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Waste glass in the production of cement and concrete – A review

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DOI: 10.1016/j.jece.2014.03.016

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 Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 2 (2014) 1767–1775

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Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering

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Review

Waste glass in the production of cement and concrete – A review

Yahya Jani * , William Hogland 1
Department of Biology and Environmental Science, School of Natural Sciences, Linnaeus University (LNU), Sweden

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: Cement and glass industries are facing a lot of challenges due to the high greenhouse gases emissions, the
Received 3 October 2013 intensive use of energy and the intensive use of the earth’s natural resources. The current situation of
Accepted 20 March 2014 discarding waste glass to landfills is also not offering an environmental friendly management for the
Available online 25 March 2014
waste glass, due to the nonbiodegradable form of the waste glass. However, the chemical composition
and the pozzolanic properties of waste glass are encouraging for the use of this waste in the cement and
Keywords: concrete industries and to provide an environmental friendly solution for the glass and cement
Waste glass
industries. This paper reviews the different uses of waste glass in cement and concrete and the effect of
Cement
Concrete
the glass properties on the performance and durability of the produce cement and concrete.
Glass aggregate ã 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Cement properties
Waste management

Introduction
Glass waste is representing urgent environmental problems all
over the world [1]. These materials occupy huge parts of the landfills
spaces, due to the nonbiodegradable nature of glass, and causing
serious environmental pollutions (air, water and soil pollutions).
Also, the lack of spaces for new landfills is a problem facing the dense
population cities in different countries. The best solution to
overcome over the environmental impact of these glass wastes is
to reuse them. Recycling of these wastes will help to conserve the
earth’s natural resources, minimizes the landfills spaces and saves
energy and money [2]. The need of large quantities, low quality
requirements and the broad sites of construction make the
construction industry one of the most attractive ways to solve the
environmental impact of the waste glass.
Glass
It is unclear exactly when, where, or how people first learned
to make glass. The first manufactured glass was found in
Mesopotamia about 3000 B.C. and the first glass vessels were
made, about 1500 B.C., in Mesopotamia and Egypt [3,4]. In that
* Corresponding author at: Department of Biology and Environmental Science,
School of Natural Sciences, Linnaeus University, Landgången 3, SE-391 82 Kalmar,
Sweden.
E-mail addresses: yahya.jani@lnu.se (Y. Jani), william.hogland@lnu.se
(W. Hogland).
1
Address: Department of Biology and Environmental Science, School of Natural
Sciences, Linnaeus University, Landgången 3, SE-391 82 Kalmar, Sweden.
time the glass industry was slow and costly because of the small
furnaces, the poor quality of the clay pots, and the heat was hardly
sufficient for melting the raw materials. The invention of the
blowpipe, in about 30 B.C., made the glass production easier, faster,
and cheaper and the glass became available for common people for
the first time in history [3,4]. The colorless glass first appeared
during the first A.D. century, through the introduction of
manganese oxide [3,4]. In 1674, an English glassmaker George
Ravenscroft patented a new type of glass through the use of large
amount of lead oxide in the raw material. This type of glass called
lead glass. In 1688 a new process was developed for the production
of plate glass in France. This development helped in the production
of the high quality mirrors. The French scientist Edouard
Benedictus invented the safe and the secure Triplex glass in
1910 using the lamination technique. Today, 90% of the flat plate is
manufactured by the float process, which was developed by the
Britain Pilkington Brothers Ltd. in 1959 [3,4].
Glass can be manufactured by melting a mixture of silica
(silicon oxide), sodium carbonate, dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) and
limestone (CaCO3) at a high temperature, up to 1600  C. The
mixture is then cooled to solidify without crystallization. The
nonliquid and nonsolid state makes glass to be an amorphous solid
material. Special additives are used to give glasses their colors and
specific properties [5–7].
Different forms of glass are produced, depending on the
chemical composition and the additives used, such as: vitreous
silica, alkali silicates, soda-lime glasses (containers, float, sheet,
light bulbs and tempered ovenware), borosilicate glasses (chemical
apparatus, pharmaceutical and tungsten sealing), lead glasses
(color TV funnel, neon tubing, electronic parts and optical dense

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2014.03.016
2213-3437/ ã 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1768 Y. Jani, W. Hogland / Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 2 (2014) 1767–1775
flint), barium glasses (color TV panel and optical dense barium
crown), and aluminosilicate glasses (combustion tubes, fiberglass
and resistor substrates). These glasses are manufactured in three
different colors, mostly green, brown and colorless [8].
The world total production of glass was about 89.4 million tons
in 2007. EU countries produced about 38.3 million tons in the same
year, which represent approximately 30% of the total world’s
production, made EU the world’s largest glass producer in 2007.
About 83% of the EU glass production was container glass and flat
glass, i.e. soda-lime glass [9]. It is expected that the total
production of glass will increase due to the increase in
industrialization and the improvement in the standard of living,
i.e. the waste glass will increase too. As an example, the total EU’s
glass waste in 2002 was 3 million tons, while the total EU’s glass
waste in 2008 was 4.1 million tons [10].
Waste glass and recycling
How much waste glass is found in the world? Statistically there
is unclear information about the whole quantity of waste glass in
the whole world, because of the lack of information from different
countries, such as the Middle East as an example. According to the
United Nations estimation of solid waste, in 2004, there were
200 million tons of solid waste and 7% of that waste was glass, i.e.
14 million tons of waste glass [11].
Glass industry is using a huge amount of the earth’s natural
resources as raw materials. It was estimated that each 1 kg of sheet
glass consumed 1.73 kg of raw materials and 0.15 m3 of water [12].
Also, it was found that the production of each ton of container glass
consumed 1.2 tons of the expensive raw materials [13].
In addition, glass industry is considered one of the most energy
intensive industries, due to the need for a high temperature up to
1600  C to melt the raw materials. It was estimated that each 1 kg
of glass sheet produced 16.9 MJ of waste heat [12]. While the
production of each ton of the European glass consumed 7.8 GJ of
energy. The total energy consumption of the European glass
industry was 352 PJ in 2007, about 13–17% of the total industrial
energy consumption in Europe [9].
On the other hand, the intensive use of energy is encountered
with a high emission of CO2 and other greenhouse gases. It was
found, in 2007, that the production of each ton of the European
glass produced 0.57 ton of CO2 [9]. The melting step only can
release 0.2 ton of CO2 for each ton of container glass produced [13].
Practically, the cullet (which is the crushed waste glass that can
be recycled) has been used widely in the production of the
container glass and the glass wool [9]. It has been found that
increasing the use of the cult by 10% in the raw materials of glass
reduced the energy consumption by 2–3% [9]. Also, using the cullet
as a raw material in the production of glass needs only for 40% of
that energy used to produce glass from sand [14]. Theoretically,
glass can be recycled completely and infinitely without losing any
of its chemical and physical properties. But, broken and mixed
color waste glass makes the recycling process impractical and
highly expensive because these materials can cause a variation in
the chemical composition of the recycled glass [15]. Impurities and
contaminants that can be found in the waste glass with the mixed
color can affect the properties of the produced new glass [13,15].
The recycling rate of waste glass is quiet low in the whole world
and it is mainly concentrated on the container and packaging
sectors [1]. In USA 11.5 million tons of waste glass generated in
2010 with a recycle rate of 27% only [16]. While, the total glass
waste in EU countries is estimated to be 4.1 million tons in 2008
with a recycle rate of about 60% [10]. In Sweden 195,000 tons of
isolated color and 44,000 tons of mixed color waste glass were
generated in 2010 with a recycle rate of 93% for the isolated color
waste glass, which was used in the bottling and container glass
Table 1
The amount of waste glass and the percentage of recycling in different countries.
Country Glass waste (tons) % of recycling rate Year Reference
USA 11,500,000 27 2010 [16]
Canada 116,000 68 2009 [15]
Singapore 72,800 29 2010 [37]
Sweden 195,000 isolated 93 2010 [17]
44,000 mixed 0
Portugal 493,000 25 2001 [18]
Turkey 120,000 66 2004 [11]
Germany 3,200,000 94 2003 [11]
Jordan 35 building glass 0 2004 [51]
[17]. Table 1 shows the amount of waste glass and the recycling
rate for different countries all over the world.
The waste management practice of the nonrecyclable waste
glass is to discard it to landfills. The deposition of this waste to
landfills with its nonbiodegradable nature does not offer any
friendly environmental solution. Therefore, waste glass is repre-
senting a challenge for the solid waste management systems all
over the world because of the low recycle rate, the lack in the
spaces of the landfills and the lack of the spaces for new landfills
[18,19]. Construction industry, especially the cement and concrete
industry, can provide a very important and useful solution for the
environmental impact of glass waste, due to the chemical
composition and the physical properties of glass which are similar
to that of sand and cement, as shown in Table 2. The use of
waste glass in the production of cement and concrete conserves
the earth’s natural resources, saves energy and money and reduce
the emission of CO2 and other greenhouse gases.
Cement
Cement is the most importantly used material for all kinds of
constructions and it has been produced in the whole world. The
annual global cement production has reached to 2.8 billion tons
and it is expected to increase more than 4 billion tons/year due to
the major growth in different countries, such as China, India,
Middle East and Northern Africa [20,21].
Historically, sintered and ground lime or plaster was used as a
cement material for the constructions in the ancient time in Egypt,
Mesopotamia and Greece. The most common type of cement, the
Portland cement, was first produced in England in 1824 by the
British bricklayer Joseph Aspdin. The produced Portland cement
was an artificial hydraulic lime similar in properties to the Roman
cement, which was patented by James Parker in 1796, and the
British cement, was patented by James Frost in 1822. The first
Portland cement in the modern sense was manufactured by
William Aspdin in England in 1842. The German government
issued the first standard on Portland cement in 1878 [22].
The raw materials for the Portland cement production are:
limestone (CaCO3), Silica (SiO2), magnesium oxide (MgO), alumina
(Al2O3) and ferrous oxide (Fe2O3). Theoretically, any material which
can have all these oxides can be used as a raw material for the
production of Portland cement. Two major methods have been used
for the production of this cement the wet and the dry processes.
In the wet process the raw materials are crushed to a particle
sizes less than 20 mm and mixed accurately together to the desired
ratio. Then, the mixture is made finer with the addition of water to
produce slurry with 35–40% water content. The slurry is mixed
with the corrective materials to be homogenized and it is sent to a
rotary kiln for clinker burning, in a temperature up to 1500  C. In
the wet process a large amount of energy is consumed to evaporate
the water from the clinker mixture.
In the dry process, the crushed raw materials are dried in a
rotary drier and then mixed accurately to the desired ratio. The
 Y. Jani, W. Hogland / Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 2 (2014) 1767–1775 1769

Table 2
The chemical composition of cement and different colored glasses [41,59,68].

Chemical Cement (%) Clear glass (%) Brown glass (%) Green glass (%) Crushed glass (%) Glass powder (%) Sand

SiO2 20.2 72.42 72.21 72.38 72.61 72.20 78.6

Al2O3 4.7 1.44 1.37 1.49 1.38 1.54 2.55
CaO 61.9 11.50 11.57 11.26 11.70 11.42 7.11
Fe2O3 3.0 0.07 0.26 0.29 0.48 0.48 2.47
MgO 2.6 0.32 0.46 0.54 0.56 0.79 0.46
Na2O 0.19 13.64 13.75 13.52 13.12 12.85 0.42
K2O 0.82 0.35 0.20 0.27 0.38 0.43 0.64
SO3 3.9 0.21 0.10 0.07 0.09 0.09
TiO2 0.035 0.041 0.04 0.15
Loss on ignition 1.9 0.22 0.36 7.6

mixture is further mixed to make the ingredients uniform and sent
to a rotary kiln for clinker burning, in a temperature up to 1500  C.
The selection between the dry and the wet processes depends
on the properties of the raw materials, costs of fuel used, the
location of the raw materials and other issues. The cost of the plant
construction in the wet process is low and high quality cement
manufactured easily. While, the dry process consumes less energy
and the running cost is low. But, both processes are consuming a
huge amount of energy because of the high energy needed in the
burning clinker step.
Cement industry challenges
A lot of challenges are facing the cement industry these days such
as the increase in the cost of fuels and energy, the necessities to
reduce the huge amount of greenhouse gases emission especially the
CO2 emission and the high cost of the raw materials and the supply of
theses raw materials in sufficient quantities and qualities. These
challenges are expected to increase with the increase in the annual
production of cement. Cement industry will face a regular pressure to
find solutions for these challenges or at least to minimize the effect
of these challenges to an acceptable range.
Cement industry is considered one of the most energy intensive
industries due to the huge amount of energy needed during
the production steps and the high temperature used to burn the
clinker, up to 1500  C. The energy cost of the cement production
accounted for approximately 40% of its variable total cost [23],
50–60% in some countries [24]. It has been estimated that the
cement industry consumes 5% of the total industrial energy
consumption all over the world in 2006 [25]. Recently, the
energy consumption increased to 12–15% of the total industrial
energy consumption in the entire world and it is expected that the
total energy consumption will increase with increasing the total
cement production rate [19,24,26].
In a modern cement plant, it was found that the average
electrical energy consumption of each ton of cement was about
110–149 kWh and the thermal energy consumption was about
4–6.2 GJ/ton of cement [24,26]. However, the average electrical
energy consumption and the thermal energy consumption for each
ton of the European cement were found to be 111 kWh and 3.73 GJ
respectively [23].
The atmospheric CO2 concentration increased from 280 ppm at
the start of the industrial revolution to 368 ppm at the start of this
century [27]. The high increase in the CO2 concentration is believed
to be responsible for the earth’s climatic changes and the global
warming [28]. One of the major industrial emitters of greenhouse
gases, especially CO2, is the cement industry. It was estimated that
the production of each ton of clinker releases one ton of CO2
[26,27]. And the cement industry accounted for about 7% of the
total world’s CO2 emission [26]. Moreover, it was calculated that
the European cement industry contributed by about 4.1% of the
total CO2 emission in the EU in 2007 [23]. Szabo et al. [25]
concluded that the global CO2 emission from cement industry will
increase by more than 50% by 2030 due to the increase in the
production rate of cement annually.
Bosoaga et al. [29] concluded that reducing the amount of the
clinker in the blended cement could be considered as one of
the effective methods to reduce the CO2 emissions. Using waste
materials mixed with the ground clinker to produce cement could
be able to reduce the CO2 emission by 5% [26] or to as higher as 20%
[29], depending on the percentage of replacement.
Also, it was found that the production of each ton of cement
clinker consumes 1.5–1.7 tons of the earth’s natural resources as
raw materials; as an example the Chinese cement industry
consumes about 1.5 billion tons of limestone and clay annually
[19]. Using waste material in cement and concrete production can
save the earth’s natural resources, save energy and reduce the cost
of the production of cement and the price of cement, as well as
reduce the greenhouse gases emission and reduce the environ-
mental impact of the solid wastes, especially the waste glass
because of the nonbiodegradable nature of glass materials.
Waste glass in the production of cement and concrete
Different waste materials have been used in the production of
cement and concrete such as: blast furnace slag [30], clay [31],
cathode ray tube waste [32], fly ash [33] and waste glass [34]. But,
large quantities of the solid waste that can be used in the manufacture
of cement and concrete are still discarded to landfills. Two billion tons
of solid industrial waste, which can be used in the manufacture of
cement and concrete, was sent to landfills in China in 2010 [19].
As shown in Table 2, the chemical composition of different
colors and crushed waste glass shows that glass has a large
quantity of silicon and calcium and with the amorphous structure;
glass has the ability to be a pozzolanic or even a cementitious
material. The nonbiodegradable structure of glass makes the
discarding of this waste to landfills a bad solution, while the
cement and concrete industry can provide an environmental
friendly waste management for the glass waste.
Different studies have been made for the use of waste glass in
cement and concrete industries. Some of these studies used waste
glass as an aggregate [35–37]; others used it as a cement
replacement [38–40] and some studies used it as aggregate and
as a cement replacement in the same mixture [41].
Waste glass as an aggregate
Waste glass and natural sand have approximately the same
physical properties, as shown in Table 3. The comparison between
the properties of waste glass and the properties of natural sand
1770 Y. Jani, W. Hogland / Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 2 (2014) 1767–1775
Table 3
Physical properties of waste glass and sand [42].
Physical property Waste glass
Specific gravity 2.19
Density (kg/m3) 1672
Absorption (%) 0.39
Pozzolanic index (%) 80
shows that the absorption rate of waste glass is lower than that of
sand by 14%, i.e. this means that concrete made up with glass as an
aggregate has a lower absorption rate for water [42]. These
properties make waste glass an interesting material to be used as
an aggregate in the production of concrete.
During the 20th century different studies had been done for the
use of crushed waste glass as aggregate in the production of
concrete [35,43–46]. Pike and Hubbard [35] studied the use of
different forms of glass as aggregate (quartz, opal, fiber glass and
glass) with cement. They found that the cement made up with
these aggregates cracked due to the destructive alkali-silica
reaction (ASR). Johnston [46] studied the use of crushed glass as
aggregate with a maximum particle size of 19 mm and with high
and low alkalis cement content, 0.58 and 1.13 respectively. His
results were in agreement with that of Pike and Hubbard [35] the
alkali-silica reaction caused cracking to the produced cement.
Because of the concern of the environmental impact of waste
glass, a lot of studies have been done recently for the use of
waste glass as aggregate in concrete. These studies investigated
the properties of the waste glass aggregate and tried to find the
optimum percentage of waste glass that can be used as aggregate
without any effect on the properties of the produced concrete. It
was found that the particle size of the waste glass aggregate is
playing a vital role in the alkali-silica harmful reaction [34,47–49].
The effect of the particle size of the waste glass aggregate
Takata et al. [47] studied the effect of the particle size of the
waste glass on the properties of the produced cement. Bottles
waste glass with the particle sizes of (4.75–0.15 mm) was used
with a different percentage as a partial replacement to the natural
aggregate (0–100%). The results showed that the expansion due to
the ASR increased with increasing the particle sizes of the waste
glass aggregate. Moreover, the expansion due to the ASR increased
as the percentage of the waste glass increased. The optimum
percentage of waste glass and the particle size aggregate that did
not show any harmful effect of the ASR were 20% and less than
1.18 mm respectively. These results were in agreement with the
results of Idir et al. [49]. Idir et al. [49] found that a particle sizes
less than (0.9–1 mm) did not show any expansion due to the ASR
with a 20% of partial replacement of waste glass aggregate. With a
lower particle sizes (mean diameter equal to 150 mm) a higher
percentage of waste glass aggregate can be used safely, up to 40%.
Moreover, Corinaldesi et al. [48] found that 70% of waste glass can
be used safely as an aggregate with particle sizes of (36–50 mm).
Reducing the particle sizes of the waste glass increases the
pozzolanic properties and leads to produce a cementitious
material as a result for the pozzolanic reaction between fine
waste glass aggregate and cement. The cementitious material
improves the strength of the cement paste and a higher resistance
for the expansive stresses of the ASR gel is produced [40,49].
The effect of waste glass aggregate on the mechanical properties of
concrete
Concrete, as the main construction material, must have specific
mechanical properties to overcome the high stress of the weight of
the construction loads. To specify the effect of the waste glass on
the properties of concrete the compressive strength, the flexural
strength and the tensile strength for the produced waste glass
concrete were studied by different researchers [11,42,50].
Sand The compressive strength was found to decrease as the
percentage of the waste glass increased [34]. The compressive
2.57
1688 strength decreased by 49% as the waste glass percentage increased
2.71 to 60% [11]. The poor shape of the coarse waste glass aggregate
caused a decrease in adhesive strength between the waste glass
aggregate and the cement paste and produced a low compressive
strength concrete [50]. However, Batayneh et al. [51] results
showed that the compressive strength increased with increasing
the percentage of waste glass aggregate up to 20%. The same result
was found by Ismail and Al-Hashmi [42], Mageswari and Vidivelli
[52], Degirmenci et al. [53] and Tan and Du [37]. But, Idir et al. [49]
found that the compressive strength of concrete is also affected by
the particle sizes of the used waste glass aggregate, due to the
increase in the pozzolanic properties. The experimental results
showed that the compressive strength increased as the size of the
waste glass particles decreased. An increase of 30–35 MPa in the
compressive strength of the waste glass concrete was found with a
particle size of 80 mm [49].
Also, the experimental results from different studies showed
that the flexural strength of concrete decreased with increasing the
percentage of the waste glass aggregate due to the decrease in
adhesive strength at the glass particle surface [11,37,50,53]. While,
Batayneh et al. [51] and Mageswari and Vidivelli [52] results
showed an increase in the flexural strength of waste glass concrete
with the increase of the fine waste glass aggregate up to 20%. They
explained that the increase in the flexural strength was due to the
surface texture and strength of the glass particles compared to that
of sand.
The tensile strength of the concrete made from waste glass
aggregate showed an increase in the tensile strength with increasing
waste glass aggregate up to 20% [51,52] and even up to 25% [37].
Increasing the waste glass further decreased the tensile strength of
the waste glass concrete [37]. However, Topcu and Canbaz [11] found
that the tensile strength decreased as the waste glass aggregate
increased. The same results were found by Park et al. [50].
There is no clear information about the effect of waste glass
aggregate and the particle size of the waste glass on the mechanical
properties of concrete. The published researches showed varia-
tions in the experimental results of the mechanical properties of
the produced waste glass concrete.
Thermal properties of the waste glass aggregate
The effect of temperature, from 20  C to 60  C, on the
properties of concrete made up with waste glass aggregate was
studied by Poutos et al. [54]. The waste glass concrete showed a
lower rise in temperature at 60  C and a lower reduction in
temperature at 20  C compared with concrete made from natural
sand. The experimental results proved that concrete made up with
waste glass aggregate has greater temperature stability to both
high and low temperatures because glass has a lower specific heat
compared to that of natural sand and because of the pozzolanic
activity of glass [54].
Terro [55] studied the properties of waste glass aggregate at
high temperature up to 800  C. Different percentages of waste glass
aggregate were used to produce concrete, 0–100%. And, different
particle sizes were studied (coarse, fine and coarse and fine
mixture). The results showed that the compressive strength
decreased with increasing temperature up to 700–800  C and with
increasing the percentage of waste glass over 10% for all the
particle sizes. This was because that glass is approaching to its
melting threshold at 700–800  C. However, concrete made up with
10% coarse waste glass aggregate showed a higher compressive
strength compared to normal concrete at ambient temperature
and at higher temperatures.
 Y. Jani, W. Hogland / Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 2 (2014) 1767–1775 1771

Table 4
A summary for all the reviewed researches for the use of waste glass as an aggregate with cement.

Type of waste glass % waste glass Particle sizes studied Optimum % Optimum particle ASR detection method Reference
studied waste glass size

Quartz, opal, fiber glass 100 Coarse Cracking due to Not mentioned Mortar bar length [35]
and glass ASR change
Bottles (soda-lime 100 Coarse less than 19 mm Cracking due to Not mentioned Mortar bar length [46]
glass) ASR change
Bottles (soda-lime 0–100 4.75–0.15 mm 20 Less than 1.18 mm (ASTM C1260)a [47]
glass)
a
Bottles (soda-lime 0–60 4–16 mm 23 Less than 4 mm (ASTM C1260) [11]
glass)
Bottles (soda-lime 0–70 Less than 5 mm Less than 30 Less than 5 mm (ASTM C1260)a [50]
glass)
Container (soda-lime 0–70 36–100 mm 70 75 mm Mortar bar length [48]
glass) change
Bottles (soda-lime 0–100 Fine (less than 4.75 mm), coarse (higher than 10 Fine, coarse and fine Not studied [55]
glass) 4.75 mm) and fine and coarse and coarse
Building glass (soda- 0–20 0.15–9.5 mm 20 0.15–9.5 mm Not studied [51]
lime)
Cullet glass (soda-lime) 0–100 0.15–9.5 mm Not mentioned Not mentioned Not studied [54]
Container and flat glass 0–20 0.15–4.75 mm 20 0.15–4.75 mm (ASTM C1260)a [42]
(soda-lime)
Sheet glass (soda-lime) 0–50 Less than 4.75 mm 10 Less than 4.75 mm Not studied [52]
Bottles (soda-lime 0–40 8–3750 mm 40 120 mm Specimens shrinkage [49]
glass) test
Bottles (soda-lime 0–100 0.125–2.00 mm 30 0.125–2.00 mm (ASTM C1260)a [53]
glass)
Building and car 0–20 Fine (less than 4 mm) and coarse (higher than 20 Coarse Shrinkage test- LNEC [34]
windows glass 4 mm) E-398(1993)
Bottles (soda-lime 0–100 0.15–4.75 mm Less than 25 Fine (ASTM C1260)a [37]
glass)
a
Mortar bar change in length method.

A summary for all the reviewed researches in this section is
shown in Table 4.
Waste glass as a partial replacement to cement
The use of waste glass as a coarse and fine aggregate in the
production of concrete was very limited and did not show
satisfactory results because of the alkali-silica destructive reaction
between the cement and the waste glass aggregate and also
because of the low performance of the produced concrete, i.e. low
compressive, tensile and flexural strengths. The pozzolanic
properties of glass aroused the idea of using waste glass as a
cementitious material or as a partial replacement of cement in the
production of concrete. The pozzolanic properties of glass are
highly affected by the particle sizes of glass [38]. However, in all
the studies concerning the pozzolanic properties of waste glass,
nobody has succeeded to identify the products of the pozzolanic
reaction or to propose its mechanism [56].
The effect of the particle size of waste glass
Shao et al. [38] studied the effect of the particle size of the
waste glass on the properties of cement and concrete using a 30%
of waste glass as a partial replacement to cement in the concrete
mixture. Fluorescent lamps waste glass (soda-lime) was used
with different particle sizes, 150 mm, 75 mm and 38 mm. The
waste with 150 mm size was not considered as a pozzolanic
material due to the coarse particle size, but only the 38 mm
satisfied the requirement to be a pozzolanic material according to
ASTM C618. The results showed that the compressive strength
increased as the particle sizes of the waste glass decreased. After
90 days of curing, the compressive strength of the 38 mm waste
glass concrete was higher than that of Portland cement by 8%. The
results of the ASR expansion test showed that the expansion of all
the particle sizes of the waste glass was less than that of concrete
without glass. The experimental results proved that the ASR
expansion decreased with decreasing the particle sizes of
the waste glass. Shao et al. [38] concluded that using a 30% of
waste glass with a particle size of 38 mm could be able to improve
the properties of Portland cement.
Khmiri et al. [39,56] investigated the effect of the particle sizes
of the waste glass on the pozzolanic properties of glass and on the
properties of concrete at a constant partial replacement of cement
by 20% of waste glass. Four different particle sizes of container
soda-lime waste glass were used as a partial replacement for
cement (less than 100 mm, less than 80 mm, less than 40 mm and
less than 20 mm). The experimental results showed that the
compressive strength increased as the particles size of the waste
glass decreased. The compressive strength of the 20 mm waste
glass concrete was higher than that concrete without waste glass
by 2% after 90 days of curing. The results proved that waste glass
showed pozzolanic properties when it grounded to less than
20 mm and the waste glass improved the concrete properties when
20% of the 20 mm waste glass used as a partial replacement to
cement. These results were in agreement with that of Shi et al. [57].
Also, Shi et al. [57] results showed that the ASR expansion reduced
significantly with the use of 20% of fine grounded waste glass as a
partial replacement to cement in the production of concrete.
The percentage of waste glass replacement
Different studies have been done to investigate the optimum
percentage of waste glass that can be used as a partial replacement
to cement to produce concrete. Schwarz et al. [58] investigated the
use of (5, 10 and 20%) of waste glass as a partial replacement to
cement. The glass waste powder used was slightly higher in
particle size distribution than that of Portland cement. The
optimum percentage of waste glass was found to be 10% based
on compressive strength test results. The experimental results
showed that the compressive strength of the waste glass concrete
was less than that without waste glass. The ASR expansion test
results showed that the ASR expansion decreased with increasing
the percentage of waste glass powder because the pozzolanic
reaction of the glass powder consumed the alkali hydroxide
1772 Y. Jani, W. Hogland / Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 2 (2014) 1767–1775

Table 5
A summary for all the reviewed researches for the use of waste glass as a partial replacement to cement.

Type of waste glass % waste glass studied Particle sizes studied Optimum % waste glass Optimum particle size ASR detection method Reference

Fluorescent lamps glass (soda-lime) 30 38–150 mm 30 38 mm (ASTM C1260)a [38]

Glass beads (soda-lime) 20 10–700 mm 20 30–100 mm (ASTM C1260)a [57]
Window plate glass (soda-lime) 0–20 1–100 mm 10 1–100 mm (ASTM C1260)a [58]
Bottles (soda-lime glass) 0–23 13–25 mm 20 13–25 mm (ASTM C1260)a [59]
Container (soda-lime glass) 20 20–100 mm 20 20 mm Not studied [39,56]
Recycled waste glass (soda-lime) 0–20 0.1–100 mm 20 0.1–100 mm (ASTM C1567)b [20]
a
Mortar bar change in length method.
b
Accelerated mortar bar test method.

concentration and the CH of the concrete mixture. The researchers
concluded that 30% replacement of cement by glass waste is
required to reduce the ASR expansion below 0.1%.
Nassar and Soroushian [59] studied the use of different
percentages (15, 20 and 23%) of milled waste glass with an
average particle size of 25 mm as a partial replacement for cement
in two filed study projects, a pavement section used as a sidewalk
and maintenance vehicle access route and a concrete driveway,
sidewalk and curbs at the Michigan State University. The
compressive strength results showed that concrete with 15 and
20% waste glass replacement showed a higher compressive
strength compared to that concrete without waste glass.
While concrete with 23% waste glass replacement showed the
same compressive strength of that concrete without waste glass.
The flexural strength results showed the same behavior of that of
the compressive strength. The experimental results showed that
the abrasion resistance increased with increasing the percentage of
waste glass and only the 23% of waste glass concrete gave the same
results of concrete without waste glass. After 2 years of tests, the
concrete made up with waste glass showed a very good
performance in the two field projects without any appearance
of the harmful ASR expansion. The study found that the optimum
percentage of waste glass that can be used safely as a partial
replacement to cement was 20%. The experimental results of
Nassar and Soroushian [59] were in contrast to that of Schwarz
et al. [58], especially in the optimum percentage of waste glass.
Matos and Coutinho [20] investigated the use of different
percentages of waste glass powder (10 and 20%) as a partial
replacement to cement to produce concrete. The particle size
distributions of the waste glass powder and the used Portland
cement were almost the same. The experimental results showed
that the compressive strength decreased as the percentage of the
waste glass increased. And the strength activity index for the 10%
concrete and the 20% concrete was 97% and 103% respectively
compared to the concrete without waste glass. The ASR expansion
results showed that the expansion due to the ASR decreased with
increasing the percentage of waste glass despite the high alkali
content. Also, the experimental results proved that the waste glass
improved the resistance of concrete to the chloride penetration
drastically especially the 20% replacement.
A summary for all the reviewed researches in this section are
shown in Table 5.
Waste glass as a partial replacement for cement and aggregate in the
same mixture
One of the most harmful phenomena in concrete is the
alkali-silica reaction (ASR). It is a chemical reaction that takes place
between the aggregates reactive silica and the alkalis within
the cement paste. The alkali-silica gel is the result of this reaction
and this gel has the ability to absorb water and increases in volume.
This increase in volume causes a high pressure inside the cement
paste and causing internal stress that can lead to a severe damage
for concrete. The ASR depends on the presence of high basic media
(PH > 12), high relative humidity, it increases with increasing
temperature and it needs a long time to appear, up to many months
[35,60–62].
Different materials have been used to mitigate the ASR like
metakaolin [63], fly ash [58,64] and silica fume [1]. It has been also
proved that milled waste glass, with a particle sizes less than
75 mm, has the ability to suppress the ASR due to the pozzolanic
properties of the milled waste glass [65]. The ability of the milled
waste glass to suppress the harmful effect of the ASR encourages
the researchers to try to use milled waste glass to hinder the ASR
effect of the waste glass aggregate.
Shayan [41] and Shayan and Xu [66] studied the use of
waste glass as a partial cement and aggregate replacement in the
same mixture to produce concrete. Table 6 shows the particle size
distribution of waste glass used. Coarse and fine waste glass was
used as a partial replacement for aggregate with a particle size
range (0.15–12 mm) while waste glass powder was used as a partial
cement replacement with a particle sizes less than 10 mm. The
experimental results showed that the compressive strength of the
waste glass concrete improved in comparison to that without glass.
The ASR tests showed that increasing the glass powder reduces the
effect of the ASR due to the pozzolanic reaction. The results proved
that 30% replacement of cement with glass powder with 50%
replacement of natural aggregate with coarse and fine glass
aggregate could be used safely without any effect on the properties
of the produced concrete.
The use of different colors container waste glass as a partial
cement and concrete replacement was also studied [67]. Different
percentages of waste glass were used as a partial replacement for
cement and natural aggregate and with different particle sizes, as
shown in Table 7. The performance of the produced concrete
slabs mixtures (with the dimensions: 1.5 m  2.5 m  0.25 m) was
investigated in a field conditions. The experimental results after
404 days of tests showed that waste glass powder concrete did not
show any evidence of ASR effect with a percentage of 30% as a
cement replacement and 40–50% of glass aggregate. Moreover, the
Table 6
The particle size of the used waste glass [41,66].
Product Particle size range
Coarse glass aggregate 12–4.75 mm
Fine glass aggregate 4.75–0.15 mm
Glass powder Less than 10 mm
Table 7
The particle sizes and percentages of waste glass [67].
Particle size range
Coarse waste glass aggregate 2.36–0.60 mm
Fine waste glass aggregate 0.30–0.15 mm
Powder waste glass for cement replacement Less than 15 mm
Percentage of cement replacement 20–30%
Percentage of waste glass aggregate 40–75%
 Y. Jani, W. Hogland / Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 2 (2014) 1767–1775 1773

Table 8
A summary for all the reviewed researches for the use of waste glass as a partial replacement for cement and aggregate in the same mixture.

Type of waste glass % waste glass studied Particle sizes studied Optimum % waste Optimum particle ASR detection Reference
glass size method

Container glass (soda- 0–30 for cement Shown in Table 4 30 for cement Shown in Table 4 (ASTM C1260)a [41,66]
lime) 0–50 for aggregate 50 for aggregate
Container glass (soda- 0–30 for cement Shown in Table 5 30 for cement Shown in Table 5 (ASTM C1260)a [67]
lime) 0–75 for aggregate 50 for aggregate
Recycled glass 20 for cement Average 45 mm for cement Not mentioned Not mentioned Not studied [68]
50 and 100 for aggregate Less than 5 mm for aggregate
a
Mortar bar change in length method.

Table 9
The raw material mixtures and the chemical composition of the produced clinkers [69].

Weight ratios of raw materials Calculated oxide composition of clinkers (%)

Mix no. Clay Iron ore Low grade lime stone Lime stone Waste glass SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO SO3 Na2O K2O Sum
(Sandstone)

1 6.2 2 63.29 77.14 0 20.80 5.19 3.83 63.21 0.96 0.50 0.03 0.98 95.50
2 3 2 62.53 76.68 4 20.77 5.17 3.89 63.06 0.97 0.48 0.44 0.96 95.74
3 0 2 63.29 74.36 7 20.35 5.18 3.94 62.47 0.98 0.47 0.78 1.00 95.17
4 0 2 52.74 82.11 10 21.13 4.77 3.91 62.50 0.95 0.46 1.12 0.92 95.76

mechanical properties of the produced waste glass concrete were Xie and Xi [69] used waste glass as a partial replacement to clay
higher than that of the 55 MPa concrete made from Portland (sandstone). The percentages of the raw mixture used with the
cement. chemical analysis of the produced clinker are shown in Table 9.
Taha and Nounu [68] studied the properties of concrete made All the raw materials were grounded in a jar mill to a fineness less
up from waste glass as a partial replacement of aggregate and than 75 mm to produce a homogenous mixture. The experimental
cement. Waste glass powder with an average particle size of results showed that the compressive strength of the produced
(45 mm) was used as a partial replacement for cement with 20% of cement decreased with increasing the waste glass content in the
replacement. Also, waste glass was used as aggregate in the same cement raw materials mixture. The X-ray diffraction analysis
mixture with an average particle size less than (5 mm) and with showed that the waste glass cement did not produce any new
two percentages of replacement 50% and 100%. The results showed minerals in the clinker and the researchers concluded that waste
that the compressive strength decreased with increasing waste glass can be used as a raw material for the production of cement
glass aggregate. The same results were also observed for tensile but with small fractions, because of the high alkali content of the
strength and flexural strength, as shown in Table 8. waste glass.
Chen et al. [70] investigated the use of nine different colors
Waste glass as a raw material for cement production bottling waste glass as one of the raw materials for the production
of Portland cement instead of clay. Two trial production plants with
Xie and Xi [69] and Chen et al. [70] studied the use of waste different feeding rates, 1 t/h for 24 h and 1.77 t/h for 56 h, were used
glass as one of the raw materials to produce Portland cement. Due to study the properties of the produced waste glass Portland
to the similar chemical composition between waste glass and clay cement. The waste glass was mixed with the following feed raw
the researchers tried to use waste glass as a partial replacement to materials: limestone (80%), fly ash (9%), silica sand (9%), and iron
clay [69] or instead of clay [70] in the cement raw materials slag (2%). The experimental results showed that there were no
mixture. significant changes in the NOx and SO2 levels during the use of
waste glass as a raw material and without it. The physical and the
chemical properties of the produced waste glass cement
Table 10
were found to be the same to that of Portland cement without
Properties of waste glass cement and normal Portland cement [70].
waste glass, as shown in Table 10. A little increase was noticed in
Normal Portland cement Waste glass cement the alkali content of the waste glass cement but the value was
Na2O (%) 0.10 0.20 within the accepted range (0.4%).
K2O (%) 0.32 0.31
Total alkali (%) 0.31 0.40 Conclusions
SO3 (%) 2.49 2.47
Free lime (%) 1.25 1.20
SiO2 (%) 20.7 21.3
The nonbiodegradable nature of waste glass makes this waste a
CaO (%) 65.2 65.1 challenge for all the countries all over the world due to the lack of
Fe2O3 (%) 3.33 3.37 spaces in landfills and the lack for spaces for new landfills.
Al2O3 (%) 4.96 5.37 However, glass and cement industries have huge challenges these
MgO (%) 0.57 o.61
days like: the intensive use of the earth’s natural resources as raw
C3S (%) 62.7 55.6
Blaine (m2/kg) 308 304 materials, the intensive use of energy and the high emission of
Fineness ( 325) (%) 93.5 94.4 greenhouse gases which are responsible for the climatic changes.
EN compressive strength Using glass waste in the construction industry can offer an
2 day (MPa) 21.9 20.3 environmental friendly solution for this waste and reduces the
7 day (MPa) 39.6 36.5
28 day (MPa) 55.1 53.5
problems encountered with the glass and cement industries too.
1774 Y. Jani, W. Hogland / Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 2 (2014) 1767–1775
The reviewed studies showed that waste glass can be used in
cement and concrete but the particle size of the glass waste plays a
vital role in the ASR destructive reaction and the performance of
concrete. The pozzolanic properties of glass increased with
decreasing its particle sizes under 100 mm, while, all the
experimental results showed that increasing the percentage of
waste glass aggregate reduces the maintenance of concrete.
A full study is needed to find the optimum percentage of waste
glass (as aggregate or cement replacement) and particle size which
can be used without any effect on the properties of the produced
concrete. Also, there is a need to study the possibility of using the
waste glass as a raw material in the production of cement.
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to thank Linnaeus University for funding
supports.
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