Chalmers University of Technology

Lecture 7 – Chapter 7
Axial turbines, stage temperature drop coefficient and blade
angles, cooling, stress-estimates, conceptual
design, ash ingestion

AN2?, ψ?, N?

What drives
the gas path
design???
 Radial Flow Turbines

OPRA OP16 type gas turbine (2 MW)

• Not in the scope of the course.

• Higher pressure ratio per stage than axial one.
• More radially compact.
• Do not handle ingestion of debris well.
• Bulky and heavy-weight.
• Suitable for low mass flow, high pressure drop and low power
application.
 Axial and Radial Flow Turbines
Differences between turbine and compressor:
Compressor Turbine

Blade 1 Last blade

Long Short

► Work as diffuser ► Work as nozzle

► Direction of rotation is opposite ► Direction of rotation is same as lift

to lift direction direction

► Number of stages are many ► Number of stages is small <3

► Temperatures are relative low ► Temperature is high, sometimes

blade cooling is required
Axial Flow Turbines
Differences between turbine and compressor:
Axial flow turbines
A1
• Working fluid is accelerated by the
stator and decelerated by
the rotor
– Boundary layer growth is
moderate due to increasing A2
velocities and reducing static
pressure
• Increasing velocities and
decreasing static pressure occurs
Blade element
in both stator (or nozzle) and in
the relative frame of the rotor (with Flow surface of
the exception of the impulse turbine for which the revolution
static pressure and relative velocity remains
constant) Streamline
- Note how the passage area
decreases (from A1 to A2) along the
dashed streamline in the figure to the
right => velocity increases due to
continuity
 Elementary theory
• Energy equation for the stage:
Perfect

V32 V12 
gas

q  w  h3   h1   h03  h01  c p (T03  T01)

0 
 2  2
h03 h01

• Approximately adiabatic expansion

process (q≈0)
• Apply the energy equation for both the
stator and rotor rows. Work extracted
from system => sign convention for added
work = +w

Stator => 0 = cp(T02 – T01) => T01= T02

Note that P02 < P01 due to viscous losses

Rotor => +(–w)= cp(T03 – T02)

=> w = cp(T02 – T03) (1)
How is the temperature drop related to the blade angles ?
• We study conservation of angular
• Nomenclature: momentum at mid of blade:
– U = blade speed
– C = absolute speed
– Ca = axial component of absolute speed.
Frequently referred to as Cx
– Cw = tangential component of absolute
speed (w=whirl). Frequently referred to as Cθ
– V = relative speed
– Va = axial component of relative speed
Frequently referred to as wx
– Vw = tangential component of relative speed.
Frequently referred to as wθ
– α = angle between absolute speed C
and axial direction
– β = angle between relative speed V and
axial direction

• Note that relative and absolute

refererence frames are related
by a vector equality:
Note the acceleration in the relative
C=V+U
frame of the rotor (V3 > V2)
 Governing equations
• We only study designs where:
– Ca=Ca2=Ca3
– C1=C3
• We repeat the derivation of
theoretical work used previously
for axial compressors

Specific torque 
Rate of change of specific angular momentum  Cw3 r3  Cw 2 r2 

Specific work   (Cw3 r3  Cw 2 r2 )  [ r  U ]  Cw3U 3  Cw 2U 2 

Change of sign

for relative velocity

[Flow at constant radius]  U (Cw3  Cw 2 )  U (Cw3  Cw 2 )

 Principle of angular momentum

Stage work output w:

w  U (Cw2  Cw3 ) 
U (Ca 2 tan  2  Ca 3 tan  3 )

The assumption that Ca2=Ca3 gives:

w  U (Ca 2 tan  2  Ca 3 tan  3 ) 

UCa (tan  2  tan  3 ) ( A)
The next step is to relate work to relative air angles (β-angles) rather
than air angles (α-angles)! During the design process your initial
assumption is to set the blade angles equal to the relative air angles.
Trigonometric relations
Relation between relative air angles and the
temperature drop
Combine the derived equations (A and B)

w  UCa (tan  2  tan 3 )

Energy equation

w  c p T0,stage

We have a relation between temperature drop

and relative air angles.

c p T0,stage  UCa (tan  2  tan 3 ) (7.3)

 Dimensionless parameters
Blade loading coefficient:
c p T0, stage 2Ca
  Equation 7.3  (tan  2  tan  3 ) (7.6)
1 2 U
U
2
For multistage turbines
h0,turbine entry  h0,turbine exit
 
1
 midU
2 all stages
2

Flow coefficient:

Ca

U mid
Dimensionless parameters
• Low  : larger turbine annulus area for a given mass flow
• Low  : more stages for given overal turbine output
• Implies low gas velocities and hence reduced friction
losses
 Aero
engine

Ind. Gas
turbine
area
Turbine efficiency typically
varies with ψ and  as
illustrated below (Smith chart)


Turbine materials and
stress considerations
Material capability
 Conventionally cast turbine blade

Turbine casting Good mechanical

properties in all directions
Excellent mechanical
properties in longitudinal
axis and improved heat
resistance

Blades are either as

• Conventional (equi-axed crystal)
Equi-axed
• Directionally solidified
• Single crystal blade

Improved mechanical
properties in
longitudinal axis

Columnar
crystal
structure

Single crystal
Directionally solidified turbine blade
Turbine casting
 Cooling technology
• Internal convective cooling
• External surface film cooling
• Material selection
• thermal.-mechanical design
(thermal barrier coating,
oxidation coating …)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7upnkrhqRWQ
Stator/nozzle cooling
– Hotest region in the gas turbine.
– Jet impingement cools the hot leading edge surface of the blade.
– Spent air leave through slots in the blade surface or in the trailing edge.
Rotor/buckets cooling
• Rotor subject to high temperature and high stress ( high
risk for creep).
• Air cooling is divided into the following methods
– external cooling
• Film cooling
• Transpiration
cooling
– internal cooling
Basic stress types: A

T10: Centrifugal stress: show that the maximum

root stress of a turbine blade can be estimated by:
( ct ) max  2 N 2 Aannulus
Maximum centrifugal
stress, σct ,max , occurs
in blade root
Basic stress types
1: Centrifugal stress:
A

We simplify:

2
( ct ) max  2 N 2 Aannulus  [ N in rpm]  N rpm
2
Aannulus
3600
( ct ) max  1.75 10 9 N rpm
2
Aannulus [ MPa] (8.19) Maximum centrifugal
stress, σct ,max , occurs
in blade root

The cross sectional area A usually

K = 1 (uniform blade)
decreases with radius (tapered blade).
K = (1+dt)/3 + (a+dt)(1+a)/3 (linear taper)
This effect can be integrated and included
K = 2dm/3+ (a+dt)(1+a)/3 (parabolic taper)
through a factor K:
a = hub tip ratio
dt = tip area/root area
( ct ) max  K 1.75 109 N rpm
2
Aannulus (8.21) dm = mid span area/root area
Basic stress types
2: Gas bending stresses (beam theory)

x y
 gb  ( M a cos   M W sin  )  ( M W cos   M a sin  )
I yy I xx
y
M a small ,   0   gb  MW
I xx
Change in whirl velocity
  
m (Cw 2 m  Cw3m ) h 1
Mw 
n 2 c3

3: Centrifugal bending stress:

Disc stresses ro Radial stress Tangential stress

3 v ro2 ri 2 1  3v 2 ri
t   [ro  ri  2  (
2 2 2
)r ] (8.25)
8 r 3 v
3 v ro2 ri 2
r   [ro  ri  2  r 2 ]
2 2 2
(8.26) ν = Poissons ratio is around 1/3 for typical
8 r turbine disc materials

• Tangential stress at hub (bore) of disc ρ = material density, ω = angular speed

is most critical.
• Lets set r=ri in equation 8.25 to
understand what happens.
• Note that the results (8.25 and 8.26) are
derived for the simplified version of constant
thickness t.
Disc stresses Radial stress Tangential stress

With r=ri we obtain:

3 v r 2 r 2 1  3v 2
 t  [r  ri ]   2 [ro2  ri 2  o 2i  ( )r ] 
8 r 3 v
3 v 1  3v 2
 2 [ro2  ri 2  ro2  ( )ri ] 
8 3 v
3 v 3  v  1  3v ri 2
 ro [2  (
2 2
) 2]
8 3 v ro
3 v 2  2v ri 2 3 v 1  v ri 2
 ro [2  (
2 2
) ]  ro [1 
2 2
]
8 3  v ro2 4 3  v ro2
3 v 1 v 2 3 v 2 2 ro
2
1 v
  [ro 
2 2
ri ]   ri [ 2  ]
4 3 v 4 ri 3 v
3 v 1 v
  2 ri 2 [ 2  ]
4 3 v
  Radius ratio

For combustors designed to increase CFM56-7

the mid radius, disc stresses get
critical. Note the huge disc in the
CFM56-7 engine depicted to the right.

Obviously a low rotational speed

(through ω) and a low density
(through ρ) also helps.
Consequence of a disc burst
 Conceptual
turbine design
Conceptual design data and correlations

• In the up-coming slides data up to year 2000 will be shown (this data is
public domain data)

• Research data and other data have been used in addition to the presented
data, to develop correlations that have some validity at least up to year
2020.

• Approach is the same as for compressors.

 Mid cruise
High pressure turbine
conceptual design
• Compressor power

requirement and stage
loading will determine if
a two stage high pressure
turbine is needed

• Rotational speed
is determined by Entry of service year
allowable blade
stress (through the
2
Take-off
N rps Aannulus parameter)
and the compressor relative
tip Mach number

• Exit axial Mach numbers

are in the range 0.35-0.50

• Aspect ratios vary from

1.0 to 2.0
Entry of service year
Application example CFM56-7

• CFM56-7 engine

• Annulus area in turbine is

kept almost constant
despite the rapidly reducing
density.

• Axial mach numbers increase HPC with pressure

from around 0.1 (0.08-0.15) to ratio around 10-11
0.4 (0.35-0.55) at HPT exit. is driven by a single
stage turbine!
Design observations:
• Notice how the combustor is tilted (increasing radius). This increases the
radius ratio of the disc (inner radius is set by the LPT radius) =>
tangential disc stress at inner radius increases
• Tilt also means that turbine blade speed increases (which reduces
the blade loading coefficient) for a given N => increases efficiency.
• Position of the compressor exhaust is defined largely by max. hub tip
ratio
• Compressor entry tip radius is governed by tip Mach number.
Turbine ducts
• In design task 2 we have two transition
ducts, the HPT/IPT duct as well as a short
duct between the IPT and the LPT
Normally the IPT stator is located
within the duct. We will simplify
matters and consider the stator to
be located after the HPT/IPT
transition duct.

• In design task 2 we set entry

and exit areas using upstream turbine rtip,2
exit and downstream turbine entry areas

• The radius change is defined through rtip,1

the radius ratio:

rtip , 2
Radius ratio 
rtip,1
 Details for IPT design are
referred to the design task 2
specification

We go straight to the LPT:s

Low pressure turbine Civil engine
conceptual design Military engine

• The stage loading

parameter and the 
fan power requirement
determines the number
of stages. ψ has increased
somewhat over time and a
year 2010 turbine may reach
values in the range 4.4-4.7. Entry of service year
2
N rps Aannulus (103 )
• Stressing is considerably
lower in low pressure Civil engine
Military engine
turbines due to lower
rotational speed

•  varies from 1.0-1.5

at entrance and
0.6-1.0 at exit
of a typical civil low Main range for
pressure turbine civil engines

Entry of service year

 Low pressure turbines
• The LPT is driven by the slowly
rotating fan Max. outer radius is
constrained by other
requirements

• It is important to rapidly increase

radius to get some blade speed.

• The simplified design

approach used in design
task 2, leads to a slower radius
increase in the early stages
than possible => you will
overestimate the number of
stages.

• A solution is to put a gear between the

fan and the low pressure turbine (gear ratio around 3.0)
The geared engine
Fan driven by three stages
without the need to rapidly
increase radius!

High speed booster. Maybe 2.5 in

pressure ratio on three stages instead
of 1.4 in pressure ratio on 5 stages (still
with considerably higher efficiency) Gear
What now?
Ash in aero
engines
Where does ash
end up in the engine?
Ash particle trajectories

Figure 8: Tracks for 1-2 micron particles. Figure 9: Tracks for 2-4 micron particles.

Figure 10: Tracks for 4-8 micron particles. Figure 11: Tracks for 8-16 micron particles.

Large unmelted ash

particles impinge on the
blades. Smaller follow
the flow.
Courtesy: Anton Persson
and Josef Runsten
Figure 12: Tracks for 16-32 micron particles.
 Chalmers University of Technology

Summary
• Basic turbine aerodynamics has been
introduced.
• Non-dimensional parameters for turbine
conceptual design have been introduced and
typical state of the art values have been given
• Disc stresses and cooling has been discussed.
• Ash ingestion in aero engines has been outlined.