Engineering Geology 110 (2010) 43–50

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Engineering Geology
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / e n g g e o

Analysis of limestone micromechanical properties by optical microscopy

Lucas R.D. Jensen a,⁎, Henrik Friis d, Erling Fundal b, Per Møller c, Mads Jespersen a
a
FLSmidth A/S, Vigerslev Allé 77, 2500 Valby, Denmark
b
Fundal Consult, Østergade 4, 4140 Borup, Denmark
c
Technical University of Denmark, Kemitorvet, Bygning 204, 2800 Kgs Lyngby, Denmark
d
Århus University, Department of Earth Sciences, Høegh-Guldbergs Gade 2, 8000 Århus C, Denmark

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Four dense Scandinavian limestones were analyzed to determine their mechanical properties. The generation
Received 16 July 2009 of dust (− 10 μm) and fines (− 90 μm) during a closed circuit vertical roller mill comminution process was
Received in revised form 21 October 2009 correlated with the calcite crystal size distributions of each limestone. Thin sections were analyzed and by
Accepted 24 October 2009
means of stereology the calcite crystal size distributions for each limestone was measured. The dust generation
Available online 5 November 2009
of limestones is governed by a surface abrasive mechanism (R2 = 0.99) and the production of fines is governed
Keywords:
by the mechanical strength of limestones (R2 = 0.99). The overall limestone degradation mechanism is
Image analysis predominantly controlled by the calcite cleavage planes which reduce the power consumption during the
Stereology comminution process. This study is the first step in determining the influence of limestone texture on the wear
Comminution rates in heterogenous raw mixes used in closed circuit comminution equipment.
Limestone © 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
During a heterogeneous closed circuit comminution process, the
wear rates can reach magnitudes which severely affect the mill
performance. A cement raw mix mostly consists of a hard mineral
such as quartz and soft carbonates, mostly calcite, the latter
constituting approx. 75%. Due to the closed circuit comminution
process, the abrasive accumulates on the grinding table increasing the
abrasion of the wear parts. The grindability of a limestone can be
explained as being the amount of fines produced at a certain sieve size
from one single or a series of comminution events. Previous studies
show that the grindability of limestones determines the wear rate
(Jensen et al., 2009a,b). Thus, the study is targeted at quantifying the
limestone texture with the aim of predicting the grindability.
Very limited research is available on correlations between
limestone petrography and mechanical properties. However, igneous
rocks used for building materials or aggregates have been studied
with the aim of predicting rock mechanical properties based on image
analysis Åkesson et al. (2001), Lindqvist and Åkesson (2001).
Howarth and Rowlands (1987) have developed a texture coeffi-
cient parameter which makes it possible to characterize a mineral by a
single value. The texture coefficient is based on measuring and
counting each crystal of a thin section micrograph. Ersoy and Waller
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: lje@flsmidth.com (L.R.D. Jensen).
(1995) used this knowledge to correlate the texture coefficient with
the cutting and drillability of rocks.
Räisänen (2004) has completed a manual petrographical analysis
on igneous rocks and correlated the results with mechanical
properties such as the Los Angeles test (ASTM C535-03, 2008a).
Zorlu et al. (2008) have investigated a series of Turkish sandstones
anddeveloped an artificial neural network to predict the uniaxial
compressive strength. Brattli (1992) has worked on a series of highly
heterogeneous igneous rocks and concluded that the crystal size alone
at best correlates to the mechanical strength properties. This
knowledge has been verified by (Prikryl, 2001) who used a digital
image analysis program. However, Prikryl (2006) concludes that fully
automated image analysis procedures are inaccurate and thus a
trained person is needed to distinguish mineralogical phases from
each other. Furthermore Prikryl (2006) proves that none of the
petrographical textural coefficients can be used in predicting the
uniaxial compressive strength which is the most well known rock
mechanical property. Based on the previous research studies, the
crystal size alone has been chosen as the texture parameter being
worthwhile to correlate with the limestone physical properties.
Most researchers correlate the petrography with a macro mechan-
ical strength property. Macro mechanical strength properties are
determined by crushing such as the uniaxial compressive strength
test (ASTM D7012, 2008c), the point-load test (ASTM D5731, 2008b)
and the LA test (ASTM C535-03, 2008a). Ozkahraman (2005) has
shown that macro mechanical strength properties might diverge
significantly from micro mechanical strength properties such as a size
reduction in a comminution process. Micro mechanical strength

0013-7952/$ – see front matter © 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2009.10.004
44 L.R.D. Jensen et al. / Engineering Geology 110 (2010) 43–50
properties are determined in comminution processes such as the
Bond grindability test (Bond, 1961) or laboratory scale vertical roller
mills (VRM). In this study, focus will be on the micro mechanical
strength properties which are important in the cement production.
From a wear point of view, the mechanical properties of
limestones are interesting when ground simultaneously with abrasive
particles. Even though a pure limestone itself is too soft to cause any
wear on hard abrasion resistant surfaces, its grindability affects the
wear rates when ground together with an abrasive mineral (Table 1,
Jensen et al. (2009a,b)). The faster the soft components (e.g.
limestone) leaves the VRM, the more the hard components (e.g.
quartz) accumulate and result in increased wear rates. Consequently,
the property of interest is the generation of fine material after
multiple size reduction events: a limestone yielding an abundance of
fine material during mechanical action is believed to increase the
wear rate in a synthetic limestone/quartz mixture. The generation of
fine material of a limestone has been examined by both an air
separator and by sieving the fines fraction from the VRM table
samples. Finally it was examined whether the calcite crystal size
distribution (CSD) shows correlations with the wear rate.
1.1. Limestone properties
In general, the most dense limestones consist of calcite crystals
which have undergone metamorphosis. In addition, the structure of
limestones is further complicated due to the solubility of CaCO3 and
thus ease to undergo diagenesis. The result is a rock type with a very
large petrographical variety. The mechanical strength of a limestone is
predominantly governed by five parameters:
1. Porosity
2. Cleavage properties
3. Crystal size
4. Lithification
5. Micro cracks
1.1.1. Porosity
High porosities will reduce the energy consumption during commi-
nution. A pore will act as a flaw within the limestone and thus weaken
the mechanical strength. The strength is a function of the number,
average size and geometrical form of porosities (Howarth and
Rowlands, 1987). In this study, this parameter has not been taken
into consideration because all the limestones examined are non-
porous.
1.1.2. Cleavage properties
Calcite has three cleavage planes, whereas feldspar and quartz
have two and zero cleavage planes, respectively. It is believed that a
mineral will fracture along its cleavage planes and thus, calcite
crystals are statistically very vulnerable (Fig. 1). Crystal boundaries
containing no impurities (e.g. clay minerals) have a greater strength
compared to cleavage planes. This property can be observed when
crushing a macrocrystalline marble: The product will consist of small
shiny fragments reflecting the light. From the entire surface of a
calcite crystal, a crack can propagate along a cleavage direction
Table 1
Hardness values.
Material Hardness [HV]
Calcite 140
Quartz 1200
Wear part material 750
Quartz will always abrade the wear part material. In the minerals industry the wear part
material is often a high-alloy cast iron.
Size reduced alone, calcite cannot abrade the wear part material.
Fig. 1. Typical crack propagation in a polycrystalline calcite fragment. Crystal boundaries
are avoided as the cleavage planes are weaker (applies for dense limestones).
following a cleavage plane. The crack needs initiation by a local stress
increase and this could be from the tip of another particle. Due to the
number of cleavage directions of constituent calcite crystals, the
limestone becomes vulnerable to localized stresses and thus the size
reduction of limestone will be easy compared to a hard material such
as quartz (Deer et al., 1996).
1.1.3. Crystal size
Most dense limestones originate from the lithification of loose
sediments and the calcite crystal size is believed to have a strong
influence on the comminution behavior Brattli (1992), Prikryl (2001).
In general, small crystals will result in a high power consumption and
vice versa: in a microcrystalline limestone the crack needs to pass
more crystal boundaries than in a macrocrystalline limestone (Fig. 1).
The calcite crystals range from approx. 2 μm to several cms in size,
however the most common limestones consist of calcite crystals
below 100 μm in size.
1.1.4. Lithification
Lithification is a diagenetic process and includes compaction,
cementation and recrystallization. Some limestones may have
undergone insignificant diagenesis, such as the Cretaceous chalk
from the North Sea area. Other limestones have been subjected to
strong diagenetic transformation. This type will be very hard and
dense with no pores. Often these limestones are classified as marbles.
The strength of the limestone is closely related to the degree of
recrystallization. A tight bond between two crystals is presumably a
strong ionic bond often superimposed by a mechanical interlocking.
Fracture will always follow the path of least resistance, thus, during a
comminution process there is a competition between degree of
cementation and the weakness caused by the crystal cleavage
directions (Section 1.1.2). In a dense limestone, the fracture surface
will appear shiny and smooth because of the breakage along cleavage
directions. In a weakly cemented limestone the fracture surface will
look dull and coarse because of intercrystalline breakage. To further
complicate the classification, impurities (e.g. clays) might be
incorporated in the crystal boundaries during diagenesis and thus
weaken the bond. This effect will not be considered in this study as the
limestones of interest do not show any significant impurities.
1.1.5. Micro cracks
If present, micro cracks will act as flaws in the limestones. Their
presence develop either due to the properties of some types of
 L.R.D. Jensen et al. / Engineering Geology 110 (2010) 43–50 45

limestones or due to the geological history and/or the blasting in the
quarry. In the size distribution of the VRM new feed, micro cracks
have not been observed as being present in the four types of
limestones examined in this study. Thus this property has not been
considered in this study.
1.2. Size reduction of limestones
The limestone size reduction process is sensitive to the type of
comminution methods and whether the process is in an open circuit
or closed circuit mode. In the cement industry, the VRM is employed
in the closed circuit mode and the limestone is size reduced by three
mechanisms (Jensen et al., 2009c).
• Abrasion
• Shear
• Compression
Contrary to e.g. quartz, the limestone surface is easily abraded
when in contact with other particles. Thus, when handling and
processing limestone, dust is generated and the dust generation can

Fig. 2. Limestone macro structures. Each sample represents a −16+ 8 mm fraction. The close-up photographs are at a 18x magnification. Each increment on the ruler represents 1 mm.
46 L.R.D. Jensen et al. / Engineering Geology 110 (2010) 43–50

be determined by means of an air separator (Section 2.2). The dust

generation of limestones has previously been studied (Fundal, 1984).
It is believed that the dust generation is correlated to the calcite CSD of
limestones, but it is of minor importance in a size reduction process
(Jensen et al., 2009c). Nonetheless the amount of dust can affect the
process by changing the flow properties in a mixture.
The shear mechanism is of insignificant order and only dominates
in areas of low grinding pressures (Jensen et al., 2009c).
During compressive size reduction, the degree of cementation and
calcite CSD will affect the fragmenting process. Four general limestone
size reduction modes exist:

1. Low degree of lithification and fine grained texture (e.g. chalk): the
compressive force is used to separate the grains from each other
and turn them into loose material (intercrystalline fracture). If
further size reduction is needed, the force is used to produce calcite
cleavage fragments. This type of limestone shows a high porosity
and will generate large amount of fines.
2. High degree of lithification and microcrystalline texture (e.g.
micrite): during compressive action, a crack propagates from the
surface following a cleavage plane (intracrystalline fracture).
When the crack reaches the next crystal boundary it will follow
another cleavage plane in the adjacent crystal: If the next cleavage
plane is a straight extension of the former, the crack will propagate
with no additional energy requirement. If the next cleavage plane
follows another direction, the crack will propagate requiring
additional energy. This type of limestone has a low porosity and
produces a large amount of dust when crushed.
3. Low degree of lithification and large coarse texture (e.g. sandy
marble): the compressive force is used to disintegrate the
individual calcite crystals (intercrystalline fracture). This type of
limestone has a high porosity and produces a small amount of dust Fig. 3. Four very pure Scandinavian limestones were used in this study.
when crushed.
4. High degree of lithification and coarse crystals (e.g. dense
marbles): this type of limestone is easily fragmented (intracrystal- These properties will be discussed further in Section 3.
line fracture), it has a low porosity and produces sharp-edged
fragments with very small amounts of dust.
2.1. Image analysis
1.3. Stereology
Image analysis was accomplished with the purpose of correlating
Laser diffraction is a widely accepted method for fine particle size the limestone textural properties with their influence on a closed
analysis where all particles are assumed to be spheres (ISO Standard circuit VRM grinding process. The limestone samples were split and
13320-1, 1999). When examining limestone micrographs, it is observed crushed to − 4 + 1 mm to obtain a representative sample for vacuum
that the calcite crystals are predominantly compact in their shape. Thus, embedding in epoxy. A thin section being 10 μm in thickness was
similarly for this study, calcite crystals are treated as spheres. Stereology prepared from each average sample comprising approx. 50 fragments:
is based on a statistical approach where 2D images can be used to As described later, the Orsa and Storugn limestones have a
describe structures in 3D (Underwood, 1970). In this study, the direct, microcrystalline structure (5–10 μm) which cannot be resolved
robust and simple Saltykov area analysis has been used in the image using a standard thin section thickness of 30 μm. The thin sections
analysis to obtain a volumetric size distribution. were analyzed with a Leica DM5000 polarization microscope
equipped with a digital camera (CCD).
2. Experimental Using the JMicrovision image analysis software, a manual image
analysis has been carried out (Roduit, 2009). Automatic image analysis
In this study, four very pure limestones quarried in Scandinavia has not been possible as the contrast between calcite crystals is weak
only differing with respect to textures were chosen for the experi- and the calcite crystal boundaries are difficult to identify (Fig. 6).
ments (Figs. 2, 3 and Table 2). With the results from the image
analysis, it was of interest to examine the correlations of three
mechanical properties: Table 2
Limestone properties.
1. Dust generation. This property is quantified by using an air separator.
Limestone Density [g/cm3] CaCO3 [wt.%] Minor comp. [wt.%] Wear [g/t]
Dust particles are characterized as being approx. −10 μm.
Verdal 2.66 99 1 5.7
2. Production of fines. This property is quantified by examining the
Visnes 2.73 99 1 5.8
fines in the VRM table sample. In this study fines are characterized Orsa 2.61 99 1 8.1
as particles being approx. − 90 μm. Storugn 2.65 99 1 9.4
3. Estimation of wear rate. The wear rate is examined by analyzing the All limestones are characterized of being dense. The acid insoluble residue is small and
results from the image analysis and correlating with the measured indicates a that the limestones are very pure. The wear rate is obtained at 8% 200–
VRM wear rates. 400 μm quartz.
 L.R.D. Jensen et al. / Engineering Geology 110 (2010) 43–50 47

The results from the image analysis (area, perimeter, diameter etc.)
were treated with the Saltykov stereological area analysis with the aim
of measuring calcite CSDs of each limestone (Underwood, 1970).

2.2. Air separator

Approx. 500 g of each limestone is precrushed to −8 + 5 mm and

subsequently ground in a disc mill with a sieve residue of 1% + 2 mm.
The product is split in a rotational sample divider (Retsch Sample
Divider PT 100) to obtain a series of representative 5.00 g samples
which subsequently are treated in an air separator (Fig. 4). By setting
the differential pressure at 10 mmH2O for 25 min, the dust fraction is
separated off and the percentage determined by weighing the residual
fraction.

2.3. Vertical roller mill experiments

Four vertical roller mill (VRM) tests were carried out in order to
correlate the image analysis with the test results. A laboratory scale
VRM operating in a closed circuit mode was used for correlating the
microscopic textural analysis with the physical properties of the
limestones (Fig. 5). The four limestones were pre-crushed to − 8 mm
and 8% quartz (200–400 μm) was added to the mixture. The addition
of quartz will yield a wear rate, however it will not significantly affect
the product particle size distribution (PSD) of the limestones:
previous research shows that particles to a high degree are size
reduced independently (Fuerstenau et al., 2004). In all four tests the
mixture was ground to a fineness of 12% + 90 μm (product size for
raw materials in the cement industry).
An important property of the limestone is the PSD of the material in
contact with the wear parts. Thus, after each test, the material on the Fig. 5. Laboratory VRM equipped with a static separator. The grinding force is generated
by a hydraulic system and the table is driven by an electric motor.
grinding table (table sample) was sieved. The coarse fraction was
machine sieved for 10 min as follows: 4 mm; 2 mm; 1 mm; 500 μm and
250 μm. The passings were subsequently sieved with an Alpine air jet
jet sieve is a suitable equipment for the finer fractions of limestone
sieve for 1 min as follows: 125 μm; 90 μm; 45 μm and 32 μm. The Alpine
which have a tendency to agglomerate. Furthermore, calcite is easily
abraded due to the vigorous action during jet air sieving and this
explains why sieving duration has been set to 1 min and not 3 min
(common setting).

3. Discussion

3.1. General characterization

The density of the four limestones is approx. the same as for pure
calcite and the percentage of impurities is very low (Table 2). The
wear rates for each synthetic limestone/quartz mixture is also
presented.

3.2. Image analysis

The limestones are very different and represent a large variety in

the textural properties (Fig. 6):

1. The Verdal limestone is classified as a sparstone with an average

calcite crystal size of 120 μm (Fig. 6a).
2. The Visnes limestone is classified as a sparstone but with an
average calcite crystal size of approx. 5 mm (Fig. 6b).
3. The Orsa limestone is characterized as a fossiliferous micrite. The
texture appears to be a mixture of both macrocrystalline (Fig. 6c)
and microcrystalline (Fig. 6d) calcite in approx. equal amounts.
4. The Storugn limestone is characterized as fossiliferous micrite. The
texture consists of macrocrystalline (Fig. 6e) and microcrystalline
Fig. 4. Air separator. At the bottom of the large transparent funnel tube, a fluidized bed (Fig. 6f) calcite at a ratio of 40/60. When crushed, even fragments
forms and agitates the particles for 25 min while the dust is being vacuumed off at the top. consisting of both textural varieties are obtained.
48 L.R.D. Jensen et al. / Engineering Geology 110 (2010) 43–50

Fig. 6. Limestone micro structures.

When using the image analysis software applied to the thin limestone (Fig. 7). As a verification, the calcite CSD is in coin-
sections and further processing the data by means of stereology cidence with the impression from inspection of the micrographs
(Saltykov method), the result are calcite CSDs for each analyzed (Fig. 6).

Fig. 7. Cumulative calcite CSDs. The Verdal and Visnes limestones have a monomodal size distribution. The Orsa and Storugn limestones have a distinct bimodal size distribution. The
thick line indicates the 90 μm product fineness.
 L.R.D. Jensen et al. / Engineering Geology 110 (2010) 43–50
Table 3
Approx. fractile values for CSDs and dust generation.
Limestone d(10%) [μm] d(50%) [μm] d(90%) [μm]
Verdal 55 110 170
Visnes 1000 1600 2600
Orsa 11 21 400
Storugn 5 170 460
The dust figures represent the wt% of dust determined by the air separator.
When inspecting Fig. 7 it is quickly recognized that two types of
distributions are present:
1. Unimodal calcite CSDs. The Visnes and Verdal limestones follow
this type of distribution and are easy to interpret.
2. Bimodal calcite CSDs. The Orsa and Storugn limestones follow this
type of distribution and make the interpretation more difficult. The
bimodal distribution explains the intermixture of two different
unimodal distributions: When inspecting the Orsa and Storugn
limestones it is readily seen that the texture is partly fine lime mud
(micrite) and partly coarse inclusions originating from fossils (Fig. 6).
The unimodal size distribution can conveniently be simplified by
introducing the d(10%), d(50%) and d(90%) fractiles (Table 3).
Omitting the curls at the ends of a distribution, the horizontal
position and the slope of the distribution is quantified for easy
comparison. However, a strong bimodal distribution as observed in
this study cannot be quantified by means of fractiles. Unfortunately
the majority of limestones are n-modal in nature and thus the Visnes
and Verdal limestone are rare occurrences.
3.3. d(10%) vs dust generation
When defining the dust generated (− 10 μm), the fractile d(10%)
has been used (Fig. 8). The dust fraction is primarily generated due to
the mechanical interaction (friction) between the particle surfaces
during processing, and thus the calcite crystal size shows a strong
influence: for the same PSD, the microcrystalline limestone shows
more exposed calcite crystals per specific particle surface area
compared the macrocrystalline limestone. Thus, a microcrystalline
limestone promotes the disintegration of calcite fragments and will
generate more dust than a macrocrystalline limestone. In the air
Fig. 8. Correlation between d(10%) and the generation of dust and fines. Dust (b 10 μm)
was generated in the air separator. − 32 μm and − 90 μm fines were Alpine sieved from
the VRM table samples. Dust: R2 = 0.99; fines − 32 μm: R2 = 0.99; − 90 μm: R2 = 0.98.
49
separator, the aforementioned properties are quantified by limestone
particles rubbing off calcite crystals (minute cleavage fragments).
Dust [wt.%]
8.06 3.4. d(10%) vs VRM table sample
4.68
10.28
11.48
When defining the fines (−90 μm) generated in a VRM, the fractile
d(10%) has been used. Fines are characterized as those particles which
have experienced compressive size reduction (not abrasion) and
which furthermore are ready to leave the VRM as afinal product. To
examine the fines thoroughly, both the − 90 μm and the − 32 μm
fractions have been analyzed.
The Verdal limestone has a median calcite crystal size approx.
equal to the final particle product size, thus the result will be a
liberation of single calcite crystals (Fig. 7). The median calcite crystals
of the Visnes limestone are much larger (approx. 2 mm). Conse-
quently, for both the Verdal and Visnes limestones, the final product
consists of single calcite cleavage fragments. Contrary, the Orsa and
Storugn limestones show a bimodal calcite CSD, resulting in a mixture
of single calcite cleavage fragments and calcite aggregates (Fig. 7).
The −32 μm and the − 90 μm Alpine air sieve passings from the
VRM table samples were correlated to d(10%) (Table 3, Fig. 8): as
observed, the production of fines behaves inversely compared to the
production of dust. This phenomenon is explained by the fact that the
−90 μm passings are controlled by the mechanical strength of the
limestone and not the calcite frictional interaction (Section 1.1.2): per
specific particle surface area, a microcrystalline limestone shows more
calcite crystal boundaries compared to a macrocrystalline limestones.
As a result the microcrystalline requires more energy for cracks to
pass than a macrocrystalline limestone.
3.5. d(10%) vs power consumption
As a measure of micro strength, the power consumption of the four
limestones has been correlated with generation of dust (−10 μm) and
fines (−90 μm). For synthetic limestone/quartz mixtures containing
90–100 % limestone, the power consumption remains almost constant
indicating that the mixture will yield correct results (Jensen et al.,
2009a). Initially, it was expected that a large production of either dust
or fines would lead to a decreased power consumption, but no
correlation is seen (Fig. 9 Similarly, the d(50%), d(90%) and dust
generation showed no correlations.
Fig. 9. Correlation between d(10%) and the power consumption. Similar non-
informative relationships were found when correlating the power consumption with
d(50%), d(90%) and the dust generation.
50 L.R.D. Jensen et al. / Engineering Geology 110 (2010) 43–50
Fig. 10. Correlation between d(10%) and wear rate. Similar non-informative relation-
ships were found when correlating the wear rate with d(50%), d(90%) and the dust
generation.
3.6. d(10%) vs wear rate
After each of the four VRM experiments, the wear rates were
measured to determine the influence of different limestone types on
the wear rates (Table 2). Previous studies show that the wear rate of
heterogeneous mixtures also depend on the properties of the non-
abrasive components such as limestones (Jensen et al., 2009a,b). It is
assumed, that a limestone generating a large amount of fines in a
closed circuit comminution process will give space to (accumulate)
abrasive particles in the mixture, and as a consequence the wear
increases (Fig. 10).
As with the power consumption correlations, the wear rates
cannot be correlated to the d(10%) fractiles. From Fig. 7 it is readily
observed that Visnes is positioned horizontally to the right in the
diagram compared to Verdal. From the previous assumptions that fine
crystalline limestones result in less fines generated during size
reduction, the Verdal limestone should show a higher wear rate
than Visnes. This however, is not the case and cannot be explained
thoroughly at present. The d(50%), d(90%) and dust generations show
similar non-informative correlations.
4. Conclusion
Extensive studies have been carried out on the assessment of
igneous rocks and various researchers highlight the noticeable
difficulties when using microscope methods to quantify the textures
used in correlations models. The limestones belong to the sedimen-
tary group of rocks which are even more complicated in their texture
due to the diagenetic processes which they undergo. Furthermore, the
majority of limestones show a high concentration of fossils which
originate from animals or plants very different in nature.
Limestones will generate dust (− 10 μm) depending on their
calcite CSD. The relationship is negatively exponential and shows that
coarse calcite crystals reduce the generation of dust whereas the fine
crystals increase the generation of dust (R2 = 0.99). The dust
generation is time dependent and will thus only have marginal
impact on the behavior in for instance a VRM.
During a compressive comminution process, fines (−90 μm) will be
produced according to the calcite CSD of a limestone. The relationship is
positively exponential in nature and shows a mirrored effect compared
to dust generation: Fine calcite crystals produce a decreased amount of
fines whereas coarse calcite crystals produce an increased amount of
fines (R2 = 0.99).
The calcite CSDs were correlated to the power consumption and wear
rates in a closed circuit VRM process but with non-informative results.
However, as a rule of thumb, the microcrystalline limestones need more
energy for the size reduction than macrocrystalline limestones.
The strength of a limestone is not just related to the crystal sizes. It is
believed that the lithification, crystal boundary impurities, mechanical
interlocking of calcite crystals and amount of micro cracks plays a vital
role in determining limestone physical properties. Thus the discrepan-
cies encountered when correlating the wear rate with the calcite CSD
might well be a result of several non-identified parameters.
It needs to be stressed that most limestones have a more
complicated composition and texture as the samples treated in this
study: The majority of industrial limestones are mixtures of several
lithologies, contain substantial amounts of impurities and may not
behave according to the correlations found in this study.
Acknowledgements
The authors would to thank senior laboratory technician Mr Erik Schou
for his improvements on laboratory testing methods and procedures.
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