be blocked.
D) the blastula would not be formed.
E) the blastopore would form above the gray crescent in the animal pole.

The vertebrate ectoderm is the origin of the

A) nervous system.
B) liver.
C) pancreas.
D) heart.
E) kidneys

The earliest developmental stage among these choices is

A) germ layers.
B) morula.
C) blastopore.
D) gastrulation.
E) invagination.

A correct statement is:

A) The mesoderm gives rise to the notochord.
B) The endoderm gives rise to the hair follicles.
C) The ectoderm gives rise to the liver.
D) The mesoderm gives rise to the lungs.
E) The ectoderm gives rise to the liver.

At the time of implantation, the human embryo is called a

A) blastocyst.
B) gastrula.
C) fetus.
D) somite.
E) zygote.

Uterine implantation due to enzymatic digestion of the endometrium is initiated by

A) the inner cell mass.
B) the endoderm.
C) the chorion.
D) the mesoderm.
E) the trophoblast.

In placental mammals, the yolk sac

A) transfers nutrients from the yolk to the embryo.
B) differentiates into the placenta.
C) becomes a fluid-filled sac that surrounds and protects the embryo.
D) produces blood cells that then migrate into the embryo.
E) stores waste products from the embryo until the placenta develops.

Gases are exchanged in a mammalian embryo in the

A) amnion.
B) hypoblast.
C) chorion.
D) trophoblast.
E) yolk sac.

Changes in both cell shape and cell position occur extensively during
A) gastrulation, but not organogenesis or cleavage.
B) organogenesis, but not gastrulation or cleavage.
C) cleavage, but not gastrulation or organogenesis.
D) gastrulation and organogenesis but not cleavage.
E) gastrulation, organogenesis, and cleavage.

In humans, identical twins are possible because

A) of the heterogeneous distribution of cytoplasmic determinants in unfertilized eggs.
B) of interactions between extraembryonic cells and the zygote nucleus.
C) of convergent extension.
D) early blastomeres can form a complete embryo if isolated.
E) the gray crescent divides the dorsal-ventral axis into new cells.

Ectoderm (5)
Epidermis of the skin and derivatives
Nevus and sensory system
Purity glans, adrenal system
Jaws and teeth
Germ cells
Mesoderm (5)
o Skeletal and muscular system and
o Circulatory lymphatic system
o Excretory and reproductive systems
o Dermis of skin
o Adrenal cortex

Endoderm (3)
o Epithelial lining of the digestive tract and associated organs
o Epithelial lining of repertory, excretory, and reproduction tracts and ducts
o Thymus, thyroid, and parathyroid glands

Muscle

- Three muscle types, heart (cardiac) is fluttering, stomach (smooth) has butterflies, standing
(skeletal)

- Tendon ties skeletal muscle to bone and if snapped would mean no movement
- Epi means on top, epimysium is covering of the muscle tissue in whole
- Endo means inside so it is wrapping on the inside of the muscle fibers around the fibrils
- Perimysium is in the middle and has veins and arteries and is around fasicles
- Myoblasts fuse to form skeletal muscle fiber
- Satellite cells adjoin with muscle fiber and when muscle fiber is broken they come in and fix it or
replace a chunk of muscle that may have been taken out by physician
- Skeletal muscle is composed of Fascicles which are composed of muscle fibers which are
composed of myofibrils where are bundles of myofilaments (protein filaments)
- myoblasts, myo means muscle, blasts mean it builds something are building block of
myofilaments
- Muscle cell is multinucleated
- Muscle fiber is covered by sarcolemma which is a plasma membrane, myofibrils largely compose
muscle fiber but there are also nucleus and mitochondrion (make ATP during anaerobic process)
and sarcoplasm in muscle fiber
- Sarcoplasmic reticulum is wrapped all around myofibrils and T tubules are inside SR and
communicate
- T tubule also communicates with plasma membrane/outside of cell
- Calcium needs to get to myofilaments and SR is calcium bank and T tubule signals SR to release
calcium
- Myofilament is composed of thick filament with myosin (double stranded and twisted with two
heads were ATP can bind and also has actin binding site)
- Myofilament is also composed of thin filament with troponin having calcium bind site which is
attached to tropomyosin which covers the myosin bind site on actin filaments (double stranded
and twisted and there are seven in a series), actin filaments compose most of the thin filament
- Calcium binds to troponin and rolls tropomyosin off of myosin binding site
- Sarcomeres repeat to form muscle fiber, sarcomere has thin filament and thick filament and
connectin (which lines up z disc and thick filament and allows for orderly contraction)
- Z disc (thin filament + connectin + accessory proteins) is the end of the sarcomeres and has
dystrophin protein in it
- Motor unit is one motor nerve which is one to a hundred motor neurons
- To adjust level of muscle intensity, motor nerve comes out of spinal cord and is tied to one to
several hundred muscle fibers, you may use one to three motor units to perform gentle action
- Activate all for robust action
- Neuromuscular junction is where motor nerve attaches to muscle fiber, synaptic vesicle contains
Ach which meets with Ach receptor on sarcolemma
- When the Ach receptor is activated and action potential propagates through the T tubule and
causes SR to release calcium which binds to troponin and triggers sliding of thin and thick
filaments and sarcomere shortens and muscle contracts (crossbridge cycling)
- Myosin heads are in cocked position and bind to exposed myosin binding site forming a
crossbridge between myosin and actin
- Myosin head then swivels toward center of sarcomere pulling the attached thing filament with it
(power stroke) and ADP + Pi are released from myosin head
- ATP then binds to the myosin head which causes the release of the myosin head
- ATP is then split into ADP and Pi by myosin ATPase and thus resets the myosin head to cocked
position
- When relaxed/extended there is less overlap between myosin and actin, when contracted there
is more overlap and more potential crossbridges so more force is possible
- For any given muscle recruitment stimulates progressively larger motor units (small fibers,
medium fibers, large fibers)
- Length at which muscle starts reaction governs available force
- Can stimulate muscle at higher frequency for more force
- Different types of muscle fibers with different diameters regulate force
- If you stimulate muscle before it relaxes you get force building on itself and if left long enough
you get fatigue and go to relaxation (tetany is peak of muscle tension when no return to
relaxation over time)
- Contracted (force builds and at some point contracts too far and have negative interaction due
to actin on actin overlap) to resting (plateau, peak force capacity, most overlap of actin and
myosin possible) to stretched (force lessens)
- Velocity of power stroke determines accuracy of myosin/actin positioning, so great number of
contractions the less accurate utilization of force
- Max power is at 30%Vmax, force decreases as velocity increase
- Cardiac muscle is composed of intercalated discs
- Cardiac muscle cell is not multinucleated
- In cardiac muscle Ca2+ flows between gap junctions for signaling
- Difference between cardiac and skeletal is shape and signaling
- Cardiac has branches
- Smooth muscle lines esophagus, lungs, intestines, bladder, reproductive system, pervasive in
anatomy
- Smooth has one muscle per cell, has thick and thin filament just like cardiac and skeletal
 - Difference in smooth is pattern, not striated, cross network orientation so the whole muscle will
shrink in size
- Contraction occurs because of Ca2+ which tells proteins to get myosin ready to contract, much
slower because process is longer
- Moving a ball of food through intestines (peristalsis) should be slow, smooth has long turn on
timeframe and long turn off time

Which of the following is the correct sequence that describes the excitation and contraction of a skeletal
muscle fiber?
1. Tropomyosin shifts and unblocks the cross-bridge binding sites.
2. Calcium is released and binds to the troponin complex.
3. The sarcoplasmic reticulum is depolarized when a wave of depolarization moves from the
neuromuscular junction into the cell's interior by way of the transverse tubules.
4. The thin filaments are ratcheted across the thick filaments by the heads of the myosin molecules
using energy from ATP.
5. An action potential in a motor neuron causes the axon to release acetylcholine, which depolarizes the
muscle cell membrane at the neuromuscular junction.

a. 5->3->1->2->4
b. 2->1->3->5->4
c. 1->2->3->4->5
d. 5->3->2->1->4
e. 3->4->2->1->5

The calcium ions released into the cytosol during excitation of skeletal muscle bind to ______________?
a. actin
b. myosin
c. transverse tubules
d. troponin complex

When a muscle is at rest, the myosin head is bound to__________?

a. troponin
b. actin
c. ATP
d. ADP plus an associated phosphate
e. tropomyosin

In a relaxed skeletal muscle ______________________.

a. sarcomers are at their shortest length.
b. calcium is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum
c. thick and thin filaments overlap to the greatest extent possible
d. the Z lines are farthest apart

Skeletal muscle contraction begins when calcium ions bind to _________.

a. actin
b. acetylcholine receptors
c. myosin
d. energized cross-bridges
e. troponin

During contraction of a vertebrate skeletal muscle fiber, calcium ions _______________.

a. break cross-bridges by acting as a cofactor in the hydrolysis of ATP
b. reestablish the polarization of the plasma membrane following an action potential
c. bind with troponin, causing its shape to change so that the myosin-binding sites on actin are exposed
d. transmit action potentials from the motor neuron to the muscle fiber
e. spread action potentials through the T-tubules

What causes rigor mortis?

a. lack of acetylcholine (ACh) in dead tissue
b. exhaustion of Ca2+ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum
c. cessation of action potentials after death
d. lack of ATP in in dead tissue

Which muscle types(s) is (are) composed of multinucleate cells resulting from the fusion of many
embryonic cells?
a. cardiac muscle
b. skeletal muscle
c. cardiac and skeletal muscle
d. smooth muscle
e. smooth and cardiac muscle

Which muscle type(s) is (are) involuntary?

a. smooth muscle
b. skeletal muscle
c. smooth and cardiac muscle
d. cardiac muscle
e. cardiac and skeletal muscle

Bone

- Composed of collagen (forms basic template) and calcium phosphate (on top of collagen is
mineralization of calcium phosphate)
- X ray shows dense materials as white, bones, low density items like lungs show up black, radio
opaque = dense, radio lucent = not dense
- Ectoderm is source of neural plate, neural crest, and neural tube which becomes spinal tube, all
nerves that go into arms and everywhere come from neural tube
- Mesoderm becomes notochord and somites which delineate into dermatome mytome and
scleretome
- Piece of ectoderm and piece of mesoderm are sometopleure become arms and legs with
mesoderm being bone and ectoderm being epidermis
- Endoderm is gut tube
- Three main divisions of femur, diaphysis is shaft, ends are epiphysis, metaphysis is between
those two and is where growth plate (characterized by epiphyseal line) will be
- Inside of bone on the ends where epiphysis is there’s a lot of spongy material is trebeculae
- Diaphysis is hollow, medullary cavity
- Compact bone is dense thick bone that is bulk of outer layer through which veins and arteries
run
- Outside layer of bond is endosteum
- Inside layer of bone is periosteum
- Artery and veins come into bone
- Functional unit of compact bone is osteon with ring of collagen fibers speckled with canaliculi,
lacuna, and osteocytes which are bone cell
- Spongy bone also has speckles with canaliculi, lacuna, and osteocytes which are bone cell
- Osteoclasts and osteoblasts are what changes bone, osteoclasts break down bone, osteoblasts is
just like myoblast and build bone, those two processes should be in equilibrium, act on spongy
bone but will work into compact bone
- Osteoblasts and osteoclasts should be in equilibrium, low Ca levels lead to more destruction of
bone to replenish Ca levels so poor bone density
- Lifting weights builds muscle mass but also muscle density
- If you use bone less then the body will take away from bone density
- Trebeculae align themselves to better absorb force, they do this via use of osteoclasts and
osteoblasts
- Progenitor cells become osteoblasts which become osteocytes which will rest inside lacunae
- Low bone density can be seen via X ray and could be due to reduce Ca diet or osteoporosis,
osteoporosis can be acquired as you get older and usually in women because parathyroid
hormone can cause an increase in osteoclast activity and that hormone can be turned off by
estrogen
- Bone density peaks around age 30 for women and 50 in men with women having big dropoff at
menopause and then decreases until death
- Scurvy (bone parts aren’t uniform in width) is due to poor collagen network caused by low
vitamin C which is really important in setting up nice collagen matrix
- Rickets is bowing of bones outward, usually seen in children