Submitted by Rajat Garg AT Jsoft Solution Ltd. Vijayanagar Works, Toranagallu

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ON
SUBMITTED BY
RAJAT GARG
AT
JSOFT SOLUTION Ltd. VIJAYANAGAR WORKS, TORANAGALLU

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INDEX
1. Acknowledgement
2. Introduction
i.About Jsoft Solution

ii.
About JSW ltd.
iii.
Plants& Process Involved In Conversion Of Raw Matrials
Into Finished Goods
3. IT In Manufacturing Industry
i. Networking
ii. ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning)
iii. System administrator
iv. Oracle
v. RAC (Real Application Cluster)
vi. DBA (Database Administrator)
4. DBA Support
i. Oracle Architectural Components

ii. Managing an Oracle Instance
iii. Data Dictionary Contents and Usage
iv. Maintaining the Control File
v. Maintaining Redo Log Files
vi. Managing Tablespaces and Data files
vii. Storage Structure and Relationships
viii. Managing Undo Data
ix. Managing Tables
x. Managing Users
xi. Managing Privileges
xii. Managing Roles
xiii. RMAN(Recovery Manager)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Summer training as a part of third year curriculum for computer science &
engineering of Dehradun Institute of Technology was undergone at JSOFT
SOLUTION part of JSW Group from 10th June to 23rd July (6 weeks).
I convey my deep indebtedness respect to Mr. Achuta Raghava sir
(H.R. Manager) for giving us permission to undergo an summer training at your
esteemed company.
In the course of my training at Jsoft Solution (Vidyanagar) , I have learned
a lot about this vast organization and its activities . I express my sincere thanks
to all the member of this organization for their corporation , with their help I
was able to complete my training successfully.
I also thank Mr. V.Ragunath Rayalu(D.G.M Jsoft solution)for
considering my case favorably for the training program.
I express my great thanks to Mr. Rahul Chhabra(Sr consultant) for his
guidance and continuous technical support during execution of the program.
Rajat Garg
DIT Dehradun(U.K)
Introduction
JSOFT SOLUTION:-
JSoft is an IT & ITES arm of US $3.7 billion JSW Group. It's core competency
is to act as an enabler for enterprises, to gain a competitive edge through
effective use of information & communication solutions.
Headquartered in Bangalore, JSoft Solutions would operate from major metros

and provide IT solutions to group companies and companies in various
domains.
Jsoft provide the service to whole JSWgroup.
JSW Group
JSW Group is one of the fastest growing business conglomerates with a strong
presence in the core economic sector. This Sajjan Jindal led enterprise has
grown from a steel rolling mill in 1982 to a multi business conglomerate worth
US $ 3.7 billion within a short span of time.
As part of the US $ 8 billion O. P. Jindal Group, JSW Group has diversified

interests in Steel, Energy, Minerals and Mining, Aluminum, Infrastructure and
Logistic, Cement and Information Technology.
On its road to growth and expansion, the Group is also conscious about its
responsibility towards environment and social development. Eco-efficiency is a
matter of principle. Preventive measures for damage to the environment are
taken into account at the planning stage of production and growth.
JSW Foundation, an integral part of the Group, is the CSR wing, with a vision
to create socio economic difference in the fields of Education, Health and
Sports, Community Relationship/Propagation as well as Art, Culture and
Heritage.
JSW Steel Ltd
Forging ahead, JSW Steel Ltd. is one among the largest Indian Steel Companies
in India today with capacity of 7.8MT.
India’s second largest steelmaker, JSW Steel Ltd. consists of the most modern,
eco-friendly steel plants with the latest technologies for both upstream &
downstream processes. JSW Steel Ltd. has received all the three certificates:
ISO:9001 for Quality Management System
ISO:14001 for Environment Management System
OHSAS:18001 for Occupational Health & Safety Management System
Vijayanagar Works
Vijaynagar works was the first Greenfield project in world to use Corex
technology to produce steel. On February 18,2009 India largest Blast Furnace of
2.8MT capacity was commissioned here. With this commissioning, JSW Steel
become the largest private sector steel producer in India with 7.8MT capacity. It
is also in the advance stage of setting up of 5MTPA state of the act Hot Strip
Mill which will be commissioned in the second half of fiscal 2009-10. The next
phase of expansion taking the total production to 10mtpa plant at Vijayanagar
Works is also under implementation. It will be commissioned in fiscal 2010-11.
This makes it among the fastest growing steel plant in the world.
It's eco-friendly approach has also led to the development of Vijayanagar into a
modern township. Enveloped by acres of greenery and maintained by JSW,
Vijayanagar is prospering by leaps and bounds. Be it education, career
opportunity or women empowerment, the Company's initiative has gone a long
way in making Vijayanagar the success that it is today.
Vision &values
“It is said that in the journey of life, more important than where you are, is
where you are heading to..” - Sajjan Jindal, Vice Chairman & MD, JSW Steel
Ltd.,
OUR VISION
· Preparation and grooming of the next generation of young thinkers.

· Continuous improvement of cost stewardship in the value chain.
· Ability to nurture lasting customer relationships, by anticipating needs
and
delivering beyond expectations.
· Catalyst for growth amongst the nation’s steel industries.
· Marketing of value added branded products for both domestic and global
markets.
OUR VALUES
· Our Corporate values are dear to us and they guide our approach to work
and environment, transforming the way we deliver our products and
services. And our corporate values encourage young thinking because.....
JSOFT SOLUTION:-
JSoft is an IT & ITES arm of US $3.7 billion JSW Group. It's core competency
is to act as an enabler for enterprises, to gain a competitive edge through
effective use of information & communication solutions.
Headquartered in Bangalore, JSoft Solutions would operate from major metros

and provide IT solutions to group companies and companies in various
domains.
JSoft operates across a broad spectrum of IT& ITES services, which include:
· Infrastructure Management
· Business Unit description:
· IT Infrastructure Management, a division of JSoft solutions offers an
entire range of IT services from Solutions architecting, Consultancy,
Facilities Management, Data Center management, Training etc. from the
design to its implementation and management. Our services encompass
the full spectrum of infrastructure management services that monitor,
manage and enhance the performance of business critical operations
· Presently the services are offered to all plants and offices of JSW group
companies in the field of Steel, Aluminum, Energy, Cement, Ports &
Mining etc. Also the services are extended to IT management of BPO,
township, Schools and Hospital.
Services offered:
· Data center Management

· On-site and/or Remote infrastructure management
· Desktop Management
· Facility Management support
· Business continuity & DR Solutions
· Security Services for Protecting Infrastructures
· VoIP Solutions
· Video conferencing solutions
· OCS Maintenance and Mailing solutions
· Common Desktop Enviorment
Benefits:
· Reduce the total cost of IT operations with assured quality of services

· Proactive monitoring to Improve uptime and systems availability
· Optimize IT asset utilization
· Business Applications
· Business Applications is responsible for conceiving, developing and
providing Solutions for the different business processes of the company –
Finance, Manufacturing, Supply Chain Management, Customer
Relations, HR etc. Our expertise lie in providing solution with Oracle e-
business suite for all verticals
Services offered:
· End-to-End Implementation of different Modules of Oracle Applications

for key business functions
· Review and audit of key implemented modules of Oracle Applications
· Support of existing Oracle Applications – including Change Requests/
Enhancements
· Upgrades to existing Oracle Applications
· Implementation of Business Intelligence systems to fulfill the Corporate
Performance Measurement framework.
Benefits:
· Helping in resource planning to have a cut edge in the competitive market

by reducing the cost and lead time
· Provide the latest and best Technology solutions to meet fast-changing
business requirements – such as BI Tools
· Enabling Business to adapt to fast-paced changes in the environment by
providing suitable IT Systems based on cutting-edge technologies
· Ensuring Data Integrity by providing single source of truth for all
transactions across business functions. One view of business to
Management – thereby enabling accurate decision-making in real-time.
· ERP solutions enables the vertical to gain advantage as it adds to 7S
framework.
· It also helps in integrating all the business processes end to end.
· Software Development
· The Software Division of JSoft Solutions, caters to customised
application development using latest Open source technologies under the
Java/ J2EE platform viz., JSF, Spring, Hibernate, Ajax etc., and using
Oracle RDBMS as the backend database. Usage of high end architectural
framework like SOA (Services Oriented Architecture) and Oracle's BPEL

Process Manager from the Oracle's stable is another plus point,
highlighting the utilisation of latest technologies for software
development.
· Currently the primary focus is for providing solutions to the requirements
of all the group companies of JSW. This includes requirements from
different manufacturing plants like Steel, Cement, Energy etc, townships,
hospitals & schools managed by the company.
Services offered:
JSoft is capable of providing customised solutions based on the needs of the

end-user irrespective of the domains. Manufacturing industry is one of the
domains where JSoft has very good expertise, due to varied services offered to
JSW group of companies.
· Customised Business Application Development – Web-based & Stand

alone
· Static & Dynamic Website development & maintenance
· Portal services using Portal Server
Benefits:
· Utilisation of latest technologies with skilled resources

· Scalable applications designed & developed, on-time and within
committed budgets
· Lower maintenance cost with assured quality of service
· Shop Floor Automation
This domain help in manufacturing domain by providing :
· Second Level Automation

· Integrating with Third Level Automation
· Latest technologies like VTS, biometrics
· Shared Services
· Jsoft BPO Solutions focuses on pioneering new service lines, geographies

and business models in Business Process Outsourcing. The company
provides a range of services offerings which are targeted towards global
clients around the world
Services offered:
· Data Entry
· Data Conversion
· Large Volume Data processing
· File Conversion
· OCR Clean up
Benefits:
· Unique Co-sourcing Model JSoft BPO Solutions has designed a unique

'co-sourcing' model that addresses the concerns related to outsourcing
Our model empowers the clients to run their operations at our centres and
provides them with flexibility and high-quality experience .
· We provide dedicated work areas and people and use clients' applications
to provide them with customized reporting The model enables strong
cultural integration, high confidentiality and gain sharing JSoft BPO
Solutions in turn becomes a seamless extension of the client's
organization Dedicated Domain Units, the Unit Heads manage the
functional areas in order to ensure that key operation metrics are
delivered on a regular basis
Managed Services
Business Unit description:
Managed Services unit’s focus is to deliver world-class support and

maintenance services across various service layers ranging from
Custom built solutions to off the shelf solutions/Packages; Infrastructure
Management to Hosting Services by leveraging set of best practices,
ITIL Compliant delivery framework, Solution enablers/productivity
drivers and innovative delivery models to optimize cost of operations
and maximize quality of service delivery.
Process Deployment ·
· Development and Institutionalizing process based on ITIL framework for

Availability Management.
o Incident, Problem Management
o Change, Release Management
o Service Level Management
o Capacity Planning,
o Financial Management
o Availability Management
Transition and Operation Management
o Ensure Stability in Software Release Builds by focus on adequate

testing
o Define Service Level Agreements and manage change required as
per business needs
o Manage Service Desk Analysts to ensure timely issue responses and
resolutions
o Financial management: Institutionalize performance indicators for
measuring and improving service delivery quality
Transition and Operation Management
o Leveraging Six Sigma, Lean principles and drive towards

improving process and service delivery quality
o Driving effective Knowledge base building and improve first call
resolution
o Developing and Deploying productivity tools
Benefits:
· Reducing total cost of ownership by optimizing cost of delivery through

adaptation of best in class processes, tools and effective governance .
· Improving Service Level achievements there by driving more customer
pleasure by effective root cause analysis
· Effective Customer and Vendor management through well defined
service level agreement
· Capabilities to provide ‘On Demand’, ‘On Need by’ services to

customers by effective leveraging a shared delivery framework.
Supporting all these verticals is Managed Services, PMO (Project Management

Office) & Quality units, whose focus is to deliver world-class support, mainatin
high standards of Quality and maintenance services across various service
layers.
Along with extending our support to clients across the geographic spread of
India, we also support our parent company’s IT operations in US & UK plants
PLANTS AND PROCESS INVOLVED IN CONVERSION OF RAW

MATERIALS INTO FINISHED GOODS:
1. RAW MATERIALS:
A. Pellet Plant:
· CAPACITY- 5mtpa
· TECHNOLOGY- Kvaerner Metals, USA
· DRY GRINDING SYSTEM
· Straight grate for industrial process.
B. Sinter Plant:
· CAPACITY- 2.3mtpa
· TECHNOLOGY- OTO Kumper, GERMANY
· Suction under gate- 1400 mm of water column
2. COREX AND BLAST FURNACE:

The above raw materials are further processed and converted
Into liquid hot metal in blast furnace and corex plant.
Corex plant
· CAPACITY- 2 units of 0.8mtpa
· TECHNOLOGY- SIEMENSVAI,AUSTRIA
· Alternative root for making hot metal.
· Uses coal as primary fuel.
· Model c 2000
· Commissioned in August 1999 and April 2001.
A. Blast furnace plant.
Blast furnace- I
· DESIGN- MECON, INDIA
· Equipped with Paul worth
· Top charging equipment
· Use full volume- 1250m3
· Working volume-1050m3
· Commissioned in October 2004
Blast furnace-II
· DESIGN- DANIEL CORUS
· Equipped with TOTEM
· Russia top charging equipment
· Useful volume- 1080m3
· Working volume-1462m3
· Commissioned in July 2006
Blast furnace-III
· CAPACITY – 2.8mtpa.
Total output of Hot metal from both Corex and blast Furnace is 6.8mtpa.
I.e., COREX – 0.8 * 2 = 1.6 mtpa
BLAST FURNACE I – 0.9 mtpa
BLAST FURNACE II – 1.5 mtpa
BLAST FURNACE III – 2.8 mtpa.
3. BASIC OXYGEN FURNACE (BOF):
· Three units each with a capacity of 130 metric tons.

· TECHNOLOGY- SMS DEMAG
· Combined blowing (with oxygen from the top and Ar from
bottom).
· Continuous Iron-ore feeding system.
· Specific volume of 119m3.
· H / D Ratio ( 1: 0 ;1.60 ).
· Top cone cooling.
4. CASTER :
Caster I and II:

CAPASITY- 1.2 MILLION TONS
· TECHNOLOGY- SMS DEMANG.

· THICKNESS- 220 mm.
· WIDTH- 800-1300mm
· CASTING SPEED- 1.75 Mt / Min.
· Curved moulds with Electromechanical oscillation.
· Auto mould width change.
· Sen. Change facility.
Caster III:
· TECHNOLOGY- VAI, UK.
· THICKNESS- 220 / 260 mm.
· WIDTH- 800 – 1600.
· CASTING SPEED – 2.0mtrs/min
· Vertical mould with hydraulic oscillator
· Multipoint bending unbending
· Dynamic spray cooling.
· Auto mould with change
5. HOT STRIP MILL (HSM):
· TECHNOLOGY- DANIELI UNITED.
· Modernization by siemens – VAI
· 6 stand, 4Hi TANDEM MILL
· THICKNESS- 1.6 – 12mm
· WIDTH – 900 – 1300mm
6. COLD ROLLING MILL (CRM):
A) CONTINUOUS PICKLING LINE:

CAPACITY- 1.1 mtpa
UNIQUE FEATURES:
· LASER WELDER FOR MAKING 62 T JUMBO COILS.
· TENSION LEVELER CUM SCALE BREAKING FACILITY.
· ONLINE TRIMMING FACILITY.
B) COLD COMPACT MILL:
UNIQUE FEATURES:
· AUTO SHAPE CONTROL USING SHAPE METER ROLLS ON BOTH

SIDES.
· LASER VELOCITY METER FOR BETTER SPEED ACCURACY.
C) ELECTROLYTIC CLEANING LINE:
UNIQUE FEATURES:
· LEVEL 2 AUTOMATION.
· IN LINE SKIN PASS MILL FOR ROUGHNESS TRANSFER.
D) BATCH ANNEALING FURNACE:
UNIQUE FEATURES:
· UNIFORM ANNEALING UNDER 100% HYDROGEN
ATMOSPHERE.
· HYDROGEN PURITY 99.999%.
E) SKIN PASS MILL:
UNIQUE FEATURES:
· SHAPE METER AT EXIT SIDE.
· USE OF TEMPER FLUID FOR BETTER CLEANLINESS.
F) RECOILING CUM INSPECTION LINE:
UNIQUE FEATURES:
· TENSION LEVELING MODE.

· WASH AND BRUSH UNIT FOR SURFACE CLEANING.
G) AUTO PACKAGING LINE:

LAST PROCESS AT CRM IS APL; FROM HERE THE
GOODS WILL BE DISPATCHED TO CUSTOMER.
These were the above steps of conversion of raw material into finished
material.
· Firstly the Raw Material is sent to Corex and Blast Furnace for conversion
of those raw materials into hot liquid material.
· Secondly that Hot liquid metal is further sent to BOF, there the hot metal
is blown by oxygen from the top and A from the bottom to remove the
impurities from the hot metal.
· Then from BOF the hot metal is sent to CASTER plant where the hot
metal is converted into SLAB.
· That SLAB is further sent to Hot Strip Mill and there the slab is converted
into a coil
· Then that coil will be sent Cold Rolling Mill, where the coil will undergo
the process of Pickling, annealing and Oiling. Here the packing of the coil
takes place at APL and then finally the coil will be dispatched to the
customer.
THE FOLLOWING ARE THE PRODUCTS OF JSW;

· Pellets
· Slab
· Billet
· Hot Rolled pickled oiled Coil
· Hot Rolled skin passed Oiled coil
· Cold rolled Full Hard Coil
· Cold Rolled Closed Annealing Coil
· Hot Rolled Sheets and Plates
· Cold Rolled Sheets and Plates
· Hot Rolled Slit Coil
· Cold Rolled Slit Coil
· Wire Rod
· Bar Rod
· TMT Rod
· Rebar
· Cement
SOFTWARES THAT ARE USED AT JSW:
· WINDOWS OPERATING SYSTEM.
· M.S. OFFICE.
· ORACLE.
· APEX.
· STEEL PROCESSING TRACKING SYSTEM (SPTS)
· INTEGRATED STEEL PROCESSING TRACKING SYSTEM.
· MANUFACTURING EXECUTION SYSTEM.

Networking
In the world of computers, networking is the practice of linking two or
more computing devices together for the purpose of sharing data. Networks are
built with a mix of computer hardware and computer software.
Area Networks
Networks can be categorized in several different ways. One approach

defines the type of network according to the geographic area it spans. Local
area networks (LANs), for example, typically reach across a single home,
whereas wide area networks (WANs), reach across cities, states, or even across
the world. The Internet is the world's largest public WAN.
LAN - Local Area Network
A LAN connects network devices over a relatively short distance. A

networked office building, school, or home usually contains a single LAN,
though sometimes one building will contain a few small LANs (perhaps one per
room), and occasionally a LAN will span a group of nearby buildings. In
TCP/IP networking, a LAN is often but not always implemented as a single IP
subnet.
A local area network (LAN) supplies networking capability to a group
of computers in close proximity to each other such as in an office building, a
school, or a home. A LAN is useful for sharing resources like files, printers,
games or other applications. A LAN in turn often connects to other LANs, and
to the Internet or other WAN.
Most local area networks are built with relatively inexpensive hardware
such as Ethernet cables, network adapters, and hubs. Wireless LAN and other
more advanced LAN hardware options also exist.
In addition to operating in a limited space, LANs are also typically

owned, controlled, and managed by a single person or organization. They also
tend to use certain connectivity technologies, primarily Ethernet and Token

Ring.
WAN - Wide Area Network
As the term implies, a WAN spans a large physical distance. The Internet
is the largest WAN, spanning the Earth.
A WAN is a geographically-dispersed collection of LANs. A network

device called a router connects LANs to a WAN. In IP networking, the router
maintains both a LAN address and a WAN address.
A WAN differs from a LAN in several important ways. Most WANs (like
the Internet) are not owned by any one organization but rather exist under
collective or distributed ownership and management. WANs tend to use
technology like ATM, Frame Relay and X.25 for connectivity over the longer
distances.
Network Design
Computer networks also differ in their design. The two types of high-
level network design are called client-server and peer-to-peer. Client-server
networks feature centralized server computers that store email, Web pages, files
and or applications. On a peer-to-peer network, conversely, all computers tend
to support the same functions. Client-server networks are much more common
in business and peer-to-peer networks much more common in homes.
Client-Server Applications
The client-server model distinguishes between applications as well as

devices. Network clients make requests to a server by sending messages, and
servers respond to their clients by acting on each request and returning results.
One server generally supports numerous clients, and multiple servers can be
networked together in a pool to handle the increased processing load as the
number of clients grows.
Peer to Peer and P2P Networks
Internet-based peer to peer networks emerged in the 1990s due to the

development of P2P file sharing networks like Napster. Technically, many P2P
networks (including the original Napster) are not pure peer networks but rather
hybrid designs as they utilize central servers for some functions such as search.
Peer to peer is an approach to computer networking where all computers

share equivalent responsibility for processing data. Peer-to-peer networking
(also known simply as peer networking) differs from client-server networking,
where certain devices have responsibility for providing or "serving" data and
other devices consume or otherwise act as "clients" of those servers.
WWW
The term WWW refers to the World Wide Web or simply the Web. The
World Wide Web consists of all the public Web sites connected to the Internet
worldwide, including the client devices (such as computers and cell phones) that
access Web content. The WWW is just one of many applications of the Internet
and computer networks.
The World Web is based on these technologies:
· HTML - Hypertext Markup Language

· HTTP - Hypertext Transfer Protocol
· Web servers and Web browsers
Network Topology
A network topology represents its layout or structure from the point of

view of data flow. In so-called bus networks, for example, all of the computers
share and communicate across one common conduit, whereas in a star network,
all data flows through one centralized device. Common types of network
topologies include bus, star, ring and mesh.
Bus Topology
Bus networks (not to be confused with the system bus of a computer) use
a common backbone to connect all devices. A single cable, the backbone
functions as a shared communication medium that devices attach or tap into
with an interface connector. A device wanting to communicate with another
device on the network sends a broadcast message onto the wire that all other
devices see, but only the intended recipient actually accepts and processes the
message.
Ethernet bus topologies are relatively easy to install and don't require
much cabling compared to the alternatives. 10Base-2 ("ThinNet") and 10Base-5
("ThickNet") both were popular Ethernet cabling options many years ago for
bus topologies. However, bus networks work best with a limited number of
devices. If more than a few dozen computers are added to a network bus,
performance problems will likely result. In addition, if the backbone cable fails,
the entire network effectively becomes unusable.
Ring Topology
In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbours for

communication purposes. All messages travel through a ring in the same
direction (either "clockwise" or "counterclockwise"). A failure in any cable or
device breaks the loop and can take down the entire network.
To implement a ring network, one typically uses FDDI, SONET, or

Token Ring technology. Ring topologies are found in some office buildings or
school campuses.
Star Topology
Many home networks use the star topology. A star network features a
central connection point called a "hub" that may be a hub, switch or router.
Devices typically connect to the hub with Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
Ethernet.
Compared to the bus topology, a star network generally requires more

cable, but a failure in any star network cable will only take down one
computer's network access and not the entire LAN. (If the hub fails, however,
the entire network also fails.)
Tree Topology
Tree topologies integrate multiple star topologies together onto a bus. In

its simplest form, only hub devices connect directly to the tree bus, and each
hub functions as the "root" of a tree of devices. This bus/star hybrid approach
supports future expandability of the network much better than a bus (limited in
the number of devices due to the broadcast traffic it generates) or a star (limited
by the number of hub connection points) alone.
Mesh Topology
Mesh topologies involve the concept of routes. Unlike each of the

previous topologies, messages sent on a mesh network can take any of several
possible paths from source to destination. (Recall that even in a ring, although
two cable paths exist, messages can only travel in one direction.) Some WANs,
most notably the Internet, employ mesh routing.
A mesh network in which every device connects to every other is called a

full mesh. As shown in the illustration below, partial mesh networks also exist
in which some devices connect only indirectly to others.
Network Protocols
In networking, the communication language used by computer devices is

called the protocol. Yet another way to classify computer networks is by the set
of protocols they support. Networks often implement multiple protocols to
support specific applications. Popular protocols include TCP/IP, the most

common protocol found on the Internet and in home networks.
Network protocols include mechanisms for devices to identify and make

connections with each other, as well as formatting rules that specify how data is
packaged into messages sent and received. Some protocols also support
message acknowledgement and data compression designed for reliable and/or
high-performance network communication. Hundreds of different computer
network protocols have been developed each designed for specific purposes and
environments.
Internet Protocols
The Internet Protocol family contains a set of related (and among the
most widely used network protocols. Besides Internet Protocol (IP) itself,
higher-level protocols like TCP, UDP, HTTP, and FTP all integrate with IP to
provide additional capabilities. Similarly, lower-level Internet Protocols like
ARP and ICMP also co-exist with IP. These higher level protocols interact
more closely with applications like Web browsers while lower-level protocols
interact with network adapters and other computer hardware.
Types of Network Equipment
The building blocks of a home computer network include adapters,

routers and/or access points. Wired (and hybrid wired/wireless) networking also
involves cables of varying types. Finally, large-scale enterprise networks in
particular often employ other advanced equipment for specialized
communication purposes.
Routers are physical devices that join multiple wired or wireless

networks together. Technically, a wired or wireless router is a Layer 3
gateway, meaning that the wired/wireless router connects networks (as
gateways do), and that the router operates at the network layer of the OSI
model.
Home networkers often use an Internet Protocol (IP) wired or wireless

router, IP being the most common OSI network layer protocol. An IP router
such as a DSL or cable modem broadband router joins the home's local area
network (LAN) to the wide-area network (WAN) of the Internet.
By maintaining configuration information in a piece of storage called the

routing table, wired or wireless routers also have the ability to filter traffic,
either incoming or outgoing, based on the IP addresses of senders and receivers.
Some routers allow the home networker to update the routing table from a Web
browser interface. Broadband routers combine the functions of a router with
those of a network switch and a firewall in a single unit.
A network adapter allows a computing device to interface with a local

network. Adapters are a required component to include when building a
network.
Types of Network Adapters
A network adapter is typically a small unit of hardware. Several types of

hardware adapters exist:
· Traditional PCI adapters fit inside a desktop personal computer (often

called a NIC).
· A newer type of PCI adapter, "PC Card" adapters (sometimes called
PCMCIA cards) insert into the side of a notebook computer.
· A USB adapter plus into a standard USB port of any computer
· A media adapter connects to the Ethernet port of an Xbox or
Playstation game console or other home entertainment product,
providing a bridge to Wi-Fi wireless capability.
· Newer notebook computers contain integrated wireless adapter chips
Every common adapter supports either Wi-Fi (wireless) or Ethernet

(wired) standards. Special-purpose adapters that support very specialized
network protocols also exist, but these are not found in homes or most business
networks.
A router is a more sophisticated network device than either a switch or a

hub. Like hubs and switches, network routers are typically small, box-like
pieces of equipment that multiple computers can connect to. Each features a
number of "ports" the front or back that provide the connection points for these
computers, a connection for electric power, and a number of LED lights to
display device status. While routers, hubs and switches all share similiar
physical appearance, routers differ substantially in their inner workings.
Traditional routers are designed to join multiple area networks ( LANs

and WANs). On the Internet or on a large corporate network, for example,
routers serve as intermediate destinations for network traffic. These routers
receive TCP/IP packets, look inside each packet to identify the source and
target IP addresses, then forward these packets as needed to ensure the data
reaches its final destination.
Routers for home networks (often called broadband routers) also can join
multiple networks. These routers are designed specifically to join the home
(LAN) to the Internet (WAN) for the purpose of Internet connection sharing. In
contrast, neither hubs nor switches are capable of joining multiple networks or
sharing an Internet connection. A home network with only hubs and switches
must designate one computer as the gateway to the Internet, and that device
must possess two network adapters for sharing, one for the home LAN and
one for the Internet WAN. With a router, all home computers connect to the
router equally, and it performs the equivalent gateway functions.
Additionally, broadband routers contain several features beyond those of

traditional routers. Broadband routers provide DHCP server and proxy support,
for example. Most of these routers also offer integrated firewalls. Finally,
wired Ethernet broadband routers typically incorporate a built-in Ethernet
switch. These routers allow several hubs or switches to be connected to them, as
a means to expand the local network to accomodate more Ethernet devices.
In home networking, hubs and switches technically exist only for wired
networks. Wi-Fi wireless routers incorporate a built-in access point that is
roughly equivalent to a wired switch.
Modems are networking devices that convert analog and digital data for
computer-to-computer communication. Several kinds of modem devices exist
for dial-up, broadband and cellular networking.
Wired vs Wireless Networking
Many of the same network protocols, like TCP/IP, work in both wired
and wireless networks. Networks with Ethernet cables predominated in
businesses, schools, and homes for several decades. Recently, however, wireless
networking alternatives have emerged as the premier technology for building
new computer networks.
Ethernet is a physical and data link layer technology for local area
networks. Homes, schools and offices around the world all commonly use
Ethernet standard cables and adapters to network personal computers.
A crossover cable directly connects two network devices of the same

type to each other over Ethernet. Ethernet crossover cables are commonly used
when temporarily networking two devices in situations where a network router,
switch or hub is not present.
Compared to standard Ethernet cables, the internal wiring of Ethernet

crossover cables reverses the transmit and receive signals. The reversed color-
coded wires can be seen through the RJ-45 connectors at each end of the cable:
· Standard cables have an idential sequence of colored wires on each

end
· Crossover cables have the 1st and 3rd wires (counting from left to
right) crossed, and the 2nd and 6th wires crossed
· A fiber optic cable is a network cable that contains strands of glass
fibers inside an insulated casing. These cables are designed for long
distance and very high bandwidth ( gigabit speed) network
communications.
· Fiber optic cables carry communication signals using pulses of light.

While expensive, these cables are increasingly being used instead of
traditional copper cables, because fiber offers more capacity and is
less susceptible to electrical interference. So-called Fiber to the Home
(FTTH) installations are becoming more common as a way to bring
ultra high speed Internet service (100 Mbps and higher) to residences.
Wireless Local Area Networks
Wi-Fi is the most popular wireless communication protocol for local area
networks. Private home and business networks, and public hotspots, use Wi-Fi
to networks computers and other wireless devices to each other and the Internet.
Bluetooth is another wireless protocol commonly used in cellular phones and
computer peripherals for short range network communication.
Bluetooth is a specification for the use of low-power radio

communications to wirelessly link phones, computers and other network
devices over short distances. The name Bluetooth is borrowed from Harald
Bluetooth, a king in Denmark more than 1,000 years ago.
Bluetooth technology was designed primarily to support simple wireless

networking of personal consumer devices and peripherals, including cell
phones, PDAs, and wireless headsets. Wireless signals transmitted with
Bluetooth cover short distances, typically up to 30 feet (10 meters). Bluetooth
devices generally communicate at less than 1 Mbps.
Internet Service
The technologies used to connect to the Internet are different than those
used for connecting devices on local area network. DSL, cable modem and fiber
provide fixed broadband Internet service, while WiMax and LTE additionally
support mobile connectivity. In geographic areas where these high-speed
options are unavailable, subscribers are forced to use older cellular services,
satellite or even dial-up Internet instead.
TCP/IP and Other Internet Protocols
TCP/IP is the primary network protocol of the Internet. A related family

of protocols built on top of TCP/IP allows Web browsers, email and many other
applications to communicate across networks globally. Applications and
computers using TCP/IP identify each other with assigned IP addresses.
Network Routing, Switching and Bridging
Most computer networks direct messages from source to destination

devices using any of three techniques called routing, switching and bridging.
Routers use certain network address information contained inside messages to
send them ahead to their destination (sometimes indirectly via one or more
additional routers). Switches use much of the same technology as routers but
typically support local area networks only. Bridging allows messages to flow
between two different types of physical networks.
JSW Networking Structure
• JSW have very big Network Structure. In JSW we use 10 to 15 servers,

which are located in server room. In JSW every department is separated
by a VLAN. There are 30 VLAN’s created. The creation of Guest VLAN
is under Progress.
• VLAN (Virtual Local Area Network) --- VLAN’s means segmentation

of physical network at Layer 2. Here we darker the word Layer because
all the communication happened in a Network because of the 7 layer,
which called OSI model of Layers.
JSW Network Diagram

JSW Bharthi MPLS SETUP

Jaipur
Indore Salem
Guwahati
Faridabad
Patna Delhi
Ghaziabad
Bharti MPLS
Bharti MPLS PoP Calcutta
Bharti MPLS
PoP Bharti MPLS
PoP Bharti MPLS
PoP
Bharti MPLS PoP
Ludhiana PoP
Bharti MPLS
Bharti MPLS
PoP
PoP
Bharti MPLS
Prabhadevi Bharti MPLS Hyderabad
PoP
PoP
Bharti MPLS
PoP
Bharti MPLS Bharti MPLS
PoP
Bellary Bharti MPLS
PoP
Cloud Bharti MPLS
Coimbatore
PoP
Internet Bharti MPLS Bharti

Bharti MPLS Bharti Bharti MPLS
cloud PoP MPLS
PoP MPLS PoP
PoP Bharti MPLS
PoP
PoP
Bharti MPLS
PoP Bangalore
Tarapore
Chennai
RF Pedder Rd
Vasind
LL Lower Parel
Ahmedabad
LAN DETAILS
• In JSW we are using Cisco series switch, Foundry switch, 3com switch
and D Link switch. We have approx 1500 nodes of LAN. We are using
Star Topology in LAN network.
Star Topology – A Star topology is one in which a central unit provides a link to
through which a group of smaller computers and devices are connected. The
central computer is usually called a host computer. A host computer is usually a
large computer such as a mini computer or a mainframe. A file server is a large
storage device that provides volumes of data and programs to the other units in
the network.
Enterprise Resource Planning

Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) is an industry term for the broad
set of activities that helps a business manage the important parts of its business.
The information made available through an ERP system provides visibility for
key performance indicators (KPIs) required for meeting corporate objectives.
ERP software applications can be used to manage product planning, parts
purchasing, inventories, interacting with suppliers, providing customer service,
and tracking orders. ERP can also include application modules for the finance
and human resources aspects of a business. Typically, an ERP system uses or is
integrated with a relational database system.
The deployment of an ERP system can involve considerable business

process analysis, employee retraining, and new work procedures.
key elements of ERP
The following key elements of ERP and their associated tools are directly
linked.
• Multi-media compliance assistance by regulatory agencies through
compliance assistance workshops and plain language workbooks
and checklists
• Self-certification of compliance by businesses
• Statistically-based environmental performance measurement
through baseline inspections and post-certification inspections at
randomly selected facilities, as well as through targeted inspections and
evaluation of sector-specific indicators to track performance and

compliance.
Compliance assurance and enforcement is an integral part of ERP that
underlies all three of these key elements.
Sectors in which ERP being applied
• Autobody/Repair
• Auto salvage yards
• Dental facilities/Mercury
• Dry cleaning
• Oil/Gas Extraction Wells
• Photoprocessing
• Printing
• Underground storage tanks/
Retail gasoline sales
Overview of ERP Solutions
Some organizations — typically those with sufficient in-house IT skills

to integrate multiple software products — choose to implement only portions of
an ERP system and develop an external interface to other ERP or stand-alone
systems for their other application needs. For example, one may choose to use
human resource management system from one vendor, and perform the
integration between the systems themselves.
This is common to retailers where even a mid-sized retailer will have a

discrete Point-of-Sale (POS) product and financials application, then a series of
specialized applications to handle business requirements such as warehouse
management, staff rostering, merchandising and logistics.
Ideally, ERP delivers a single database that contains all data for the
software modules, which would include:
Manufacturing
Engineering, bills of material, scheduling, capacity, workflow
management, quality control, cost management, manufacturing process,
manufacturing projects, manufacturing flow.
Manufacturing is the use of machines, tools and labor to make things for
use or sale. The term may refer to a range of human activity, from handicraft to
high tech, but is most commonly applied to industrial production, in which
raw materials are transformed into finished goods on a large scale. Such
finished goods may be used for manufacturing other, more complex products,
such as household appliances or automobiles, or sold to wholesalers, who in
turn sell them to retailers, who then sell them to end users - the " consumers".
Manufacturing takes turns under all types of economic systems. In a free

market economy, manufacturing is usually directed toward the mass production
of products for sale to consumers at a profit. In a collectivist economy,
manufacturing is more frequently directed by the state to supply a centrally
planned economy. In free market economies, manufacturing occurs under some
degree of government regulation.
Modern manufacturing includes all intermediate processes required for

the production and integration of a product's components. Some industries, such
as semiconductor and steel manufacturers use the term fabrication instead.
The manufacturing sector is closely connected with engineering and

industrial design.
Supply chain management

Order to cash, inventory, order entry, purchasing, product configurator,
supply chain planning, supplier scheduling, inspection of goods, claim
processing, commission calculation
supply chain management (SCM) is the management of a network of
interconnected businesses involved in the ultimate provision of product and
service packages required by end customers . Supply Chain Management spans
all movement and storage of raw materials, work-in-process inventory, and
finished goods from point of origin to point of consumption ( supply chain).
Supply Chain Management encompasses the planning and management

of all activities involved in sourcing, procurement, conversion, and logistics
management activities. Importantly, it also includes coordination and
collaboration with channel partners, which can be suppliers, intermediaries,
third-party service providers, and customers. In essence, Supply Chain
Management integrates supply and demand management within and across
companies. More recently, the loosely coupled, self-organizing network of
businesses that cooperates to provide product and service offerings has been
called the Extended Enterprise.
Supply Chain Management can also refer to Supply chain management

software which are tools or modules used in executing supply chain
transactions, managing supplier relationships and controlling associated
business processes.
Activities/functions
Supply chain management is a cross-function approach to manage the

movement of raw materials into an organization, certain aspects of the internal
processing of materials into finished goods, and then the movement of finished
goods out of the organization toward the end-consumer. As organizations strive
to focus on core competencies and becoming more flexible, they have reduced
their ownership of raw materials sources and distribution channels. These
functions are increasingly being outsourced to other entities that can perform
the activities better or more cost effectively. The effect is to increase the number
of organizations involved in satisfying customer demand, while reducing
management control of daily logistics operations. Less control and more supply
chain partners led to the creation of supply chain management concepts. The
purpose of supply chain management is to improve trust and collaboration
among supply chain partners, thus improving inventory visibility and improving
inventory velocity.
Financials
General ledger, cash management, accounts payable, accounts receivable,
fixed assets.
Finance is the science of funds management. The general areas of
finance are business finance, personal finance, and public finance. Finance
includes saving money and often includes lending money. The field of finance
deals with the concepts of time, money and risk and how they are interrelated.
It also deals with how money is spent and budgeted.
Finance works most basically through individuals and business

organizations depositing money in a bank. The bank then lends the money out
to other individuals or corporations for consumption or investment, and
charges interest on the loans.
Loans have become increasingly packaged for resale, meaning that an

investor buys the loan (debt) from a bank or directly from a corporation. Bonds
are debt sold directly to investors from corporations, while That investor can
then hold the debt and collect the interest or sell the debt on a secondary
market. Banks are the main facilitators of funding through the provision of
credit, although private equity, mutual funds, hedge funds, and other
organizations have become important as they invest in various forms of debt.
Financial assets, known as investments, are financially managed with careful
attention to financial risk management to control financial risk. Financial
instruments allow many forms of securitized assets to be traded on securities
exchanges such as stock exchanges, including debt such as bonds as well as
equity in publicly-traded corporations.
Central banks act as lenders of last resort and control the money supply,
which affects the interest rates charged. As money supply increases, interest
rates decrease.
The main techniques and sectors of the financial industry

Financial services
An entity whose income exceeds their expenditure can lend or invest the
excess income. On the other hand, an entity whose income is less than its
expenditure can raise capital by borrowing or selling equity claims, decreasing

its expenses, or increasing its income. The lender can find a borrower, a
financial intermediary such as a bank, or buy notes or bonds in the bond
market. The lender receives interest, the borrower pays a higher interest than the
lender receives, and the financial intermediary pockets the difference.
A bank aggregates the activities of many borrowers and lenders. A bank

accepts deposits from lenders, on which it pays the interest. The bank then lends
these deposits to borrowers. Banks allow borrowers and lenders, of different
sizes, to coordinate their activity. Banks are thus compensators of money flows
in space.
Finance is used by individuals ( personal finance), by governments

( public finance), by businesses ( corporate finance), as well as by a wide variety
of organizations including schools and non-profit organizations. In general, the
goals of each of the above activities are achieved through the use of appropriate
financial instruments and methodologies, with consideration to their
institutional setting.
Finance is one of the most important aspects of business management.

Without proper financial planning a new enterprise is unlikely to be successful.
Managing money (a liquid asset) is essential to ensure a secure future, both for
the individual and an organization.
Project management
Costing, billing, time and expense, performance units, activity
management
Project management is the discipline of planning, organizing and

managing resources to bring about the successful completion of specific
project goals and objectives. It is often closely related to and sometimes
conflated with Program management.
A project is a finite endeavor--having specific start and completion dates-

-undertaken to meet particular goals and objectives, usually to bring about
beneficial change or added value. This finite characteristic of projects stands in
contrast to processes, or operations--which is repetitive, permanent or semi-
permanent functional work to produce products or services. In practice, the
management of these two systems is often found to be quite different, and as
such requires the development of distinct technical skills and the adoption of
separate management.
The primary challenge of project management is to achieve all of the

project goals and objectives while honoring the preconceived project
constraints. Typical constraints are scope, time and budget. The secondary—
and more ambitious—challenge is to optimize the allocation and integration of
inputs necessary to meet pre-defined objectives.
A traditional phased approach identifies a sequence of steps to be

completed. In the "traditional approach", we can distinguish 5 components of a
project (4 stages plus control) in the development of a project:
Typical development phases of a project
· Project planning or design stage;

· Project execution or production stage;
· Project monitoring and controlling systems;
· Project completion stage.
Human resources
Human resources, payroll, training, time and attendance, rostering,
benefits
Human resources is an increasingly broadening term with which an
organization, or other human system describes the combination of traditionally
administrative personnel functions with acquisition and application of skills,
knowledge and experience, employee relations and resource planning at various
levels. The field draws upon concepts developed in Industrial/Organizational
Psychology and System Theory. Human resources has at least two related
interpretations depending on context. The original usage derives from political
economy and economics, where it was traditionally called labor, one of four
factors of production although this perspective is changing as a function of new
and ongoing research into more strategic approaches at national levels. This first
usage is used more in terms of 'human resources development', and can go
beyond just organizations to the level of nations. The more traditional usage
within corporations and businesses refers to the individuals within a firm or
agency, and to the portion of the organization that deals with hiring, firing,
training, and other personnel issues, typically referred to as `human resources
management'. This article addresses both definitions.
Key functions
Human resource management serves these key functions:
1. Recruitment & Selection

2. Training and Development (People or Organization)
3. Performance Evaluation and Management
4. Promotions/Transfer
5. Redundancy
6. Industrial and Employee Relations
7. Record keeping of all personal data.
8. Compensation, pensions, bonuses etc in liaison with Payroll
9. Confidential advice to internal 'customers' in relation to problems
at work
10. Career development
11. Compentency Mapping
Customer relationship management

Sales and marketing, commissions, service, customer contact and call
center support
Customer relationship management (CRM) consists of the processes a

company uses to track and organize its contacts with its current and prospective
customers. CRM software is used to support these processes; information about
customers and customer interactions can be entered, stored and accessed by
employees in different company departments. Typical CRM goals are to
improve services provided to customers, and to use customer contact
information for targeted marketing.
While the term CRM generally refers to a software-based approach to

handling customer relationships, most CRM software vendors stress that a
successful CRM effort requires a holistic approach. CRM initiatives often fail
because implementation was limited to software installation, without providing
the context, support and understanding for employees to learn, and take full
advantage of the information systems. CRM can be implemented without major

investments in software, but software is often necessary to explore the full
benefits of a CRM strategy.
CRM includes many aspects which relate directly to one another:
· Front office operations — Direct interaction with customers, e.g.

face to face meetings, phone calls, e-mail, online services etc.
· Back office operations — Operations that ultimately affect the
activities of the front office (e.g., billing, maintenance, planning, marketing,
advertising, finance, manufacturing, etc.)
· Business relationships — Interaction with other companies and
partners, such as suppliers/vendors and retail outlets/distributors, industry
networks (lobbying groups, trade associations). This external network supports
front and back office activities.
· Analysis — Key CRM data can be analyzed in order to plan target-
marketing campaigns, conceive business strategies, and judge the success of
CRM activities (e.g., market share, number and types of customers, revenue,
profitability).
Data warehouse
Data warehouse and various self-service interfaces for customers,

suppliers, and employees
Data warehouse is a repository of an organization's electronically stored

data. Data warehouses are designed to facilitate reporting and analysis.
This definition of the data warehouse focuses on data storage. However,

the means to retrieve and analyze data, to extract, transform and load data, and
to manage the data dictionary are also considered essential components of a
data warehousing system. Many references to data warehousing use this broader
context. Thus, an expanded definition for data warehousing includes business
intelligence tools, tools to extract, transform, and load data into the repository,
and tools to manage and retrieve metadata.
In contrast to data warehouses are operational databases that support day-

to-day transaction processing.
Data warehouse architecture
Architecture, in the context of an organization's data warehousing efforts,

is a conceptualization of how the data warehouse is built. There is no right or
wrong architecture, rather multiple architectures exist to support various
environments and situations. The worthiness of the architecture can be judged in
how the conceptualization aids in the building, maintenance, and usage of the
data warehouse.
One possible simple conceptualization of a data warehouse architecture

consists of the following interconnected layers:
Operational database layer

The source data for the data warehouse - An organization's Enterprise
Resource Planning systems fall into this layer.
Data access layer
The interface between the operational and informational access layer -
Tools to extract, transform, load data into the warehouse fall into this layer.
Metadata layer
The data directory - This is usually more detailed than an operational
system data directory. There are dictionaries for the entire warehouse and
sometimes dictionaries for the data that can be accessed by a particular
reporting and analysis tool.
Informational access layer
The data accessed for reporting and analyzing and the tools for reporting
and analyzing data - Business intelligence tools fall into this layer. And the
Inmon-Kimball differences about design methodology, discussed later in this
article, have to do with this layer.
Access control
Access control - user privilege as per authority levels for process
execution
Access control is the ability to permit or deny the use of a particular

resource by a particular entity. Access control mechanisms can be used in
managing physical resources (such as a movie theater, to which only
ticketholders should be admitted), logical resources (a bank account, with a
limited number of people authorized to make a withdrawal), or digital resources
(for example, a private text document on a computer, which only certain users
should be able to read).
Item control or electronic key management is an area within (and

possibly integrated with) an access control system which concerns the managing
of possession and location of small assets or physical (mechanical) keys.
Physical access by a person may be allowed depending on payment,

authorization, etc. Also there may be one-way traffic of people. These can be
enforced by personnel such as a border guard, a doorman, a ticket checker,
etc., or with a device such as a turnstile. There may be fences to avoid
circumventing this access control. An alternative of access control in the strict
sense (physically controlling access itself) is a system of checking authorized
presence.
In physical security, the term access control refers to the practice of

restricting entrance to a property, a building, or a room to authorized persons.
Physical access control can be achieved by a human (a guard, bouncer, or
receptionist), through mechanical means such as locks and keys, or through

technological means such as access control systems like the Access control
vestibule. Within these environments, physical key management may also be
employed as a means of further managing and monitoring access to
mechanically keyed areas or access to certain small assets.
Electronic access control uses computers to solve the limitations of

mechanical locks and keys. A wide range of credentials can be used to replace
mechanical keys. The electronic access control system grants access based on
the credential presented. When access is granted, the door is unlocked for a
predetermined time and the transaction is recorded. When access is refused, the
door remains locked and the attempted access is recorded. The system will also
monitor the door and alarm if the door is forced open or held open too long after
being unlocked.
Customization
Customization - to meet the extension, addition, change in process flow
Personalization involves using technology to accommodat e t h e

differences between individuals. Once confined mainly to the Web, it is
increasingly becoming a factor in education, healthcare (i.e. personalized
medicine), and both "business to business" and "business to consumer" settings.
Personalization implies that the changes are based on implicit data, such
as items purchased or pages viewed. The term customization is used instead
when the site only uses explicit data such as ratings or preferences.
On an intranet or B2E Enterprise Web portals, personalization is often

based on user attributes such as department, functional area, or role. The term
customization in this context refers to the ability of users to modify the page
layout or specify what content should be displayed.
There are three categories of personalizations:
1. Profile / Group based

2. Behaviour based
3. Collaboration based
Web personalization models include rules-based filtering, based on "if

this, then that" rules processing, and collaborative filtering, which serves
relevant material to customers by combining their own personal preferences
with the preferences of like-minded others. Collaborative filtering works well

for books, music, video, etc. However, it does not work well for a number of
categories such as apparel, jewelry, cosmetics, etc. Recently, another method,
Prediction Based on Benefit is proposed for products with complex attributes
such as apparel.
There are three broad methods of personalizations:
1. Implicit
2. Explicit
3. Hybrid
With implicit personalization the personalization is performed by the web

page (or information system) based on the different categories mentioned
above. With explicit personalization, the web page (or information system) is
changed by the user using the features provided by the system. Hybrid
personalization combines the above two approaches for leverage best of both
worlds.
Many companies offer services for web recommendation and email

recommendation that are based on personalization or anonymously collected
user behaviours.
Web personalization is closely linked to the notion of Adaptive

hypermedia (AH). The main difference is that the former would usually work
on what is considered an Open Corpus Hypermedia, whilst the latter would
traditionally work on Closed Corpus Hypermedia. However, recent research
directions in the AH domain take both closed and open corpus into account.
Thus, the two fields are closely inter-related.
Personalisation is also being considered for use in less overtly

commercial applications to improve the user experience online.
Advantages
In the absence of an ERP system, a large manufacturer may find itself

with many software applications that cannot communicate or interface
effectively with one another. Tasks that need to interface with one another may
involve:
· Integration among different functional areas to ensure proper

communication, productivity and efficiency
· Design engineering (how to best make the product)
· Order tracking, from acceptance through fulfilment
· The revenue cycle, from invoice through cash receipt

· Managing inter-dependencies of complex processes bill of materials
· Tracking the three-way match between purchase orders (what was
ordered), inventory receipts (what arrived), and costing (what the
vendor invoiced)
· The accounting for all of these tasks: tracking the revenue, cost and
profit at a granular level.
· ERP Systems centralize the data in one place. This eliminates the
problem of synchronizing changes and can reduce the risk of loss of
sensitive data by consolidating multiple permissions and security
models into a single structure.
Some security features are included within an ERP system to protect

against both outsider crime, such as industrial espionage, and insider crime,
such as embezzlement. A data-tampering scenario, for example, might involve
a disgruntled employee intentionally modifying prices to below-the-breakeven
point in order to attempt to interfere with the company's profit or other sabotage.
ERP systems typically provide functionality for implementing internal controls
to prevent actions of this kind. ERP vendors are also moving toward better
integration with other kinds of information security tools.
Disadvantages
Problems with ERP systems are mainly due to inadequate investment in

ongoing training for the involved IT personnel - including those implementing
and testing changes - as well as a lack of corporate policy protecting the
integrity of the data in the ERP systems and the ways in which it is used.
· Customization of the ERP software is limited.

· Re-engineering of business processes to fit the "industry standard"
prescribed by the ERP system may lead to a loss of competitive
advantage.
· ERP systems can be very expensive (This has led to a new category of
"ERP light" solutions)
· ERPs are often seen as too rigid and too difficult to adapt to the specific
workflow and business process of some companies—this is cited as
one of the main causes of their failure.
· Many of the integrated links need high accuracy in other applications to
work effectively. A company can achieve minimum standards, then
over time "dirty data" will reduce the reliability of some applications.
· Once a system is established, switching costs are very high for any one
of the partners (reducing flexibility and strategic control at the
corporate level).
· The blurring of company boundaries can cause problems in

accountability, lines of responsibility, and employee morale.
· Resistance in sharing sensitive internal information between
departments can reduce the effectiveness of the software.
· Some large organizations may have multiple departments with separate,
independent resources, missions, chains-of-command, etc, and
consolidation into a single enterprise may yield limited benefits.
· The system may be too complex measured against the actual needs of
the customers.
· ERP Systems centralize the data in one place. This can increase the risk
of loss of sensitive information in the event of a security breach.
System Administrator
A system administrator, systems administrator, or sysadmin, is a person
employed to maintain and operate a computer system and/or network. System
administrators may be members of an information technology department.
The duties of a system administrator are wide-ranging, and vary widely from
one organization to another. Sysadmins are usually charged with installing,
supporting, and maintaining servers or other computer systems, and planning
for and responding to service outages and other problems. Other duties may
include scripting or light programming, project management for systems-
related projects, supervising or training computer operators, and being the
consultant for computer problems beyond the knowledge of technical support
staff. A System Administrator must demonstrate a blend of technical skills and
responsibility.
Skills
The subject matter of systems administration includes computer systems and the
ways people use them in an organization. This entails a knowledge of operating
systems and applications, as well as hardware and software troubleshooting,
but also knowledge of the purposes for which people in the organization use the
computers.
However, perhaps the most important skill to a system administrator is problem

solving -- frequently under various sorts of constraints and stress. The sysadmin
is on call when a computer system goes down or malfunctions, and must be able
to quickly and correctly diagnose what is wrong and how best to fix it.
System administrators are not software engineers or developers. It is not

usually within their duties to design or write new applications software.
However, sysadmins must understand the behavior of software in order to
deploy it and to troubleshoot problems, and generally know several
programming languages used for scripting or automation of routine tasks.
Particularly when dealing with Internet-facing or business-critical systems, a

sysadmin must have a strong grasp of computer security. This includes not
merely deploying software patches, but also preventing break-ins and other
security problems with preventive measures. In some organizations, computer
security administration is a separate role responsible for overall security and the
upkeep of firewalls and intrusion detection systems, but all sysadmins are
generally responsible for the security of the systems in their keep.
Related fields
Many organizations staff other jobs related to systems administration. In a

larger company, these may all be separate positions within a computer support
or Information Services (IS) department. In a smaller group they may be shared
by a few sysadmins, or even a single person.
· A database administrator (DBA) maintains a database system, and is

responsible for the integrity of the data and the efficiency and
performance of the system.
· A network administrator maintains network infrastructure such as
switches and routers, and diagnoses problems with these or with the
behavior of network-attached computers.
· A security administrator is a specialist in computer and network security,
including the administration of security devices such as firewalls, as well
as consulting on general security measures.
· A web administrator maintains web server services (such as Apache or
IIS) that allow for internal or external access to web sites. Tasks include
managing multiple sites, administering security, and configuring
necessary components and software. Responsibilities may also include
software change management.
· Technical support staff respond to individual users' difficulties with
computer systems, provide instructions and sometimes training, and
diagnose and solve common problems.
· A computer operator performs routine maintenance and upkeep, such as
changing backup tapes or replacing failed drives in a RAID. Such tasks
usually require physical presence in the room with the computer; and
while less skilled than sysadmin tasks require a similar level of trust,
since the operator has access to possibly sensitive data.
In some organizations, a person may begin as a member of technical support

staff or a computer operator, then gain experience on the job to be promoted to a
sysadmin position.
Training
Unlike many other professions, there is no single path to becoming a system

administrator. Many system administrators have a degree in a related field:
computer science, information technology, computer engineering, information
system management, or even a trade school program. Other schools have
offshoots of their Computer Science program specifically for systems
administration.
One of the primary difficulties with teaching system administration as a formal

university discipline, is that the industry and technology changes much faster
than the typical textbook and coursework certification process. By the time a
new textbook has spent years working through approvals and committees, the
specific technology for which it is written may have changed significantly or is
now obsolete.
In addition, because of the practical nature of systems administration and the

easy availability of open-source server software, many systems administrators
enter the field self-taught.
Generally, a prospective administrator will be required to have some experience

with the computer system he or she is expected to manage. In some cases,
candidates are expected to possess industry certifications such as the Microsoft
MCSA, MCSE, Red Hat RHCE, Novell CNA, CNE, Cisco CCNA or
CompTIA's A+ or Network+, Sun Certified SCNA, Linux Professional
Institute among others.
Sometimes, almost exclusively in smaller sites, the role of system administrator

may be given to a skilled user in addition to or in replacement of his or her
duties. For instance, it is not unusual for a mathematics or computing teacher to
serve as the system administrator of a secondary school.
System Administration includes the following services:-
· Installing softwares
Installation and configuration of software’s on the request of client.
· Upgrading software and applying patches.
Up gradation of existing software’s on clients request and application of
latest patches on Different running services on the server.
· Configuration changes for different services running on the server.
Configuration of services according to client’s requirement.
· Log files
Maintenance of log files for different services running on a server like
Web Server, Email Server, FTP Server, SSH Server, DNS Server etc
· Installing/Maintaining firewalls.
Installation of firewall and maintaining it according to client’s
requirement and on demand.
· Installation of SSL (secure) certificate
Installation of SSL certificate for secure data transaction from the client’s
website (on request)
· Weekly Server Reports.

Generation of weekly reports for different services running on server
according to the log files. These reports include the server health, disk
quota, status of running services and the details of any outage of running
services
· DNS troubleshooting.
Trouble shooting of the problems related to name resolutions.
· Data Backup of server.
It includes daily backups of server data and monthly cleanup of old
backups.
· Kernel Installation/Upgradation.
Installation of new kernel on the server or on client machines. Up
gradation of existing kernel and inclusion of modules according to clients
requirements.
· APACHE/PHP/MYSQL configuration.
Configuration of apache/php/mysql on the server or client machines.
· Installation of other services on client request.
Installation and configuration of new services on clients request.
· Security for server.
Configuration of the server to make it secure, this includes patching of
different services running on the server, instillation of IDS (Intrusion
Detection System), File Integrity Checker.
· Hardening the security of server by installing hardening scripts and
packages.
Installation of hardening scripts on the server to make it more secure.
· Database Management.
Account creation/Deletion in database
· Management of Server remotely.
Management of server remotely through SSH/VPN for quick assistance
in any outage.
In larger organizations, some tasks listed above may be divided among different
system administrators or members of different organizational groups. For
example, a dedicated individual(s) may apply all system upgrades, a Quality
Assurance (QA) team may perform testing and validation, and one or more
technical writers may be responsible for all technical documentation written for
a company.
In smaller organizations, the system administrator can also perform any number
of duties elsewhere associated with other fields:
· Technical support
· Database administrator (DBA)
· Network administrator/analyst/specialist
· Application analyst
· Security administrator
· Programmer
System administrators, in larger organizations, tend not to be system architects,

system engineers, or system designers. However, like many roles in this field,
demarcations between systems administration and other technical roles often
are not well defined in smaller organizations. Even in larger organizations,
senior systems administrators often have skills in these other areas as a result of
their working experience.
In smaller organizations, IT/computing specialties are less often discerned in

detail, and the term system administrator is used in a rather generic way — they
are the people who know how the computer systems work and can respond
when something fails.
System administration
· Operating system and Internet server software upgrades

· Operating system performance tuning
· Mail Server (adding/deleting users, mail forwards, auto-responders)
· POP and SMTP mail server configuration
· Web Server and FTP Server management (access control, adding
domains, basic password security, server module support)
· Domain Name Service (DNS) administration
· Back-up Plan & implementation
· File & Directory services, NFS, etc
· Software installations and configuration
· Remote Server Monitoring
Server Management
Server management includes following services on server:-
· Email Server
· DNS Server
· FTP Server
· Firewall
· Proxy server
· Web Server
· File Sharing
· CVS
· SSH Server
· VPN
Security
· Installation of current recommended and security patches

· Installation and management of Anti-virus software
· Complete firewall systems to port filtering, we provide a number of more
advanced security solutions to protect sensitive data and run mission-
critical applications
· SSH/OpenSSH/OpenSSL
· Security Auditing & Updating
Traffic Analysis
· Web log analysis usage reports

· Round-trip Web Performance Reporting
· Custom-specified traffic analysis
Data Backup and Storage
· Backing-up important files and database information protects companies

and their customers in the unlikely event that data is lost or destroyed
· File system back-up
Oracle
The Oracle Database (commonly referred to as Oracle RDBMS or simply
Oracle) consists of a relational database management system (RDBMS)
produced and marketed by Oracle Corporation. As of 2009, Oracle remains a
major presence in database computing.
Physical and logical structuring in Oracle
An Oracle database system — identified by an alphanumeric system identifier

or SID— comprises at least one instance of the application, along with data
storage. An instance — identified persistently by an instantiation number (or
activation id: SYS.V_$DATABASE. ACTIVATION#) — comprises a set of
operating-system processes and memory-structures that interact with the
storage. Typical processes include PMON (the process monitor) and SMON
(the system monitor).
Users of Oracle databases refer to the server-side memory-structure as the SGA

(System Global Area). The SGA typically holds cache information such as
data-buffers, SQL commands, and user information. In addition to storage, the
database consists of online redo logs (or logs), which hold transactional
history. Processes can in turn archive the online redo logs into archive logs
(offline redo logs), which provide the basis (if necessary) for data recovery and
for some forms of data replication.
The Oracle RDBMS stores data logically in the form of tablespaces and
physically in the form of data files. Tablespaces can contain various types of
memory segments, such as Data Segments, Index Segments, etc. Segments in
turn comprise one or more extents. Extents comprise groups of contiguous data
blocks. Data blocks form the basic units of data storage. At the physical level,
datafiles comprise one or more data blocks, where the block size can vary
between data-files.
Oracle database management tracks its computer data storage with the help of
information stored in the SYSTEM tablespace. The SYSTEM tablespace
contains the data dictionary — and often (by default) indexes and clusters. A
data dictionary consists of a special collection of tables that contains
information about all user- objects in the database. Since version 8i, the Oracle
RDBMS also supports "locally managed" tablespaces which can store space
management information in bitmaps in their own headers rather than in the
SYSTEM tablespace (as happens with the default "dictionary-managed"

tablespaces).
If the Oracle database administrator has implemented Oracle RAC , then

multiple instances, usually on different servers, attach to a central storage
array. This scenario offers advantages such as better performance, scalability
and redundancy. However, support becomes more complex, and many sites do
not use RAC. In version 10g, grid computing introduced shared resources
where an instance can use CPU resources from another node (computer) in the
grid.
The Oracle DBMS can store and execute stored procedures and functions
within itself. PL/SQL (Oracle Corporation's proprietary procedural extension to
SQL), or the object-oriented language Java can invoke such code objects
and/or provide the programming structures for writing them.
Database schema
Oracle database conventions refer to defined groups of ownership (generally

associated with a "username") as schemas.
Most Oracle database installations traditionally came with a default schema

called SCOTT. After the installation process has set up the sample tables, the
user can log into the database with the username scott and the password tiger.
The name of the SCOTT schema originated with Bruce Scott, one of the first
employees at Oracle (then Software Development Laboratories), who had a cat
named Tiger.
The SCOTT schema has seen less use as it uses few of the features of the more
recent releases of Oracle. Most recent examples supplied by Oracle Corporation
reference the default HR or OE schemas.
Other default schemas include:
· SYS (essential core database structures and utilities)

· SYSTEM (additional core database structures and utilities, and privileged
account)
· OUTLN (utilized to store metadata for stored outlines for stable query-
optimizer execution plans.
· BI, IX, HR, OE, PM, and SH (expanded sample schemas containing more
data and structures than the older SCOTT schema).
Memory architecture
System Global Area
Each Oracle instance uses a System Global Area or SGA — a shared-memory

area — to store its data and control-information.
Each Oracle instance allocates itself an SGA when it starts and de-allocates it at
shut-down time. The information in the SGA consists of the following elements,
each of which has a fixed size, established at instance startup:
· the database buffer cache: this stores the most recently-used data blocks.
These blocks can contain modified data not yet written to disk
(sometimes known as "dirty blocks"), unmodified blocks, or blocks
written to disk since modification (sometimes known as clean blocks).
Because the buffer cache keeps blocks based on a most-recently-used
algorithm, the most active buffers stay in memory to reduce I/O and to
improve performance.
· the redo log buffer: this stores redo entries — a log of changes made to
the database. The instance writes redo log buffers to the redo log as
quickly and efficiently as possible. The redo log aids in instance recovery
in the event of a system failure.
· the shared pool: this area of the SGA stores shared-memory structures
such as shared SQL areas in the library cache and internal information in
the data dictionary. An insufficient amount of memory allocated to the
shared pool can cause performance degradation.
Library cache
The library cache stores shared SQL, caching the parse tree and the execution
plan for every unique SQL statement.
If multiple applications issue the same SQL statement, each application can
access the shared SQL area. This reduces the amount of memory needed and
reduces the processing-time used for parsing and execution planning.
Data dictionary cache
The data dictionary comprises a set of tables and views that map the structure
of the database.
Oracle databases store information here about the logical and physical structure
of the database. The data dictionary contains information such as:
· user information, such as user privileges

· integrity constraints defined for tables in the database
· names and datatypes of all columns in database tables

· information on space allocated and used for schema objects
The Oracle instance frequently accesses the data dictionary in order to parse
SQL statements. The operation of Oracle depends on ready access to the data
dictionary: performance bottlenecks in the data dictionary affect all Oracle
users. Because of this, database administrators should make sure that the data
dictionary cache has sufficient capacity to cache this data. Without enough
memory for the data-dictionary cache, users see a severe performance
degradation. Allocating sufficient memory to the shared pool where the data
dictionary cache resides precludes these particular performance problems.
Program Global Area
The Program Global Area or PGA memory-area of an Oracle instance contains

data and control-information for Oracle's server-processes.
The size and content of the PGA depends on the Oracle-server options installed.
This area consists of the following components:
· stack-space: the memory that holds the session's variables, arrays, and so
on.
· session-information: unless using the multithreaded server, the instance
stores its session-information in the PGA. (In a multithreaded server, the
session-information goes in the SGA.)
· private SQL-area: an area in the PGA which holds information such as
bind-variables and runtime-buffers.
· sorting area: an area in the PGA which holds information on sorts, hash-
joins, etc.
Process architectures
Oracle processes
The Oracle RDBMS typically relies on a group of processes running

simultaneously in the background and interacting to monitor and expedite
database operations. Typical operating groups might include some of the
following individual processes — (shown along with their abbreviated
nomenclature):
· archiver processes (ARCn)

· checkpoint process (CKPT) *REQUIRED*
· coordinator-of-job-queues process (CJQn): dynamically spawns slave
processes for job-queues
· database writer processes (DBWn) *REQUIRED*

· dispatcher processes (Dnnn): multiplex server-processes on behalf of
users
· memory-manager process (MMAN): used for internal database tasks such
as Automatic Shared Memory Management
· log-writer process (LGWR) *REQUIRED*
· log-write network-server (LNSn): transmits redo logs in Data Guard
environments
· logical standby coordinator process (LSP0): controls Data Guard log-
application
· media-recovery process (MRP): detached recovery-server process
· memory-monitor process (MMON)
· memory-monitor light process (MMNL): gathers and stores Automatic
Workload Repository (AWR) data
· process-monitor process (PMON) *REQUIRED*
· process-spawner (PSP0): spawns Oracle processes
· queue-monitor processes (QMNn)
· recoverer process (RECO)
· remote file-server process (RFS)
· shared server processes (Snnn): serve client-requests
· system monitor process (SMON) *REQUIRED*
User processes, connections and sessions
Oracle Database terminology distinguishes different computer-science terms in

describing how end-users interact with the database:
· user processes involve the invocation of application software

· a connection refers to the pathway linking a user process to an Oracle
instance
· sessions consist of specific connections to an Oracle instance. Each
session within an instance has a session identifier or "SID" (distinct from
the system-identifier SID).
Concurrency and locking
Oracle databases control simultaneous access to data resources with locks

(alternatively documented as "enqueues" ). The databases also utilize "latches" -
- low-level serialization mechanisms to protect shared data structures in the
System Global Area.
Internationalization
Oracle Database software comes in 63 language-versions (including regional

variations such as American English and British English). Variations between
versions cover the names of days and months, abbreviations, time-symbols such
as A.M. and A.D., and sorting.
Oracle Corporation has translated Oracle Database error-messages into Arabic,

Catalan, Chinese, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Finnish, French, German,
Greek, Hebrew, Hungarian, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Norwegian, Polish,
Portuguese, Romanian, Russian, Slovak, Spanish, Swedish, Thai and Turkish.
Oracle Corporation provides database developers with tools and mechanisms

for producing internationalized database applications: referred to internally as
"Globalization".
Version numbering
Oracle products have historically followed their own release-numbering and

naming conventions. With the Oracle RDBMS 10g release, Oracle Corporation
started standardizing all current versions of its major products using the "10g"
label, although some sources continued to refer to Oracle Applications Release
11i as Oracle 11i. Major database-related products and some of their versions
include:
· Oracle Application Server 10g (also known as "Oracle AS 10g"): a

middleware product;
· Oracle Applications Release 11i (aka Oracle e-Business Suite, Oracle
Financials or Oracle 11i): a suite of business applications;
· Oracle Developer Suite 10g (9.0.4);
· Oracle JDeveloper 10g: a Java integrated development environment;
Since version 7, Oracle's RDBMS release numbering has used the following
codes:
· Oracle7: 7.0.16 — 7.3.4

· Oracle8 Database: 8.0.3 — 8.0.6
· Oracle8i Database Release 1: 8.1.5.0 — 8.1.5.1
· Oracle9i Database Release 1: 9.0.1.0 — 9.0.1.5 ( patchset as of December
2003)
· Oracle9i Database Release 2: 9.2.0.1 — 9.2.0.8 (patchset as of April
2007)
· Oracle Database 10g Release 1: 10.1.0.2 — 10.1.0.5 (patchset as of
February 2006)
· Oracle Database 10g Release 2: 10.2.0.1 — 10.2.0.4 (patchset as of April

2008)
· Oracle Database 11g Release 1: 11.1.0.6 — 11.1.0.7 (patchset as of
September 2008)
The version-numbering syntax within each release follows the pattern:

major.maintenance.application-server.component-specific.platform-specific.
For example, "10.2.0.1 for 64-bit Solaris" means: 10th major version of Oracle,
maintenance level 2, Oracle Application Server (OracleAS) 0, level 1 for
Solaris 64-bit.
The Oracle Administrator's Guide offers further information on Oracle release

numbers. Oracle Corporation provides a table showing the latest patch-set
releases by major release, operating-system, and hardware-architecture.
List of claimed firsts
Oracle Corporation claims to have provided:
· the first commercially-available SQL-based database (1979)

· the first database to support symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) (1983)
· the first distributed database (1986)
· the first database product tested to comply with the ANSI SQL standard
(1993)
· the first 64-bit database (1995)
· the first database to incorporate a native JRE (1998)
· the first proprietary RDBMS to become available on Linux (1998)
· the first database to support XML (1999)
Editions
Over and above the different versions of the Oracle database management
software, Oracle Corporation subdivides its product into varying "editions" -
apparently for marketing and license-tracking reasons. In approximate order of
decreasing scale, we find:
· Enterprise Edition(EE) includes more features than the 'Standard

Edition', especially in the areas of performance and security. Oracle
Corporation licenses this product on the basis of users or of processors,
typically for servers running 4 or more CPUs. EE has no memory limits,
and can utilize clustering using Oracle RAC software.
· Standard Edition (SE) contains base database functionality. Oracle
Corporation licenses this product on the basis of users or of processors,
typically for servers running from one to four CPUs. If the number of
CPUs exceeds 4 CPUs, the user must convert to an Enterprise license. SE
has no memory limits, and can utilize clustering with Oracle RAC at no
additional charge.
· Standard Edition One, introduced with Oracle 10g, has some additional
feature-restrictions. Oracle Corporation markets it for use on systems
with one or two CPUs. It has no memory limitations.
· Express Edition ('Oracle Database XE'), introduced in 2005, offers Oracle
10g free to distribute on Windows and Linux platforms. It has a footprint
of only 150 MB and is restricted to the use of a single CPU, a maximum
of 4 GB of user data. Although it can be installed on a server with any
amount of memory, it is limited to using 1 GB at most. Support for this
version comes exclusively through on-line forums and not through Oracle
support.
· Oracle Database Lite, intended for running on mobile devices. The
database located on the mobile device can synchronize with a server-
based installation.
Host platforms
Prior to releasing Oracle9i in 2001, Oracle Corporation ported its database

engine to a wide variety of platforms. More recently Oracle Corporation has
consolidated on a smaller range of operating-system platforms.
As of October 2006, Oracle Corporation supported the following operating

systems and hardware platforms for Oracle Database 10g:
· Apple Mac OS X Server: PowerPC

· HP HP-UX: PA-RISC, Itanium
· HP Tru64 UNIX: Alpha
· HP OpenVMS: Alpha, Itanium
· IBM AIX5L: IBM POWER
· IBM z/OS: zSeries
· Linux: x86, x86-64, PowerPC, zSeries, Itanium
· Microsoft Windows: x86, x86-64, Itanium
· Sun Solaris: SPARC, x86, x86-6
Database options
Oracle Corporation refers to some extensions to the core functionality of the

Oracle database as "database options". As of 2008 such options include:
· Active Data Guard (extends Oracle Data Guard physical standby

functionality in 11g)
· Advanced Security (adds data encryption methods)

· Content database (provides a centralized repository for unstructured
information)
· Database Vault (enforces extra security on data access)
· Data Mining (ODM) (mines for patterns in existing data)
· In-Memory Database Cache (utilizes TimesTen technology)
· Label Security (enforces row-level security)
· Management Packs (various)
· Oracle Answers (for ad-hoc analysis and reporting)
· Oracle OLAP (adds analytical processing)
· Oracle Programmer (provides programmatic access to Oracle databases
via precompilers, interfaces and bindings)
· Partitioning (granularizes tables and indexes for efficiency)
· Real Application Clusters (RAC) (coordinates multiple processors)
· Oracle Real Application Testing (new at version 11g) — including
Database Replay (for testing workloads) and SQL Performance Analyzer
(SPA) (for preserving SQL efficiency in changing environments)
· Records database (a records management application)
· Oracle Spatial (integrates relational data with geographic information
systems (GIS))
· Transparent Gateway for connecting to non-Oracle systems. Offers
optimized solution, with more functionality and better performance than
Oracle Generic Connectivity.
· Total Recall (optimizes long-term storage of historical data)
· Oracle Warehouse Builder (in various forms and sub-options)
Suites
In addition to its RDBMS, Oracle Corporation has released several related

suites of tools and applications relating to implementations of Oracle databases.
For example:
· Oracle Application Server, a J2EE-based application server, aids in

developing and deploying applications which utilise Internet technologies
and a browser.
· In computing, the Oracle Application Server 10g (the "g" stands for grid),
consists of an integrated, standards-based software platform. It forms part of
Oracle Corporation's Fusion Middleware technology stack. The heart of
Oracle Application Server consists of Oracle HTTP Server (based on
Apache HTTP Server) and OC4J (OracleAS Containers for J2EE) which
deploys J2EE-based applications. The latest version of OC4J offers full
compatibility with the J2EE 1.4 specifications.
· Oracle Application Server became the first platform designed for grid
computing as well as with full life-cycle support for service-oriented
architecture (SOA).
· The current release of Oracle Application Server, 10g R3, does not feature a
metadata repository tier, relying instead on metadata repositories provided
in previous releases.
· Following Oracle's acquisition of BEA Systems, their stated aim is that “key
features [will be] integrated with WebLogic Server with seamless
migration”. The first stage of integration is expected in October, 2008 with a
more complete release in May, 2009.
Components
· Oracle Portal
· Oracle Identity Management
· Oracle Integration
· Oracle Business Rules
· Oracle BPEL Process Manager (option)
· Oracle Business Activity Monitoring (option)
· Oracle Business Intelligence
· Oracle Forms
· Oracle Reports
· Oracle TopLink
· Oracle JDeveloper
· Oracle Application Server Containers for J2EE (OC4J)
· Oracle Enterprise Manager
· Oracle Application Server Web Cache
· Oracle Application Server Wireless
· Oracle Collaboration Suite contains messaging, groupware and

collaboration applications.
Launched in 2000, the Oracle Collaboration Suite represented the first

attempt[ citation needed] by Oracle Corporation to enter the Enterprise messaging
system market. Initially marketed as a Unified Messaging system, it has grown
as a product to incorporate many of the features one would expect in an
Enterprise level collaborative tool, as well as features more normally associated
with standalone Content management systems. These features include:
· Real Time Collaboration

o Instant Messaging
o Web Conferencing
o Desktop sharing
· Unified Messaging
o eMail
o Voice Mail
o Fax
o Telephony
o Wireless and Voice Access
o Outlook integration
· Calendaring
· Content Management
o Files
· Records Management
· Oracle Developer Suite contains software development tools, including

JDeveloper.
Components
The name of the suite has been renamed a few times. The software components
that included in the suite has also changed over ti
Suite Name Components
Oracle IDE Forms, Reports, Book, Graphics
Oracle Developer Forms, Reports, Book, Graphics
Oracle Developer/2000 Forms, Reports, Book, Graphics
Oracle Developer Suite Forms, Reports, Designer, JDeveloper
Current Status
Oracle Developer Suite 11g is Java based development tools for oracle Oracle
Developer Suite 11g consists of the following components:
· Oracle JDeveloper
· Oracle Forms
· Oracle Designer
· Oracle Software Configuration Manager
· Oracle Reports
· Oracle Discoverer
· Oracle Business Intelligence Beans
· Oracle E-Business Suite collects together applications for enterprise

resource planning (including Oracle Financials), customer relationship
management and human resources management ( Oracle HR).
Within the overall rubric of Oracle Applications, [1] Oracle Corporation's E-

Business Suite ("EB-Suite" or "EBS") consists of a collection of enterprise
resource planning (ERP), customer relationship management (CRM), and
supply-chain management (SCM) computer applications either developed by
or acquired by Oracle. The software utilizes Oracle's core Oracle relational
database management system technology. The E-Business Suite (current
version: 12, released January 31, 2007), contains several product lines,
including:
· Oracle CRM
· Oracle Financials
· Oracle HRMS
· Oracle Logistics
· Oracle Mobile Supply chain Applications
· Oracle Order Management
· Oracle Project Portfolio Management
· Oracle Quotes
· Oracle Transportation Management
· Oracle Warehouse Management Systems
Significant technologies incorporated into the applications include the Oracle

database technologies, (engines for RDBMS, PL/SQL, Java, HTML and XML),
the "technology stack" ( Oracle Forms Server, Oracle Reports Server, Apache
Web Server, Oracle Discoverer, Jinitiator and Sun's Java).
· Oracle Enterprise Manager (OEM) used by database administrators

(DBAs) to manage the DBMS, and recently in version 10g, a web-based
rewrite of OEM called "Oracle Enterprise Manager Database Control".
Oracle Corporation has dubbed the super-Enterprise-Manager used to
manage a grid of multiple DBMS and Application Servers "Oracle
Enterprise Manager Grid Control".
For managing lots of databases and application servers (according to Oracle

Corporation, preferably in a grid solution) one could use the Oracle Enterprise
Manager Grid Control. It can manage multiple instances of Oracle deployment
platforms; the most recent edition also allows for management and monitoring
of other platforms such as Microsoft .NET, Microsoft SQL Server, NetApp
Filers, BEA weblogic and others. Partners and IT organizations can build
extensions to Oracle Enterprise Manager, and make them available to other

Enterprise Manager users via Oracle Enterprise Manager 10g Grid Control
Extensions Exchange.
The architecture of the OEM for Grid Control has three distinct components:
1. the collection agent (Oracle Management Agent or OMA)

2. the aggregation agent ( Oracle Management Server or OMS)
3. the repository agent (Oracle Management Repository or OMR)
The OMA runs on the target host and collects information on the hardware,
operating system, and applications that run on the target. The OMS runs on one
or two servers and collects the data generated by the OMAs. The OMS pulls the
information from the OMAs and aggregates the collections into the repository.
The OMS also acts as the user-interface — by generating web-pages for
database administrators to view the status of systems and services. The OMR
comprises an instance of the Oracle database that stores the data collected by
the OMS. Installers can make the OMR highly available or fault-tolerant by
running it on an Oracle RAC instance across multiple nodes.
Database "features"
Apart from the clearly-defined database options, Oracle databases may include
many semi-autonomous software sub-systems, which Oracle Corporation
sometimes refers to as "features" in a sense subtly different from the normal
usage of the word. Such "features" may include (for example):
· Active Session History (ASH), the collection of data for immediate

monitoring of very recent database activity.
· Automatic Workload Repository (AWR), providing monitoring services
to Oracle database installations from Oracle version 10. Prior to the
release of Oracle version 10, the Statspack facility provided similar
functionality.
· Clusterware
· Data Aggregation and Consolidation
· Data Guard for high availability
· Generic Connectivity for connecting to non-Oracle systems.
· Data Pump utilities, which aid in importing and exporting data and
metadata between databases
· Database Resource Manager (DRM), which controls the use of
computing resources.
· Fine-grained auditing (FGA) (in Oracle Enterprise Edition) supplements

standard security-auditing features
· Flashback for selective data recovery and reconstruction
· iSQL*Plus, a web-browser-based graphical user interface (GUI) for
Oracle database data-manipulation (compare SQL*Plus)
· Oracle Data Access Components (ODAC), tools which consist of:
o Oracle Data Provider for .NET (ODP.NET)
o Oracle Developer Tools (ODT) for Visual Studio
o Oracle Providers for ASP.NET
o Oracle Database Extensions for .NET
o Oracle Provider for OLE DB
o Oracle Objects for OLE
o Oracle Services for Microsoft Transaction Server
· Oracle-managed files (OMF) -- a feature allowing automated naming,
creation and deletion of datafiles at the operating-system level.
· Recovery Manager (rman) for database backup, restoration and
recovery
· SQL*Plus, a program that allows users to interact with Oracle
database(s) via SQL and PL/SQL commands on a command-line.
Compare iSQL*Plus.
Standalone tools
Various tools address specific environments or specific market requirements.
Development of applications commonly takes place in Java (using Oracle

JDeveloper) or through PL/SQL (using, for example, Oracle Forms and Oracle
Reports). Oracle Corporation has started a drive toward 'wizard'-driven
environments with a view to enabling non-programmers to produce simple data-
driven applications.
Oracle SQL Developer, a free graphical tool for database development, allows
developers to browse database objects, run SQL statements and SQL scripts,
and edit and debug PL/SQL statements. It incorporates standard and customized
reporting.
Oracle Certification Program
The Oracle Certification Program, a professional certification program,

includes the administration of Oracle Databases as one of its main certification
paths. It contains three levels:
1. Oracle Certified Associate (OCA)

2. Oracle Certified Professional (OCP)
3. Oracle Certified Master (OCM)
Oracle RAC
Real Application Cluster (RAC) is a component of the Oracle 9i database
product that allows a database to be installed across multiple servers.
According to Oracle, RAC's shared disk method of clustering databases:
increases scalability because servers can easily be added or subtracted to meet
current needs, lowers costs because companies don't have to buy high-end
servers, and improves availability because if one server fails, another can
assume its workload.
RAC's shared disk architecture is an unusual approach to database clustering.
Most competing database products use the alternative, which is known as
"shared nothing" architecture. Shared nothing architecture partitions data and
only gives each server access to its own disk subsystem, while shared disk
architecture gives all servers access to the entire database. This adds failover
capacity to the database, because all servers have access to the whole database.
Proponents claim that thiReal Application Cluster (RAC) is a component of the
Oracle 9i database product that allows a database to be installed across multiple
servers. According to Oracle, RAC's shared disk method of clustering
databases: increases scalability because servers can easily be added or
subtracted to meet current needs, lowers costs because companies don't have to
buy high-end servers, and improves availability because if one server fails,
another can assume its workload.
In database computing, Oracle Real Application Clusters (RAC) — an

option for the Oracle Database software produced by Oracle Corporation and
introduced in 2001 with Oracle9i — provides software for clustering and high
availability in Oracle database environments. RAC is included with the
Standard Edition of Oracle Database, but it is an extra-charge option for the
Enterprise Edition.
Functionality
Oracle RAC allows multiple computers to run Oracle RDBMS software

simultaneously while accessing a single database, thus providing a clustered
database.
In a non-RAC Oracle database, a single instance accesses a single database.

Where the "database" consists of a collection of data files, control files, and
redo logs located on disk; the "instance" comprises the collection of Oracle-
related memory and operating system processes that run on a computer system.
In an Oracle RAC environment, two or more computers (each with an instance)

concurrently access a single database. This allows an application or user to
connect to either computer and have access to a single coordinated set of data.
Connecting to an Oracle Real Application Clusters (RAC) System

Connecting to an Oracle RAC system is similar to connecting to a single
instance of an Oracle database. When connecting to a single Oracle
database instance, you specify either the SID or ServiceName of the instance
to which you want to connect in the connection string. For example, the
following connection string establishes a connection to the database instance
Accting1:
"Host=server1;Port=1521;ServiceName=Accting1"
In a RAC environment, multiple Oracle instances share the same physical

data. In addition to the SID or ServiceName for each Oracle instance in the
Oracle RAC system, a ServiceName exists for the entire Oracle RAC system.
When an application uses the Oracle RAC system's ServiceName, the
Oracle RAC system appears to be a single Oracle instance to the application.
For example, the following connection string establishes a connection to an
Oracle instance in the Oracle RAC system named Accounting:
"Host=server1;Port=1521;ServiceName=Accounting"
The specific instance that is connected to is determined by a number of
factors, including which instances are available and the load on those
instances. Typically, the application does not need to know which instance to
which it is connected.
Failover
Oracle RAC systems provide two methods of failover to provide reliableaccess
to data:
Connection Failover
Enabling connection failover allows a driver to connect to another node if a
connection attempt on one node fails. When an application requests a
connection to an Oracle database server through the driver, the driver does
not connect to the database server directly. Instead, the driver sends a
connection request to a listener process, which forwards the request to the
appropriate Oracle database instance. In an Oracle RAC system, each active
Oracle database instance in the RAC system registers with each listener
configured for the Oracle RAC. For example, if we look at the Oracle RAC
Nodes A, B, and C in Figure 2, Instances A, B, and C are registered with
Listeners A, B, and C. If the service name in the connection request specifies
the RAC system database name, the requested listener selects one of the
registered instances to forward the connection request to, based on the load
each of the instances is experiencing. For example, if Instances A and B are
operating under a heavy load, a connection request to Listener A results in the
connection being forwarded to Instance C
Because the requested listener selects from a set of active instances in the
RAC system to forward connection requests to, it should not route the
connection request to an instance that is not running. You may think that
connection failover is not needed in an Oracle RAC system; however, if the
requested listener is down or the timing of an instance going down is such
that the requested listener is not yet aware that an instance is down, the
connection request can fail.
The connection failover feature provided by the DataDirect Connect for ODBC
Oracle drivers handles the case where the requested listener or the server
selected by the listener is down by allowing you to specify multiple listeners to
which to connect. For example, as shown in Figure 3, if Listener A is down,
the DataDirect Connect for ODBC drivers can be configured to try Listener
B,and then Listener C.
Connection failover provides protection for new connections only and does
not preserve states for transactions or queries, so your application needs to
provide failure recovery for transactions and queries.
The following example shows a connection string that enables connection
failover with two alternate servers for the DataDirect Connect for ODBC Oracle
Wire Protocol driver:
"DSN=AcctOracleServer;
AlternateServers=(HostName=AccountOracleServer:PortNumber=1521:
SID=Accounting,
HostName=255.201.11.24:PortNumber=1522:ServiceName=ABackup.NA.My
Company)"
Transparent Application Failover (TAF)

With TAF, if a communication link failure occurs after a connection is
established, the connection is moved to another active Oracle RAC node in
the cluster without the application having to re-establish the connection. For
example, suppose you have the Oracle RAC environment shown in Figure 3
with multiple connections to Oracle RAC nodes: A, B, and C. As shown in the
first case, connections are distributed among the nodes in an Oracle RAC
system.
When a communication link failure occurs between an Oracle node and the
application as shown in the second case, the driver automatically switches
the connection to another available node.
When a user session fails over to an alternate RAC node, the following items
are not persisted to the failover node and must be reinitialized by the
application:
In-use stored procedures
Application changes to session state
In-flight "write" transactions (local transactions doing database updates)
Global transactions
Although Oracle documentation refers to this functionality as transparent, the
preceding list shows that it is not completely transparent to an application.
The application programmer must include code to handle the necessary
“clean-up” caused by rolled back transactions or lost session states. Because
of these restrictions, the situations where application failover is beneficial
when implemented by the driver are limited.
Applications can perform a failover using the DataDirect Connect for ODBC
Oracle drivers by performing the following steps:
1. Catch the communication error exception generated by the driver.
2. Take the necessary steps to deal with current transactions that were
rolled back.
3. Re-establish the connection to the server.
4. Re-initialize the session state.
5. Re-run any transaction that was rolled back.
To make it easy for applications to detect when the connection with the
server is lost, all communication error exceptions thrown by the DataDirect
Connect for ODBC drivers have a SQL state that begins with 08.
Oracle’s TAF implementation in their OCI ODBC driver performs Step 3 in
the preceding list for the application and may perform Step 5 for the
application if the only operation in the transaction is a Select statement.
DataDirect is currently evaluating ways to enhance the failover functionality in
the DataDirect Connect for ODBC drivers for a future release.
Benefits
Since Oracle RAC allows multiple computers (instances) to access a single

database simultaneously, it addresses several areas of database management.
These areas include:
· fault tolerance
· load balancing
Load Balancing
Oracle RAC systems provide two types of load balancing for automatic
workload management:
· Server load balancing distributes processing workload among Oracle
RAC nodes.
· Client load balancing distributes new connections among Oracle
RAC nodes so that no one server is overwhelmed with connection
requests. For example, when a connection fails over to another node
because of hardware failure, client load balancing ensures that the
redirected connection requests are distributed among the other
nodes in the RAC.
The primary difference between these two methods is that the former
method
distributes processing and the latter method distributes connection
attempts.
Server Load Balancing
With Oracle9i RAC systems, a listener service provides automatic load
balancing across nodes. The query optimizer determines the optimal
distribution of workload across the nodes in the RAC based on the number of
processors and current load.
Oracle 10g also provides load-balancing options that allow the database
administrator to configure rules for load balancing based on application

requirements and Service Level Agreements (SLAs). For example, rules can
be defined so that when Oracle 10g instances running critical services fail,
the workload is automatically shifted to instances running less critical
workloads. Or, rules can be defined so that Accounts Receivable services are
given priority over Order Entry services.
The DataDirect Connect for ODBC Oracle drivers can transparently take
advantage of server load balancing provided by an Oracle RAC without any
changes to the application. If you do not want to use server load balancing,
you can bypass it by connecting to the service name that identifies a
particular RAC node.
Client Load Balancing

Client load balancing helps distribute new connections in your environment so
that no one server is overwhelmed with connection requests. When client
load balancing is enabled, connection attempts are made randomly among
RAC nodes. You can enable connection failover for DataDirect Connect for
ODBC drivers through a driver connection string using the Load Balancing
connection string attribute.
Suppose you have the Oracle RAC environment shown in Figure 4 with
multiple Oracle RAC nodes, A, B, C, and D. Without client load balancing
enabled, connection attempts may be front-loaded, meaning that most
connection attempts would try Node A first, then Node B, and so on until a
connection attempt is successful. This creates a situation where Node A and
· Node B can become overloaded with connection requests.
With client load balancing enabled, the driver randomly selects the order of
the connection attempts to nodes throughout the Oracle RAC system. For
example, Node B may be tried first, followed by Nodes D, C, and A.
Subsequent connection retry attempts will continue to use this order. Using a
randomly determined order makes it less likely that any one node in the
Oracle RAC system will be so overwhelmed with connection requests that it
may start refusing connections.
For example, the following connection string enables client load balancing for
the DataDirect Connect for ODBC Oracle Wire Protocol driver:
"DSN=AcctOracleServer;
AlternateServers=(HostName=AccountOracleServer:PortNumber=1521:
SID=Accounting, HostName=255.201.11.24:PortNumber=1522:
ServiceName=ABackup.NA.MyCompany);LoadBalancing=1"
· scalability
Implementation
Oracle RAC depends on the infrastructure component Oracle Clusterware to

coordinate multiple servers and their sharing of data storage.
Cache Fusion
Prior to Oracle 9, network-clustered Oracle databases used a storage device as

the data-transfer medium, which had the inherent disadvantage of lackluster
performance. Oracle 9i addressed this issue, and RAC uses a dedicated
network-connection for communications internal to the cluster.
Since all computers/instances in an RAC access the same database, the overall
system must guarantee the coordination of data changes on different computers
such that whenever a computer queries data it receives the current version —
even if another computer recently modified that data. Oracle RAC refers to this
functionality as Cache Fusion. Cache Fusion involves the ability of Oracle RAC
to "fuse" the in-memory data cached physically separately on each computer
into a single, global cache.
Evaluation
Relative to the single-instance Oracle database, Oracle RAC adds additional

complexity that can become overwhelming without investment in appropriate
training and management tools. While database automation makes sense for
single-instance databases, it becomes even more necessary for clustered
databases because of their increased complexity.
Oracle Real Application Clusters (RAC), introduced with Oracle9i, is the

successor to Oracle Parallel Server. However it required an external clusterware
for most of the Unix flavors (except for Linux and Windows where oracle
provided free clusterware called Cluster Ready Services or CRS). By Oracle
10g, Oracle's clusterware product was available for all operating systems. With
the release of Oracle Database 10g Release 2 (10.2), Cluster Ready Services
was renamed to Oracle Clusterware. When using Oracle 10g or higher, Oracle
Clusterware is the only clusterware that you need for most platforms on which
Oracle RAC operates (except for Tru cluster, in which case you need vendor
clusterware). You can still use clusterware from other vendors if the clusterware
is certified for Oracle RAC.
In RAC the node performing the write-transaction must take ownership of the
relevant area of the database: typically this involves a request across the cluster
interconnection (local IP network) to transfer the data-block ownership from
another node to the one wishing to do the write. This takes a relatively long time
(from few milliseconds to tens of milliseconds) compared to single database-
node using in-memory operations. For many types of applications, the time
spent coordinating block access across systems is low relative to the many
operations on the system, and RAC will scale comparably to a single system.
Also, high read-transactional databases work very well under RAC, as no need
for ownership-transfer exists.
The overhead on the resource mastering (or ownership-transfer) is very

minimal when you have more than three nodes, as the request for any resource
in the cluster can be obtained in a maximum of three hops (owner-master-
requestor). This makes Oracle RAC horizontally scalable with many nodes.
Application vendors (such as SAP) use Oracle RAC to demonstrate the
scalability of their application. Most of the biggest OLTP benchmarks are on
Oracle RAC. Oracle RAC 11g supports up to 100 nodes. Although this is the
concept, in many real implementations, RAC shows negative scalability. This is
because all the nodes need to co-ordinate each other to get a resource like locks
and all the nodes are supposed to update same control file, in addition to that
above mentioned inter-node block transfer also creates a big bottleneck in the
performance. So usage of RAC for OLTP systems and its scalability is still a
debatable point.
For some applications, RAC may require careful application-partitioning to

enhance performance. An application which scales linearly on an SMP
machine may scale linearly under RAC. However, if the application cannot
scale linearly on SMP, it will not scale when ported to RAC. In short the
application scalability is based on how well the application scales in a single
instance.
Competition
Shared Everything
Apart from Oracle RAC, other commercially-available databases offer a

"shared-everything" architecture. IBM DB2 for z/OS (the IBM mainframe
operating-system) has provided a high-performance data-sharing option since
the mid 1990s when IBM released its mainframe hardware and software-
clustering infrastructure.
In February 2008, Sybase released its Adaptive Server Enterprise, Cluster

Edition. It is similar to Oracle RAC in its shared everything design. See Sybase
ASE Cluster Edition's data sheet here for details.
Although technically not shared everything, Sybase also provides a column-

based relational database focused on analytic and datawarehouse applications
called Sybase IQ which can be configured to run in a shared disk mode.
Shared Nothing
Competitive products offering shared-nothing architectures include:
· MySQL Cluster (Ownership will transfer to Oracle if their acquisition of

Sun Microsystems goes through)
· IBM Balanced Configuration Unit
· Greenplum
· Netezza Performance Server
· Teradata
· Lexst Database Cluster
Database administrator
A database administrator (DBA) is a person who is responsible for the
environmental aspects of a database. The role of a database administrator has
changed according to the technology of database management systems
(DBMSs) as well as the needs of the owners of the databases. For example,
although logical and physical database design are traditionally the duties of a
database analyst or database designer, a DBA may be tasked to perform those
duties.
o Data modeling, database optimization, understanding and

implementation of schemas, and the ability to interpret and write
complex Structured Query Language (SQL) queries
o Proactively monitor systems for optimum performance and
capacity constraints
o Establish standards and best practices for SQL
o Interact with and coach developers in SQL scripting
Responsibilities of a Database Administrator:-
One of my colleagues likes to comment that users of the databases for which he
is responsible think they control the databases. The reality, as he quite correctly
puts it (if in a control-freakish sort of way), is quite different. As a DBA, he can
do whatever he wants in any database he is responsible for, so he’s the one with
control. Database administrators do have a great deal of power, but it is
important to remember that with great power also comes great responsibility.
Ultimately, the success and failure of a database to respond to user requirements
and satisfy corporate objectives rests with the DBA. The DBA must take the
blame and the praise for good or bad database management.
The kinds of tasks DBAs in the Oracle world are responsible for include the
following:
• Sizing and evaluating server hardware As the individual responsible for the
smooth operation of databases in your organization, you will be called upon
to suggest the configuration of the server that will be used to run Oracle. Your
experience will play a key role here in determining the amount of memory,
hard disk, CPU, and other resources required to support the target database’s
operations. Understanding the architecture of Oracle and the data needs of
the business and the application will help you perform this task.
• Installing Oracle software and updates After you buy the software, the first
thing you need to do is bring it up. Installation of the Oracle software on the
target platform is the job of the DBA. It usually involves more than putting in
the CD and answering the prompts of the setup program because Oracle is a
very powerful system comprising a complex piece of software that has many
hooks and interactions with the operation system. Ensuring that the software
is installed and working properly is a key to being a successful DBA.
PART I
• Planning and designing the database structure Once the software is
installed, you need to make sure that the layout of the physical data structures
and logical elements of Oracle is done in an optimal way. If this is not the
case, performance will suffer and users will make their displeasure known.
If you have properly sized the hardware, this should be an easy task, since
you should have taken the database size and structure into account; if you
inherited the environment, you may need to use your expertise to determine
the optimal configuration.
• Creating databases As you will see in Chapter 3, this is a somewhat

anticlimactic task. Creation of the database is the first step to administering it.
Although relatively straightforward, the process can run into problems; with
experience, however, you should grow well equipped to fix these problems.
• Backing up databases and implementing other ways to safeguard the data

Once a database is in production and users are connecting to it, they may not
take it well if the database becomes unavailable. Even worse, if data is lost it
could mean lost productivity, sales, and customers. Ensuring that a database
is always available to users, that data loss is minimized, and that recovery is
quick and complete is perhaps one of the most important responsibilities of
the DBA.
• Creating and maintaining database users Once a new user needs to

gain access to the database or when the requirements and permissions of
another user change, the DBA must be able to make the necessary security
modifications to ensure appropriate access. In some cases, application
developers may not make use of Oracle’s built-in security fully, so being able
to recognize these situations and take appropriate action is also necessary.
• Implementing application and database designs Organizations may

purchase third-party software applications or hire database architects to
design a database to suit a specific database requirement when in-house
expertise is lacking. However, the actual implementation of these designs
will be undertaken by the DBA, since the DBA will be responsible for
ensuring that the database continues to work properly after the software
vendor or database architect leaves.
• Restoring and recovering databases Sometimes things go wrong. Hardware

fails, users improperly modify or delete data, or a natural disaster or some
other calamity befalls the data center. Being able to recover from a variety of
scenarios is critical. This is when the fault tolerance disaster recovery strategy
is tested for real—but it should also be tested in mock scenarios to ensure it
works. The DBA is the one that is answerable for their success or failure.
• Monitoring and tuning database performance In Star Trek: The Next

Generation there is an episode where the Enterprise assists a stranded vessel.
The vessel’s occupants are somewhat lacking in both engineering and
communication skills, but they do ask Captain Picard and Giordi to make
us go fast. Your users will frequently comment that the database is not fast
enough. Keeping those comments to a minimum and solving performance
problems when (or before) they occur will reduce your stress level and
increase job satisfaction.
As you can tell, the duties of a DBA are wide and varied. It is an exciting
position whose goal can sometimes be summed up in one phrase: reduce the
number of times the phone rings in a day. If you get a lot of phone calls from
users or management, this is probably not a good sign and can make your day
an unhappy one. Well-tuned databases on appropriate hardware with good
disaster recovery and backup strategies will reduce your phone calls, make
happy users, and increase your job satisfaction.
The Database Administrator Users
Extra privileges are necessary to execute administrative duties on the Oracle

server, such as creating users. Two database user accounts, SYS and SYSTEM,
are created automatically with the database and granted the DBA role. That is, a
predefined role that is created automatically with every database. The DBA role
has all database system privileges.
SYS
When a database is created, the user SYS, identified initially by the password
change_on_install, is created. SYS owns the vitally important data dictionary.
SYSTEM
When a database is created, the user SYSTEM, identified initially by the
password manager, is also created automatically. Additional tables and views
owned by the user SYSTEM are created. They contain administrative

information used by Oracle tools.
Additional users may be created depending on the mode of database creation
i.e., manually, or using Database Creation Assistant. You will want to create at
least one additional administrator username to use when performing daily
administrative tasks.
For security reasons, the default passwords of SYS and SYSTEM should be
changed immediately after database creation.
The DBA Tools
The standard applications that are supplied with Oracle Enterprise Manager
include the following:
• Instance Manager: Performs startup, shutdown and monitor databases

• Security Manager: Used to manage users and privileges
• Storage Manager: Maintains tablespaces, data files, rollback segments and log
groups
• Schema Manager: Used to create and maintain objects such as tables, indexes,
and views
• SQL*Plus Worksheet: Provides the capability to issue SQL statements against
any database
How to Launch DBA Tools
• Launch the Console in standalone mode

• Expand the databases folder and expand the relevant database
• Select tools such as Instance Manager, Schema Manager
Remote Database Administration
in remote database administration (RDBA), a client computer is monitored

and professionally managed from a remote location, usually by a third-party
company, to ensure that the database and computer system that is being
monitored continues to run properly and efficiently over time.
In many cases, the third-party company also supplies some form of additional
services such as availability monitoring software, access to a best practices and
resolution knowledge base, monthly reports for the "client", service calls or
telephone calls with the client. There are various forms and variations on each
of the above items, each providing different levels of quality and service.
Some remote database administration companies have one or a few global

offices, and all DBAs work out of these offices, whereas others are "virtual
companies" with subcontractor DBAs working out of their homes.
DBA SUPPORT
Oracle Architectural Components
Overview of Primary Components

The Oracle architecture includes a number of primary components, which are
discussed
further in this lesson.
• Oracle server: There are several files, processes, and memory structures in an
Oracle server; however, not all of them are used when processing a SQL
statement. Some are used to improve the performance of the database, ensure
that the database can be recovered in the event of a software or hardware error,
or perform other tasks necessary to maintain the database. The Oracle server
consists of an Oracle instance and an Oracle atabase.
• Oracle instance: An Oracle instance is the combination of the background

processes and memory structures. The instance must be started to access the
data in the database. Every time an instance is started, a System Global Area
(SGA) is allocated and Oracle background processes are started. Background
processes perform functions on behalf of the invoking process. They
consolidate functions that would otherwise be handled by multiple Oracle
programs running for each user. The background processes perform
input/output (I/O) and monitor other Oracle processes to provide increased

parallelism for better performance and reliability.
• Oracle database: An Oracle database consists of operating system files, also

known as database files, that provide the actual physical storage for database
information. The database files are used to ensure that the data is kept consistent
and can be recovered in the event of a failure of the instance.
• Other key files: Nondatabase files are used to configure the instance,
authenticate privileged users, and recover the database in the event of a disk
failure.
• User and server processes: The user and server processes are the primary
processes involved when a SQL statement is executed; however, other
processes may help the erver complete the processing of the SQL statement.
• Other processes: Many other processes exist that are used by other options
within Oracle, such as Advanced Queuing, Real Application Clusters, Shared
Server, Advanced Replication, and so on. These processes are discussed within
their respectivecourses.
Connecting to an Oracle Instance

Before users can submit SQL statements to an Oracle database, they must
connect to an
instance.
• The user starts a tool such as SQL*Plus or runs an application developed using
a tool such as Oracle Forms. This application or tool is executed as a user
process.
• In the most basic configuration, when a user logs on to the Oracle server, a
process is created on the computer running the Oracle server. This process is
called a server process. The server process communicates with the Oracle
instance on behalf of the user process that runs on the client. The server process
executes SQL statements on behalf of the user.
Connection
A connection is a communication pathway between a user process and an
Oracle server. A database user can connect to an Oracle server in one of three
ways:
• The user logs on to the operating system running the Oracle instance and starts
an application or tool that accesses the database on that system. The
communication pathway is established using the interprocess communication
mechanisms available on the host operating system.
• The user starts the application or tool on a local computer and connects over a
network to the computer running the Oracle instance. In this configuration,
called client-server, network software is used to communicate between the user
and the Oracle server.
• In a three-tiered connection, the user’s computer communicates over the
network to an application or a network server, which is connected through a
network to the machine running the Oracle instance. For example, the user runs
a browser on a computer on a network to use an application residing on an NT
server that retrieves data from an Oracle database running on a UNIX host.
Physical Structure
The physical structure of an Oracle database is determined by the operating
system files that provide the actual physical storage for database information.
• Control files
Control files containing information necessary to maintain and verify database
integrity
• Data files
Data files containing the actual data in the database
• Redo log files
Redo logs containing a record of changes made to the database to enable
recovery of The data in case of failures
Memory Structure
Oracle’s memory structure consists of two memory areas known as:
• System Global Area (SGA): Allocated at instance startup, and is a
fundamental component of an Oracle Instance
The SGA consists of several memory structures:

– Shared pool
The shared pool is used to store the most recently executed SQL statements and
the most recently used data definitions.
• It consists of two key performance-related memory structures:
– Library cache
The library cache stores information about the most recently used SQL and
PL/SQL statements. The library cache:
• Enables the sharing of commonly used statements
• Is managed by a least recently used (LRU) algorithm
• Consists of two structures:
– Shared SQL area
– Shared PL/SQL area
• Has its size determined by the shared pool sizing

– Data dictionary cache
The data dictionary cache is a collection of the most recently used definitions in
the database.
• It includes information about database files, tables, indexes, columns, users,
privileges, and other database objects.
• During the parse phase, the server process looks at the data dictionary for
information to resolve object names and validate access.
• Caching the data dictionary information into memory improves response time
on queries.
• Size is determined by the shared pool sizing.
– Database buffer cache
The database buffer cache stores copies of data blocks that have been retrieved
from the data files.
• It enables great performance gains when you obtain and update data.
• It is managed through a least recently used (LRU) algorithm.
• DB_BLOCK_SIZE
determines the primary block size.
– Redo log buffer
The redo log buffer cache records all changes made to the database data blocks.
• Its primary purpose is recovery.
• Changes recorded within are called redo entries.
• Redo entries contain information to reconstruct or redo changes.
• Size is defined by
LOG_BUFFER.
– Other structures (e.g. lock and latch management, statistical data)
• There are two optional memory structures that can be configured within the
SGA:
– Large pool
The large pool is an optional area of memory in the SGA configured only in a
shared server environment.
• It relieves the burden placed on the shared pool.
• This configured memory area is used for session memory (UGA), I/O slaves,
and backup and restore operations.
• Unlike the shared pool, the large pool does not use an LRU list.
• Sized by LARGE_POOL_SIZE.
ALTER SYSTEM SET LARGE_POOL_SIZE = 64M;
– Java pool
The Java pool services the parsing requirements for Java commands.
• Required if installing and using Java.
• It is stored much the same way as PL/SQL in
database tables.
• It is sized by the JAVA_POOL_SIZE parameter.
• Program Global Area (PGA): Allocated when the server process is started.
The Program Global Area or Process Global Area (PGA) is a memory region
that contains data and control information for a single server process or a single
background process. The PGA is allocated when a process is created and
deallocated when the process is terminated. In contrast to the SGA, which is
shared by several processes, the PGA is an area that is used by only one
process. In a dedicated server configuration, the PGA includes these
components:
• Sort area: Used for any sorts that may be required to process the SQL tatement
• Session information: Includes user privileges and performance statistics for the
session
• Cursor state: Indicates the stage in the processing of the SQL statements that
are currently used by the session
• Stack space: Contains other session variables
Process Structure
An Oracle process is a program that depending on its type can request

information, execute a series of steps, or perform a specific task.
Oracle takes advantage of various types of processes:
• User process: Started at the time a database user requests connection to the
Oracle server.
A user process is a program that requests interaction with the Oracle server.
• It must first establish a connection.
• It does not interact directly with the Oracle server.
• Server process: Connects to the Oracle Instance and is started when a user
establishes a session.
A server process is a program that directly interacts with the Oracle server.
• It fulfills calls generated and returns results.
• Can be dedicated or shared server.
• Background process: Available when an Oracle instance is started.
The relationship between the physical and memory structures is maintained and
enforced by Oracle’s background processes.
• Mandatory background processes

DBWn PMON CKPT
LGWR SMON RECO
• Optional background processes
ARCn LMON Snnn
QMNn LMDn
CJQ0 Pnnn
LCKn Dnnn
Database Writer(DBWn)
The server process records changes to rollback and data blocks in the buffer
cache. Database Writer (DBWn) writes the dirty buffers from the database
buffer cache to the data files. It ensures that a sufficient number of free
buffers—buffers that can be overwritten when server processes need to read in
blocks from the data files—are available in the database buffer cache. Database
performance is improved because server processes make changes only in the
buffer cache.
LOG Writer(LGWR)
LGWR performs sequential writes from the redo log buffer cache to the redo
log file under
the following situations:
• When a transaction commits
• When the redo log buffer cache is one-third full
• When there is more than a megabyte of changes records in the redo log buffer
cache
• Before DBWn writes modified blocks in the database buffer cache to the data
files
• Every 3 seconds.
System Monitor(SMON)
If the Oracle instance fails, any information in the SGA that has not been
written to disk is lost. For example, the failure of the operating system causes an
instance failure. After the loss of the instance, the background process SMON
automatically performs instance recovery when the database is reopened.
Process Monitor(PMON)
The background process PMON cleans up after failed processes by:
• Rolling back the user’s current transaction
• Releasing all currently held table or row locks
• Freeing other resources currently reserved by the user

• Restarts dead dispatchers
Checkpoint(CKPT)
An event called a checkpoint occurs when the Oracle background process
DBWn writes all the modified database buffers in the SGA, including both
committed and uncommitted data, to the data files.
Archiver (ARCn)
• Optional background process
• Automatically archives online redo logs when ARCHIVELOG mode is set
• Preserves the record of all changes made to the Database.
Logical Structure
The logical structure of the Oracle architecture dictates how the physical space
of a database is to be used.
A hierarchy exists in this structure that consists of tablespaces, segments,
extents, and blocks.
Managing an Oracle Instance

First connect sa a sysdba(super user)
SQL> CONNECT / AS SYSDBA
SQL> STARTUP
Initialization Parameter Files

• Entries are specific to the instance being accessed
• There are two kinds of parameters:
– Explicit: Having an entry in the file
– Implicit: No entry within the file, but assuming the
Oracle default values
• Multiple files can be used for a single database to optimize performance in
different situations.
• Changes to entries in the file take effect based on the type of initialization
parameter file used;
– Static parameter file, PFILE
– Persistent parameter file, SPFILE
PFILE initSID.ora
• The PFILE is a text file that can be modified with an operating system editor.
• Modifications to the file are made manually.
• Changes to the file take effect on the next startup.
• Its default location is $ORACLE_HOME/dbs.
SPFILE spfileSID.ora
• Binary file with the ability to make changes persistent across shutdown and
startup
• Maintained by the Oracle server
• Records parameter value changes made with the ALTER SYSTEM command
• Can specify whether the change being made is temporary or persistent
• Values can be deleted or reset to allow an instance to revert to the default
value
SQL>ALTER SYSTEM SET undo_tablespace = 'UNDO2';
Creating an SPFILE
SPFILE can be created from an initSID.ora file using the CREATE SPFILE
command, which can be executed before or after instance startup:
CREATE SPFILE FROM PFILE;
Oracle Managed Files

Oracle Managed Files (OMF) simplify file administration

• OMF are created and deleted by the Oracle server as directed by SQL
commands
• OMF are established by setting two parameters:
– DB_CREATE_FILE_DEST: Set to give the default
location for data files
– DB_CREATE_ONLINE_LOG_DEST_N: Set to give the
default locations for online redo logs and control iles, up to a maximum of 5
locations
Oracle Managed File Example

To create a database where data files, control files, and online redo log files are
created in separate directories:
• Set the initialization parameters:
DB_CREATE_FILE_DEST = ’/u01/oradata/’
DB_CREATE_ONLINE_LOG_DEST_1 = ’/u02/oradata/’
DB_CREATE_ONLINE_LOG_DEST_2 = ’/u03/oradata/’
• Issue the CREATE DATABASE SQL statement
Starting Up a Database
When starting the database, you select the state in which it starts. The following
scenarios describe different stages of starting up an instance.
Starting the Instance (NOMOUNT)
Usually you would start an instance without mounting a database only during
database creation or the re-creation of control files.
Starting an instance includes the following tasks:
• Reading the initialization file from $ORACLE_HOME/dbs in the following
order:
– First spfileSID.ora. If not found then
– spfile.ora
– initSID.ora
• Specifying the PFILE parameter with STARTUP overrides the default
behavior
• Allocating the SGA
• Starting the background processes
• Opening the alertSID.log file and the trace files
The database must be named with the DB_NAME parameter either in the
initialization file or
in the STARTUP command.
Mounting the Database To perform specific maintenance operations, you start
an instance and mount a database but do not open the database.
For example, the database must be mounted but not open during the following
tasks:
• Renaming data files
• Enabling and disabling redo log archiving options
• Performing full database recovery
Mounting a database includes the following tasks:
• Associating a database with a previously started instance
• Locating and opening the control files specified in the parameter file
• Reading the control files to obtain the names and status of the datafiles and
redo log files.
Opening the Database Normal database operation means that an instance is
started and thedatabase is mounted and open; with normal database operation,
any valid user can connect to the database and perform typical data access
operations.
Opening the database includes the following tasks:
• Opening the online data files
• Opening the online redo log files
If any of the data files or online redo log files are not present when you attempt
to open the database, the Oracle server returns an error.
During this final stage, the Oracle server verifies that all the data files and
online redo log files can be opened and checks the consistency of the database.
If necessary, the System Monitor background process (SMON) initiates instance
recovery.
STARTUP Command
SQL>STARTUP
Start up the instance and open the database:
SQL>STARTUP PFILE=$ORACLE_HOME/dbs/initdb01.ora
Starting Up
To start up an instance, use the following command:
STARTUP [FORCE] [RESTRICT] [PFILE=filename]
[OPEN [RECOVER][database]
|MOUNT
|NOMOUNT]
The ALTER DATABASE Command

• Change the state of the database from NOMOUNT to MOUNT:
SQL>ALTER DATABASE db01 MOUNT;
• Open the database as a read-only database:
SQL>ALTER DATABASE db01 OPEN READ ONLY;
where:
READ WRITE opens the database in read-write mode, so that users can
generate redo logs
READ ONLY restricts users to read-only transactions, preventing them from

generating redo log information
Opening a Database in Restricted Mode

• Use the STARTUP command to restrict access to a database:
SQL>STARTUP RESTRICT
• Use the ALTER SYSTEM command to place an instance in restricted mode:

SQL>ALTER SYSTEM ENABLE RESTRICTED SESSION;
where:
ENABLE RESTRICTED SESSION: enables future logins only for users who
have the RESTRICTED SESSION privilege
DISABLE RESTRICTED SESSION: disables RESTRICTED SESSION so that
users who do not have the privilege can log on
Shutting Down the Database

Shut down the database to make operating system offline backups of all
physical structures and to have modified static initialization parameters take
effect. To shut down an instance you must connect as SYSOPER or SYSDBA
and use the following command:
SHUTDOWN [NORMAL | TRANSACTIONAL | IMMEDIATE | ABORT ]
Shutdown Options
Shutdown Normal
Normal is the default shutdown mode. Normal database shutdown proceeds
with the
following conditions:
• No new connections can be made.
• The Oracle server waits for all users to disconnect before completing the
shutdown.
• Database and redo buffers are written to disk.
• Background processes are terminated, and the SGA is removed from memory.
• Oracle closes and dismounts the database before shutting down the instance.
• The next startup does not require an instance recovery.
Shutdown Transactional
A transactional shutdown prevents clients from losing work. A transactional
database shutdown proceeds with the following conditions:
• No client can start a new transaction on this particular instance.
• A client is disconnected when the client ends the transaction that is in
progress.
• When all transactions have finished, a shutdown immediately occurs.
Shutdown Immediate
Immediate database shutdown proceeds with the following conditions:
• Current SQL statements being processed by Oracle are not completed.
• The Oracle server does not wait for users currently connected to the database
to disconnect.
• Oracle rolls back active transactions and disconnects all connected users.
• Oracle closes and dismounts the database before shutting down the instance.
Shutdown Abort
If the normal and immediate shutdown options do not work, you can abort the
current database instance. Aborting an instance proceeds with the following
conditions:
• Current SQL statements being processed by the Oracle server are immediately
terminated.
• Oracle does not wait for users currently connected to the database to
disconnect.
• Database and redo buffers are not written to disk.
• Uncommitted transactions are not rolled back.
• The instance is terminated without closing the files.
• The database is not closed or dismounted.
• The next startup requires instance recovery, which occurs automatically.
Alert Log File

Each Oracle instance has an alert log file. If not already created, Oracle creates
one during instance startup. The alert log file is managed by you, as it continues
to grow while the database continues to work. The alert log file should be the
first place you look when diagnosing day-to-day operations or errors. The alert
log file also contains pointers to trace files for more detailed information.
The alertSID.log file records the commands and Results of major events while
the database is operational.
• It is used for day-to-day operational information or diagnosing database errors.
• Each entry has a time stamp associated with it.
• The DBA manages the alertSID.log file.
• Its location is defined by
BACKGROUND_DUMP_DEST.
Creating a Database
Managing and Organizing a Database

• Creating a database is the first step in managing a database system
• A database may have been created automatically as part of Oracle9i Server
installation, or you can create a new one later
• Oracle Data Migration Assistant is used to migratefrom an earlier version of

the database
Creation Prerequisites
To create a new database, you must have thefollowing:
• A privileged account authenticated in one of the following ways:
– By the operating system
– Using a password file
• Sufficient memory to start the instance
• Sufficient disk space for the planned database
Planning Database File Locations

• Keep at least two active copies of a database control file on at least two
different devices.
• Multiplex the redo log files and put group members on different disks.
• Separate data files whose data:
– Will participate in disk resource contention across different physical disk
resources
– Have different life spans
– Have different administrative characteristics
Creating a Database
An Oracle database can be created using:
• Oracle Database Configuration Assistant
• The CREATE DATABASE command
Operating System Environment

On Unix, set the following environment variables:
• ORACLE_BASE
• ORACLE_HOME
• ORACLE_SID
• ORA_NLS33
• PATH
• LD_LIBRARY_PATH
Using the Oracle Database Configuration Assistant

Launching the Oracle Database Configuration Assistant
Unix:
• Enterdbca from the command prompt
Options available in Oracle Database Configuration Assistant
The Oracle Database Configuration Assistant allows you to do the following:
• Create a database: This option allows you to create a new database or

template. The template allows you to choose, either, with datafiles or without
datafiles.
• Configure database options: This option allows you to add database options
that have not been previously configured, such as the following (if available):
JVM, interMedia,Visual Information Retrieval, Spatial, Oracle OLAP Services,
Advanced Replication and SQL*Plus help
Note: This option is not available with Oracle9i Real Application Clusters.
• Delete a database: This option allows you to delete a database.
• Manage templates: This option allows you to create a template through one
of the following methods:
– From pre-defined template settings: Create a new template from pre-defined
template settings. You can add or change any template settings such as
parameters, storage or use custom scripts
– From an existing database (structure only): This template contains structural
information similar to the existing database. This includes database options,
tablespaces, datafiles and initialization parameters specified in the source
database. User defined schemas and their data will not be part of the created
template.
– From an existing database (structure as well as data): This template will
contain both the structure as well as the data of an existing database. Databases
created using such a template will be identical to the source database. User
defined schemas and their datawill be part of the template. This template does
not allow you to add or remove datafiles, tablespaces, or rollback segments.
Database Information
Specify:
• Global database name and SID
• The features you want to use for your database, such as:
– Oracle Spatial
– Oracle OLAP Services
– Example Schemas
• Mode in which you want the database to operate
– Dedicated server mode
– Shared server mode
Other Parameters
• Archive Parameters
– Use for database recovery
– May also be used for a standby database
• Data Block Sizing
– Sets the default database block size
– Helps to determine the SORT_AREA_SIZE
• File Locations
– Specify paths for trace files
– Specify paths for parameter files

• Database storage
– Specify storage parameters
Complete Database Creation
Complete database creation using the following options:
• Create database
• Save as a database template
• Generate database creation scripts
Creating a Database Manually

• Decide on a unique instance and database name
• Choose a database character set
• Set the operating system variables
• Edit / Create the initialization parameter file
• Start the instance (nomount)
• Execute the CREATE DATABASE command
• Run scripts to generate the data dictionary and
accomplish post creation steps
Preparing the Parameter File
• Create the new initSID.ora
$ cp init.ora $ORACLE_HOME/dbs/initdb01.ora
• Modify the initSID.ora by editing the
Parameters
Creating SPFILE
Create the SPFILE from initSID.ora
SQL>CREATE SPFILE FROM PFILE;
Starting the Instance
• Connect as SYSDBA
• Start the instance in NOMOUNT stage
SQL>STARTUP NOMOUNT
Creating the Database
SQL> create database db01
2 logfile
3 GROUP 1 ('/u01/oradata/db01/log_01_db01.rdo') SIZE 15M,
4 GROUP 2 ('/u01/oradata/db01/log_02_db01.rdo') SIZE 15M,
5 GROUP 3 ('/u01/oradata/db01/log_03_db01.rdo') SIZE 15M
6 datafile '/u01/oradata/db01/system_01_db01.dbf' SIZE 100M
7 undo tablespace UNDO
8 datafile '/u01/oradata/db01/undo_01_db01.dbf' SIZE 40M
9 default temporary tablespace TEMP
10 tempfile '/u01/oradata/db01/temp_01_db01.dbf' SIZE 20M
11 extent management local uniform size 128k
12 character set AL32UTF8

13 national character set AL16UTF16
14 set time_zone = 'America/New_York'
15 ;
Creating a Database Using OMF

• Define the OMF initialization parameters in the parameter file
– DB_CREATE_FILE_DEST
– DB_CREATE_ONLINE_DEST_n
STARTUP NOMOUNT
CREATE DATABASE
DEFAULT TEMPORARY TABLESPACE TEMP;
After Database Creation

The database contains:
• Datafiles, control files, and redo log files
• User SYS with the password change_on_install
• User SYSTEM with the password manager
• Internal tables (but no data dictionary views)
Data Dictionary Contents and Usage
Data Dictionary
During database creation, the Oracle server creates additional object structures
within the data files.
• Data dictionary tables
• Dynamic performance tables
The data dictionary is a set of read-only tables and views that record, verify, and
provide information about its associated database.
• Describes the database and its objects
• Includes two types of objects:
– Base tables
– Store description of database
– Created with CREATE DATABASE
– Data Dictionary views
– Summarize base table information
– Created using catalog.sql script
Data Dictionary Contents

The data dictionary provides information about:
• Logical and physical database structure
• Definitions and space allocations of objects
• Integrity constraints
• Users
• Roles
• Privileges
• Auditing
How the Data Dictionary Is Used

The data dictionary has three primary uses:
• The Oracle server uses it to find information
about:
– Users
– Schema objects
– Storage structures
• The Oracle server modifies it when a DDL statement is executed.
• Users and DBAs can use it as a read-only
reference for information about the database.
Data Dictionary View Categories

The data dictionary consists of three main sets of
static views distinguished from each other by their
scope:
• DBA: What is in all the schemas
• ALL: What the user can access
• USER: What is in the user's schema
DBA_xxx
All of the objects in the database
SQL>SELECT owner, object_name, object_type FROM dba_objects;
ALL_xxx
Objects accessible by the current user
SQL>SELECT owner, object_name, object_type FROM all_objects;
USER_xxx
Objects owned by the current user
SQL>SELECT owner, object_name, object_type FROM users_objects;
Querying the Data Dictionary

To get an overview of the data dictionary and dynamic performance views, the
DICTIONARY view or its synonym DICT can be queried. For example:
SQL>SELECT * FROM dictionary;
Include the where clause to narrow your responses:
SQL>SELECT * FROM dictionary WHERE table_name like ‘sort%’
The V$FIXED_TABLE view can also be queried to get a listing of the views:
SQL>SELECT * FROM V$FIXED_TABLE;
To get a list of columns within a view, use the DESCRIBE keyword:
SQL>DESCRIBE V$INSTANCE;
To get an overview of the columns in the data dictionary and dynamic
performance views,the DICT_COLUMNS view can be queried.
To view the contents of the view use the SELECT command.
SQL>SELECT * from V$INSTANCE;
Data Dictionary Examples

• General Overview
– DICTIONARY, DICT_COLUMNS
• Schema objects
– DBA_TABLES, DBA_INDEXES, DBA_TAB_COLUMNS,
DBA_CONSTRAINTS
• Space allocation
– DBA_SEGMENTS, DBA_EXTENTS
• Database structure
– DBA_TABLESPACES, DBA_DATA_FILES
Maintaining the Control File

Control File
The control file is a small binary file necessary for the database to start and
operate successfully. Each control file is associated with only one Oracle
database. Before a database is opened, the control file is read to determine if the
database is in a valid state to use. A control file is updated continuously by the
Oracle server during database use, so it must beavailable for writing whenever
the database is open. The information in the control file canbe modified only by
the Oracle server; no database administrator or end user can edit the control file.
If for some reason the control file is not accessible, the database does not nction
properly. If all copies of a database’s control files are lost, the database must be
recovered before it can be opened. At least one control file is required, but
control files can be multiplexed up to eight times.
Sizing the Control File

Keywords specified during the creation of the database affect the size of the
control file. This is particularly significant when the parameters have large
values. The size of the control file is influenced by the following keywords in
the CREATE DATABASE or CREATE CONTROLFILE commands:
• MAXLOGFILES
• MAXLOGMEMBERS
• MAXLOGHISTORY
• MAXDATAFILES
• MAXINSTANCES
Control File Contents

The information in the control file includes:
• Database name is taken from either the name specified by the initialization
parameter
DB_NAME or the name used in the CREATE DATABASE statement.
• Database identifier is recorded when the database is created.
• Time stamp of database creation is also recorded at database creation.
• Names and locations of associated data files and online redo log files are
updated when
a data file or redo log is added to, renamed in, or dropped from the database.
• Tablespace information is updated as tablespaces are added or dropped.
• Redo log history is recorded during log switches.
• Location and status of archived logs are recorded when archiving occurs.
• Location and status of backups are recorded by the Recovery Manager utility.
• Current log sequence number is recorded when log switches occur.
• Checkpoint information is recorded as checkpoints are made.
Multiplexing the Control File Using SPFILE
Alter the SPFILE

SQL> ALTER SYSTEM SET control files =
'$HOME/ORADATA/u01/ctrl01.ctl',
'$HOME/ORADATA/u02/ctrl02.ctl' SCOPE=SPFILE;
• Shutdown normal:
SQL> shutdown
• Create additional control files
$ cp $HOME/ORADATA/u01/ctrl01.ctl
$HOME/ORADATA/u02/ctrl02.ctl
• Start the database:

SQL> startup
Multiplexing the Control File Using init.ora

• Shut down the database in a normal state:
SQL> shutdown normal
• Copy the existing control file to a new name and location:
$ cp control01.ctl .../DISK3/control02.ctl
• Add the new control file name to init.ora:
CONTROL_FILES = (/DISK1/control01.ctl, /DISK3/control02.ctl)
• Start the database:
SQL> startup
Backup After Database Structure Changes

You can create a backup of a control file, but you cannot bring a control file
back from a backup without its appropriate data files. The control file is a living
file that corresponds to current database status.
ALTER DATABASE BACKUP CONTROLFILE TO 'FILENAME'
You can also backup your control file to a trace file. This will create a file with
the SQL statements required to recreate your control file.
ALTER DATABASE BACKUP CONTROLFILE TO TRACE
Managing Control Files with OMF

• Control files are OMF created if the CONTROL_FILES parameter is not
specified.
• OMF control files are located at DB_CREATE_ONLINE_LOG_DEST_N.
• Control file names are uniquely generated and displayed in the alertSID.log
file when the files are created.
Obtaining Control File Information

Information about control file status and locations can be retrieved by querying
the data dictionary.
• V$CONTROLFILE: Lists the name and status of all control files associated
with the instance.
• V$PARAMETER: Lists status and location of all parameters.
• V$CONTROLFILE_RECORD_SECTION: Provides information about the
control file record sections.
• SHOW PARAMETERS CONTROL_FILES: List the name, status, and
location of the control files
Information in several of the other dynamic performance views is obtained from

the control file:
• V$BACKUP
• V$DATAFILE
• V$TEMPFILE
• V$TABLESPACE
• V$ARCHIVE
• V$LOG
• V$LOGFILE
• V$LOGHIST
• V$ARCHIVED_LOG
• V$DATEBASE
Maintaining Redo Log Files

Redo Log Files
Redo log files record all changes made to data and provide a recovery
mechanism from a system or media failure.
• Redo log files are organized into groups.
• An Oracle database requires at least two groups.
• Each redo log within a group is called a member.
Purposes of the Redo Log Files
Redo log files provide the means to redo transactions in the event of a database
failure. Every transaction is written synchronously to the redo log files in order
to provide a recovery mechanism in case of media failure. (With exceptions
such as: direct loads and direct reads done with the NOLOGGING option.) This
includes transactions that have not yet been committed, undo segment
information, and schema and object management statements. Redo log files are
used in a situation such as an instance failure to recover committed data that has
not been written to the data files. The redo log files are used only for recovery.
Log Switches
LGWR writes to the online redo log files sequentially. When the current online
redo log group is filled, LGWR begins writing to the next group. This is called a
log switch.
When the last available online redo log file is filled, LGWR returns to the first
online redo log group and starts writing again.
Forcing Log Switches and Checkpoints

Log switches and checkpoints are automatically done at certain points in the
operation of the database as identified previously, but a DBA can force a log
switch or a checkpoint to occur.
Forcing Log Switches

A log switch can be forced using the following SQL command:
SQL>ALTER SYSTEM SWITCH LOGFILE;
Forcing Checkpoints
A checkpoint can be forced using the following SQL command:
SQL>ALTER SYSTEM CHECKPOINT;
A checkpoint can be forced using the FAST_START_MTTR_TARGET

parameter.
FAST_START_MTTR_TARGET is a shortcut to the deprecated parameters
FAST_START_IO_TARGET and LOG_CHECKPOINT_TIMEOUT.
FAST_START_MTTR_TARGET = 600 indicates that instance recovery should
not take more than 600 seconds, and the database will adjust the other
parameters to this goal.
FAST_START_IO_TARGET and LOG_CHECKPOINT_TIMEOUT must not
be used if FAST_START_MTTR_TARGET is used.
Adding Redo Log Groups

In some cases you might need to create additional log file groups. For example,
adding groups can solve availability problems. To create a new group of online
redo log files, use the following SQL command:
ALTER DATABASE [database]
ADD LOGFILE [GROUP integer] filespec
[, [GROUP integer] filespec]...]
You specify the name and location of the members with the file specification.
The value of the GROUP parameter can be selected for each redo log file group.
If you omit this parameter, the Oracle server generates its value automatically.
SQL>ALTER DATABASE ADD LOGFILE GROUP 3

('$HOME/ORADATA/u01/log3a.rdo',
'$HOME/ORADATA/u02/log3b.rdo') SIZE 1M;
Adding Redo Log Members

You can add new members to existing redo log file groups using the following
ALTER
DATABASE ADD LOGFILE MEMBER command:
ADD LOGFILE MEMBER
[ 'filename' [REUSE]
[, 'filename' [REUSE]]...
TO {GROUP integer
|('filename'[, 'filename']...)
}
]...
Use the fully specified name of the log file members; otherwise the files are
created in a default directory of the database server. f the file already exists, it
must have the same size, and you must specify the REUSE option.
You can identify the target group either by specifying one or more members of
the group or by specifying the group number.
SQL>ALTER DATABASE ADD LOGFILE MEMBER

'$HOME/ORADATA/u04/log1c.rdo' TO GROUP 1,
'$HOME/ORADATA/u04/log2c.rdo' TO GROUP 2,
'$HOME/ORADATA/u04/log3c.rdo' TO GROUP 3;
Dropping a Redo Log Group

To increase or decrease the size of online redo log groups, add new online redo
log groups (with the new size) and then drop the old ones. An entire online redo
log group can be dropped with the following ALTER DATABASE
DROP LOGFILE command:
DROP LOGFILE {GROUP integer|('filename'[, 'filename']...)}
[,{GROUP integer|('filename'[,
'filename']...)}]...
SQL>ALTER DATABASE DROP LOGFILE GROUP 3;
Dropping a Redo Log Member

You may want to drop an online redo log member because it is invalid. Use the
following
ALTER DATABASE DROP LOGFILE MEMBER command if you want to
drop one or more specific online redo log members:
DROP LOGFILE MEMBER 'filename'[, 'filename']...
SQL>ALTER DATABASE DROP LOGFILE MEMBER

'$HOME/ORADATA/u04/log3c.rdo';
Clearing Online Redo Log Files

If a redo log file is corrupted in all members, the database administrator can
solve this problem by reinitializing these log files using ALTER DATABASE
CLEAR LOGFILE:
CLEAR [UNARCHIVED] LOGFILE
{GROUP integer|('filename'[, 'filename']...)}
[,{GROUP integer|('filename'[, 'filename']...)}]...
Using this command is equivalent to adding and dropping an online redo log
file. But you can issue this command even if there are only two log groups with
one file each and even if the cleared group is available but not archived.
SQL>ALTER DATABASE CLEAR LOGFILE
'$HOME/ORADATA/u01/log2a.rdo';
Restrictions
You can clear an online redo log file whether it is archived or not. However,
when it is not archived, you must include the keyword UNARCHIVED. This
makes backups unusable if the online redo log file is needed for recovery.
Relocating and Renaming Redo Log Files

The locations of the online redo log files can be changed by adding new log
files and
dropping the old log files. Another method ALTER DATABASE RENAME
FILE is
available, but this requires the database to be placed in MOUNT mode.
Therefore, it is much easier to add new ones and drop old ones.
Obtaining Group and Member Information

Information about group and members can be obtained by querying the
data dictionary.
• V$LOG
SQL> SELECT group#, sequence#, bytes, members, status
2 FROM v$log;
• V$LOGFILE
To obtain the names of all the members of a group, query the dynamic
performance view
V$LOGFILE.
SQL> SELECT member FROM V$LOGFILE;
Archived Redo Log Files

Filled online redo log files can be archived.
• Two advantages exist to archiving redo logs:
– Recovery: A database backup, together with online and archived redo log files
can guarantee recovery of all committed transactions.
– Backup: Can be performed while the database is open.
• By default a database is created in NOARCHIVELOG mode.
• Archiving redo log files is accomplished by ARCn (Archiver) or manually
through SQL statements.
• An entry in the control file recording the archive log name, log sequence
number, and high and low SCN number is made whenever a redo log is
successfully archived.
• A filled redo log file cannot be reused until a checkpoint has taken place and
the redo log file has been backed up the ARCn process.
• Archived redo log files can be multiplexed.
• Archived redo log files must be maintained by the DBA.
Archived Redo Log Files

Information about archived logs can be obtained from V$INSTANCE.

SQL> SELECT archive FROM v$instance;
Managing Tablespaces and Data files

Overview
A small database might need only the SYSTEM tablespace; however, Oracle
recommends that you create additional tablespaces to store user data, user
indexes, undo segments, and temporary segments separate from data dictionary.
This gives you more flexibility in various database administration operations
and reduces contention among dictionary objects and chema objects for the
same data files. The DBA can create new tablespaces, resize data files, add data
files to tablespaces, set and alter default segment storage settings for segments
created in a tablespace, make a tablespaceread-only or read-write, make a
tablespace temporary or permanent, and drop tablespaces.
Database Architecture
The Oracle database architecture includes logical and physical structures that
make up the atabase.
• The physical structure includes the control files, online redo log files, and data
files that make up the database.
• The logical structure includes tablespaces, segments, extents, and data blocks.
The Oracle server enables fine-grained control of disk space use through
tablespace and logical storage structures, including segments, extents, and data
blocks.
Tablespaces
The data in an Oracle database are stored in tablespaces.
• An Oracle database can be logically grouped into smaller logical areas of
space known as tablespaces.
• A tablespace can belong to only one database at a time.
• Each tablespace consists of one or more operating system files, which are
called data files.
• A tablespace may consist of zero or more segments.
• Tablespaces can be brought online while the database is running.
• Except for the SYSTEM tablespace or a tablespace with an active undo
segment, tablespaces can be taken offline, leaving the database running.
• Tablespaces can be switched between read-write and read-only status.
Data Files
• Each tablespace in an Oracle database consists of one or more files called data
files. These are physical structures that conform with the operating system on
which the Oracle server is running.
• A data file can belong to only one tablespace.
• An Oracle server creates a data file for a tablespace by allocating the specified
amount of disk space plus a small amount of overhead.
• The database administrator can change the size of a data file after its creation
or can specify that a data file should dynamically grow as objects in the
tablespace grow.
Segments
• A segment is the space allocated for a specific logical storage structure within
a tablespace. For example, all of the storage allocated to a table is a segment.
• A tablespace may consist of one or more segments.
• A segment cannot span tablespaces; however, a segment can span multiple
data files that belong to the same tablespace.
• Each segment is made up of one or more extents.
Extents
Space is allocated to a segment by extents.
• One or more extents make up a segment.
– When a segment is created, it consists of at least one extent.
– As the segment grows, extents get added to the segment.
– The DBA can manually add extents to a segment.
• An extent is a set of contiguous Oracle blocks.
• An extent cannot span a data file but must exist in one data file.
Data Blocks
The Oracle server manages the storage space in the data files in units called
Oracle blocks or data blocks.
• At the finest level of granularity, the data in an Oracle database is stored in
data blocks.
• Oracle data blocks are the smallest units of storage that the Oracle server can
allocate, read, or write.
• One data block corresponds to one or more operating system blocks allocated
from an existing data file.
• The standard data block size for an Oracle database is specified by the
DB_BLOCK_SIZE initialization parameter when the database is created.
• The data block size should be a multiple of the operating system block size to
avoid
unnecessary I/O.
• The maximum data block size is dependent on the operating system.
Types of Tablespaces
The DBA creates tablespaces for increased control and ease of maintenance.
The Oracle server perceives two types of tablespaces: SYSTEM and all others.
SYSTEM Tablespace
• Created with the database
• Required in all databases
• Contains the data dictionary, including stored program units

• Contains the SYSTEM undo segment
• Should not contain user data, although it is allowed
Non-SYSTEM Tablespaces
• Enable more flexibility in database administration
• Separate undo, temporary, application data, and application index segments
• Separate data by backup requirements
• Separate dynamic and static data
• Control the amount of space allocated to user’s objects
CREATE TABLESPACE Command

You create a tablespace with the CREATE TABLESPACE command:
CREATE TABLESPACE tablespace
[DATAFILE clause]
[MINIMUM EXTENT integer[K|M]]
[BLOCKSIZE integer [K]]
[LOGGING|NOLOGGING]
[DEFAULT storage_clause ]
[ONLINE|OFFLINE]
[PERMANENT|TEMPORARY]
SQL>CREATE TABLESPACE userdata

DATAFILE '/u01/oradata/userdata01.dbf' SIZE 100M
AUTOEXTEND ON NEXT 5M MAXSIZE 200M;
Space Management in Tablespaces

• Locally managed tablespaces:
– Free extents recorded in bitmap
– Each bit corresponds to a block or group of blocks
– Bit value indicates free or used
EXTENT MANAGEMENT LOCAL UNIFORM SIZE 256K;
• Dictionary-managed tablespaces:
– Default method
– Free extents recorded in data dictionary tables

EXTENT MANAGEMENT DICTIONARY
DEFAULT STORAGE ( initial 1M NEXT 1M );
Changing the Storage Settings

SQL>ALTER TABLESPACE userdata MINIMUM EXTENT 2M;
SQL>ALTER TABLESPACE userdata DEFAULT STORAGE (
INITIAL 2M NEXT 2M MAXEXTENTS 999 );
Changing Default Storage Settings

Use the ALTER TABLESPACE command to alter the default storage definition
of a
tablespace:
ALTER TABLESPACE tablespace
[MINIMUM EXTENT integer[K|M]
|DEFAULT storage_clause ]
The storage settings for locally managed tablespaces cannot be altered.
Undo Tablespace
• Used to store undo segments
• Cannot contain any other objects
• Extents are locally managed
• Can only use the DATAFILE and EXTENT
MANAGEMENT clauses of the CREATE TABLESPACE command
SQL>CREATE UNDO TABLESPACE undo1
DATAFILE '/u01/oradata/undo101.dbf' SIZE 40M;
Temporary Tablespace
• Used for sort operations
• Cannot contain any permanent objects
• Locally managed extents recommended
SQL>CREATE TEMPORARY TABLESPACE temp
TEMPFILE '/u01/oradata/temp01.dbf' SIZE 500M
EXTENT MANAGEMENT LOCAL UNIFORM SIZE 10M;
Default Temporary Tablespace

• Allows you to specify a databasewide default temporary tablespace
• Eliminates the use of the SYSTEM tablespace for storing temporary data
• Can be created using the CREATE DATABASE or ALTER DATABASE

command.
• When created with the CREATE DATABASE command, the default
temporary tablespace is locally managed
Restrictions on Default Temporary Tablespace

• It cannot be dropped until after a new default is made available.
• It cannot be taken offline.
• You cannot alter the default temporary tablespace to a permanent tablespace.
Offline Status
• Offline tablespace is not available for data access.
• Some tablespaces must be online:
– SYSTEM
– Tablespaces with active undo segments
– Default temporary
• To take a tablespace offline:
SQL>ALTER TABLESPACE userdata OFFLINE;
• To bring a tablespace online:
SQL>ALTER TABLESPACE userdata ONLINE;
Read-Only Tablespaces
SQL>ALTER TABLESPACE userdata READ ONLY;
• Tablespace available only for read operations
• Objects can be dropped from tablespace
• To create a read-only tablespace on a removable
media drive:
– ALTER TABLESPACE…READ ONLY;
– Move the data file to the WORM drive
– ALTER TABLESPACE…RENAME DATAFILE…;
Dropping Tablespaces
• Tablespace removed from data dictionary

• Optionally, contents removed from data dictionary
• OS files can be deleted with the optional AND DATAFILES clause:

SQL .DROP TABLESPACE userdata
INCLUDING CONTENTS AND DATAFILES;
SQL>DROP TABLESPACE tablespace
[INCLUDING CONTENTS [AND DATAFILES] [CASCADE
CONSTRAINTS]]
where: tablespace specifies the name of the tablespace to be dropped
INCLUDING CONTENTS drops all the segments in the tablespace AND
DATAFILES deletes the associated operating system files CASCADE
CONSTRAINTS drops referential integrity constraints fromtables outside the
tablespace that refer to primary and unique keys in the tables in the dropped
tablespace
Resizing a Tablespace
• Add a data file
• Change the size of a data file:
– Automatically
– Manually
Enabling Automatic Extension of Data Files

SQL>ALTER DATABASE DATAFILE
'/u01/oradata/userdata02.dbf' SIZE 200M
AUTOEXTEND ON NEXT 10M MAXSIZE 500M;
Changing the Size of Data Files Manually

Instead of adding space to the database by adding data files, the DBA can
change the size of a data file. Use the ALTER DATABASE command to
manually increase or decrease the size of a data file:
DATAFILE ‘filename’[, ‘filename’]...
RESIZE integer[K|M]
where: integer is the absolute size, in bytes, of the resulting data file If there are
database objects stored above the specified size, then the data file size
isdecreased only to the last block of the last objects in the data file.
SQL>ALTER DATABASE DATAFILE '/u03/oradata/userdata02.dbf'
RESIZE 200M;
Adding Data Files to a Tablespace

The ALTER TABLESPACE ADD DATAFILE Command
You can add data files to a tablespace to increase the total amount of disk space
allocated for the tablespace with the ALTER TABLESPACE ADD DATAFILE
command:
SQL>ALTER TABLESPACE tablespace ADD DATAFILE
filespec [autoextend_clause]
[, filespec [autoextend_clause]]...
ALTER TABLESPACE app_data
ADD DATAFILE '/u01/oradata/userdata03.dbf'
SIZE 200M;
Moving Data Files:ALTER TABLESPACE

• The tablespace must be offline.
• The target data files must exist.
The following ALTER TABLESPACE command is applied only to data files in
a non- SYSTEM tablespace that does not contain active undo or temporary
segments:
ALTER TABESPACE tablespace
RENAME DATAFILE 'filename'[, 'filename']...
TO 'filename'[, 'filename']...
SQL>ALTER TABLESPACE userdata
RENAME DATAFILE '/u01/oradata/userdata01.dbf'
TO '/u01/oradata/userdata01.dbf';
Moving Data Files:ALTER DATABASE

• The database must be mounted.
• The target data file must exist.
The ALTER DATABASE command (see the lesson “Maintaining Redo Log
Files”) can be used to move any type of data file:
RENAME FILE 'filename'[, 'filename']...
TO 'filename'[, 'filename']...
Because the SYSTEM tablespace cannot be taken offline, you must use this
method to move data files in the SYSTEM tablespace
SQL>ALTER DATABASE RENAME
FILE '/u01/oradata/system01.dbf'
TO '/u03/oradata/system01.dbf';
Configuring Oracle Managed Files for Tablespace Creation

• Creating a tablespace with OMF requires the configuration of one
initialization parameter.
• DB_CREATE_FILE_DEST: Set to give the default ocation for data files.
• The initialization parameter can be set in an initialization file or set
dynamically with the ALTER SYSTEM command:
SQL>ALTER SYSTEM SET
db_create_file_dest = '/u01/oradata/db01';
Obtaining Tablespace Information

• Tablespace information:
– DBA_TABLESPACES
– V$TABLESPACE
• Data file information:
– DBA_DATA_FILES
– V$DATAFILE
• Temp file information:
– DBA_TEMP_FILES
– V$TEMPFILE
Storage Structure and Relationships

Database Architecture
The previous lesson discussed the storage structure of a database, its
tablespaces, and its data files. This lesson continues the discussion of database
storage by examining segments, extents, and data blocks
Types of Segments
Segments are space-occupying objects in a database. They use space in the data
files of a database. This section describes the different types of segments.
Table
A table is the most common means of storing data within a database. A table
segment stores that data for a table that is neither clustered nor partitioned. Data
within a table segment is stored in no particular order, and the database
administrator has very little control over the location of rows within the blocks
in a table. All the data in a table segment must be stored inone tablespace.
Table Partition
Scalability and availability are major concerns when there is a table in a
database with high concurrent usage. In such cases, data within a table may be
stored in several partitions, each of which resides in a different tablespace. The
Oracle server currently supports partitioning by a range of key values or by a
hashing algorithm. If a table is partitioned, each partition is a segment, and
storage parameters can be specified to control them independently. Use of this
type of segment requires the Partitioning option within the Oracle9i Enterprise
Edition.
Cluster
A cluster, like a table, is a type of data segment. Rows in a cluster are stored
based on key column values. A cluster may contain one or more tables. Tables
in a cluster belong to the same segment and share the same storage
characteristics. The rows in a clustered table can be accessed with an index or
hashing algorithm.
Index
All the entries for a particular index are stored within one index segment. If a
table has three indexes, three index segments are used. The purpose of this
segment is to look up the location of rows in a table based on a specified key.
Index-Organized Table
In an index-organized table, data is stored within the index based on the key
value. An indexorganized table does not need a table lookup, because all the
data can be retrieved directly from the index tree.
Index Partition
An index can be partitioned and spread across several tablespaces. In this case,
each partition in the index corresponds to a segment and cannot span multiple
tablespaces. The primary use of a partitioned index is to minimize contention by
spreading index I/O. Use of this type of segment requires the Partitioning option
within the Oracle8i Enterprise Edition.
Undo Segment
An undo segment is used by a transaction that is making changes to a database.
Before
changing the data or index blocks, the old value is stored in the undo segment.
This allows a user to undo changes made.
Temporary Segment
When a user executes commands such as CREATE INDEX, SELECT
DISTINCT, and SELECT GROUP BY, the Oracle server tries to perform sorts
in memory. When a sort needs more space than the space available in memory,
intermediate results are written to the disk. Temporary segments are used to
store these intermediate results.
LOB Segment
One or more columns in a table can be used to store large objects (LOBs) such
as text
documents, images, or videos. If the column is large, the Oracle server stores
these values in separate segments known as LOB segments. The table contains
only a locator or a pointer tothe location of the corresponding LOB data.
Nested Table
A column in a table may be made up of a user-defined table as in the case of
items within an order. In such cases, the inner table, which is known as a nested
table, is stored as a separatesegment.
Bootstrap Segment
A bootstrap segment, also known as a cache segment, is created by the sql.bsq
script when a database is created. This segment helps to initialize the data
dictionary cache when the database is opened by an instance. The bootstrap
segment cannot be queried or updated and does not require any maintenance by
the database administrator.
Extent Allocation and Deallocation

• Allocated when the segment is:
– Created
– Extended
– Altered
• Deallocated when the segment is:
– Dropped
– Altered
– Truncated
Data Block Management

Two methods are available for managing data blocks:
• Automatic Segment-Space Management
• It is method of managing free space inside database segments
• Tracking in-segment free and used space is done using bitmaps as opposed to
free lists
• This method provides:
– Ease of management
– Better space utilization
– Better performance for concurrent INSERT operations
• Restriction: Can not be used for tablespaces which will contain LOBs.Bitmap
segments contain a bitmap that describes the status of each block in the segment
with respect to its available space.
• The map is contained in a separate set of blocks referred to as bitmapped
blocks (BMBs).
• When inserting a new row, the server searches the map for a block with
sufficient space.
• As the amount of space available in a block changes, its new state is reflected
in the bitmap.
• Automatic segment-space management can be enabled at the tablespace level
only, for locally managed tablespaces.
SQL>CREATE TABLESPACE data02
DATAFILE ‘/u01/oradata/data02.dbf’ SIZE 5M
EXTENT MANAGEMENT LOCAL UNIFORM SIZE 64K
SEGMENT SPACE MANAGEMENT AUTO;
• After a tablespace is created, the specifications apply to all segments created in
the tablespace.
• Manual Configuration
• Allows you to configure data blocks manually using parameters such as:
– PCTFREE
– PCTUSED
– FREELIST
• Only method available in previous Oracle versions
Obtaining Storage Information

• Data Dictionary Views

– DBA_TABLESPACES
– DBA_DATA_FILES
– DBA_SEGMENTS
SQL> SELECT segment_name,tablespace_name,extents,blocks
2 FROM dba_segments WHERE owner = 'HR';
– DBA_EXTENTS
SQL> SELECT extent_id,file_id,block_id,blocks
2 FROM dba_extents
3 WHERE owner='HR' AND segment_name='EMPLOYEES';
– DBA_FREE_SPACE
SQLPLUS> SELECT tablespace_name, count(*),
2> max(blocks), sum(blocks)
3> FROM dba_free_space
4> GROUP BY tablespace_name;
Managing Undo Data
Managing Undo Data Overview

• Two methods for managing undo data exists
– Automatic Undo Management
– Manual Undo Management
Undo Segment
An undo segment is used to save the old value (undo data) when a process
changes data in a database. It stores the location of the data and the data as it
existed before being modified. The header of an undo segment contains a
transaction table where information about the current transactions using the
undo segment is stored. A serial transaction uses only one undo segment to store
all of its undo data. Many concurrent transactions can write to one undo
segment.
Undo Segments: Purpose

Transaction Rollback
When a transaction modifies a row in a table, the old image of the modified
columns (undo data) is saved in the undo segment. If the transaction is rolled
back, the Oracle server restores the original values by writing the values in the
undo segment back to the row.
Transaction Recovery
If the instance fails while transactions are in progress, the Oracle server needs to
undo any uncommitted changes when the database is opened again. This
rollback is part of transaction recovery. Recovery is possible only because
changes made to the undo segment are also protected by the redo log files.
Read Consistency
While transactions are in progress, other users in the database should not see
any
uncommitted changes made by these transactions. In addition, a statement
should not see any changes that were committed after the statement begins
execution. The old values (undo data) in the undo segments are also used to
provide the readers a consistent image for a given statement.
Types of Undo Segments

• SYSTEM: Used for objects in the SYSTEM tablespace
• Non-SYSTEM: Used for objects in other tablespaces:

– Auto Mode: Requires an UNDO tablespace
– Manual Mode:
– Private: Acquired by a single instance
– Public: Acquired by any instance
• Deferred: Used when tablespaces are taken offline
immediate, temporary, or for recovery
Automatic Undo Management: Concepts

• Undo data is managed using an UNDO tablespace
• You allocate one UNDO tablespace per instance with enough space for the
workload of the instance.
• The Oracle server automatically maintains undo data within the UNDO
tablespace
Automatic Undo Management: Configuration

• Configure two parameters in the initialization file:
– UNDO_MANAGEMENT
– UNDO_TABLESPACE
• Create at least one UNDO tablespace.
Automatic Undo Management: Initialization Parameters

• UNDO_MANAGEMENT: Specifies whether the system should use AUTO
or MANUAL mode.
• UNDO_TABLESPACE: Specifies a particular UNDO tablespace to be used.
UNDO_MANAGEMENT=AUTO
UNDO_TABLESPACE=UNDOTBS
UNDO Tablespace
• You may create the UNDO tablespace with the
database by adding a clause in the CREATE
DATABASE command
CREATE DATABASE db01
...
UNDO TABLESPACE undo1 DATAFILE 'undo1db01.dbf'
SIZE 20M AUTOEXTEND ON
• Or create it later by using the CREATE UNDO

TABLESPACE command
CREATE UNDO TABLESPACE undo1
DATAFILE 'undo1db01.dbf' SIZE 20M;
Automatic Undo Management:

Altering an UNDO Tablespace
• The ALTER TABLESPACE command can make changes to UNDO
tablespaces.
• The following example adds another data file to the UNDO tablespace:
SQL>ALTER TABLESPACE undotbs ADD DATAFILE 'undotbs2.dbf' SIZE
30M AUTOEXTEND ON;
Altering an UNDO Tablespace
The server provides support for the following clauses when altering an UNDO
tablespace.
• ADD DATAFILE
• RENAME
• DATAFILE [ONLINE|OFFLINE]
• BEGIN BACKUP
• END BACKUP
Automatic Undo Management: Switching UNDO Tablespaces

• You may switch from using one UNDO tablespace to another
• Only one UNDO tablespace can be in assigned to an instance at a time
• More than one UNDO tablespace may exist within an instance, but only one
can be active
• Use the ALTER SYSTEM command for dynamic switching between UNDO
tablespaces
SQL>ALTER SYSTEM SET UNDO_TABLESPACE=UNDOTBS2;
Automatic Undo Management: Dropping an UNDO Tablespace

• The DROP TABLESPACE command drops an UNDO tablespace.
SQL>DROP TABLESPACE UNDOTBS2;
• An UNDO tablespace can only be dropped if it is currently not in use by any

instance.
• To drop an active UNDO tablespace:
– Switch to a new UNDO tablespace
– Drop the tablespace after all current transactions re complete
Automatic Undo Management:Other Parameters

• UNDO_SUPPRESS_ERRORS
Set to TRUE, this parameter suppresses errors while attempting to execute
manual operations in AUTO mode.
• UNDO_RETENTION
Controls the amount of undo data to retain for consistent read
Undo Data Statistics

SQL>SELECT end_time,begin_time,undoblks FROM v$undostat;
Automatic Undo Management: Sizing an UNDO Tablespace

Determining a size for the UNDO tablespace requires three pieces of
information
• (UR) UNDO_RETENTION in seconds
• (UPS) Number of undo data blocks generated per
second
• (DBS) Overhead varies based on extent and file
size (db_block_size)
UndoSpace = [UR * (UPS * DBS)] + (DBS * 24)
Automatic Undo Management Undo Quota

• Long transactions and improperly written transactions can consume valuable
resources
• With undo quota users can be grouped and a maximum undo space limit can
be assigned to the group
• UNDO_POOL, a Resource Manager directive, defines the amount of space
allowed for a resource group
• When a group exceeds its limit no new transactions are possible, for the group,
until undo space is freed by current transactions either
completing or aborting
Obtaining Undo Segments Information

– DBA_ROLLBACK_SEGS
SQL> SELECT segment_name,owner,tablespace_name,status
2 FROM dba_rollback_segs;
• Dynamic Performance Views
– V$ROLLNAME
– V$ROLLSTAT
– V$UNDOSTAT
– V$SESSION
– V$TRANSACTION
SQL> SELECT n.name, s.extents, s.rssize,s.hwmsize,
2 s.xacts, s.status
3 FROM v$rollname n, v$rollstat sWHERE n.usn = s.usn;
Managing Tables
Using Different Methods for Storing User Data

There are several methods for storing user data in an Oracle database:
• Regular tables
• Partitioned tables
• Index-organized tables
• Clustered tables
Oracle Data Types
Built-in
Scalar
CHAR(N),
NCHAR(N)
VARCHAR2(N),
NVARCHAR2(N)
NUMBER(P,S)
DATE
TIMESTAMP
RAW(N)
BLOB, CLOB,
NCLOB, BFILE
LONG, LONG RAW
ROWID, UROWID
Collection
VARRAY
TABLE
Relationship
REF
User-defined
Create Table
The CREATE TABLE command is used to create relational tables or object
tables.
The example below creates a departments table as data dictionary managed.
CREATE TABLE hr.departments(department_id NUMBER(4),
department_name VARCHAR2(30),manager_id NUMBER(6)
location_id NUMBER(4))
STORAGE(INITIAL 200K NEXT 200K PCTINCREASE 0 MINEXTENTS 1

MAXEXTENTS 5) TABLESPACE data;
The above syntax is a subset of the CREATE TABLE clause.
Creating Temporary Tables

• Created using the GLOBAL TEMPORARY clause CREATE GLOBAL
TEMPORARY TABLE hr.employees_temp AS SELECT * FROM
hr.employees;
• Tables retain data only for the duration of a transaction or session
• DML locks are not acquired on the data
• DMLs do not generate redo logs
• Can create indexes, views, and triggers on
temporary tables
Changing Storage Parameters

SQL>ALTER TABLE hr.department PCTFREE 30 PCTUSED 50
STORAGE(NEXT 500K MINEXTENTS 2 MAXEXTENTS 100);
Manually Allocating Extents

SQL>ALTER TABLE hr.department ALLOCATE EXTENT(SIZE 500K
DATAFILE ‘/DISK3/DATA01.DBF’);
Nonpartitioned Table Reorganization

SQL>ALTER TABLE hr.department MOVE TABLESPACE data1;
• Moves data into a new segment while preserving
indexes, constraints, privileges, and so on the
table
• Is being used to move a table to a different
tablespace or reorganize extents
Truncating a Table
SQL>TRUNCATE TABLE hr. department;
• Truncating a table deletes all rows in a table and releases used space.
• Corresponding indexes are truncated.
Dropping a Table
DROP TABLE hr.department CASCADE CONSTRAINTS;
Dropping a Column
Removing a column from a table:
SQL>ALTER TABLE hr.employees DROP COLUMN comments CASCADE
CONSTRAINTS CHECKPOINT 1000;
• Removes the column length and data from each row, freeing space in the data
block
• Dropping a column in a large table takes a considerable amount of time
Using the UNUSED Option

• Mark a column as unused
SQL>ALTER TABLE hr.employees SET UNUSED COLUMN comments
CASCADE CONSTRAINTS;
• Drop unused columns
SQL>ALTER TABLE hr.employees DROP UNUSED COLUMNS
CHECKPOINT 1000;
• Continue to drop column operation
SQL>ALTER TABLE hr.employees DROP COLUMNS CONTINUE
CHECKPOINT 1000;
Obtaining Table Information

Information about tables can be obtained by querying the data dictionary.
• DBA_TABLES
SQL>SELECT table_name FROM dba_tables WHERE owner = 'HR';
• DBA_OBJECTS
SQL> select object_name, created from DBA_OBJECTS
where object_name like 'EMPLOYEES' and owner = 'HR';
Managing Users
Security Domain
The database administrator defines the names of the users allowed to access a
database. A security domain defines the settings that apply to the user.
Authentication Mechanism
A user who needs access to the database can be authenticated by one of the
following:
• Data Dictionary
• Operating system
• Network
The means of authentication is specified at the time the user is defined in the
database and can be altered later. This lesson covers authentication by database
and by operating system only.
Tablespace Quotas
Tablespace quotas control the amount of physical storage space allocated to a
user in the tablespaces in the database.
Default Tablespace
The default tablespace defines the location where segments created by a user are
stored if theuser does not explicitly specify a tablespace at the time the segment
is created.
Temporary Tablespace
Temporary tablespace defines where extents will be allocated by the Oracle
server if the user performs an operation that requires writing sort data to the
disk.
Account Locking
Accounts can be locked to prevent a user from logging on to the database. This
can be set to occur automatically, or the database administrator can lock or
unlock accounts manually.
Resource Limits
Limits can be placed on the use of resources such as CPU time, logical I/O, and
the numberof sessions opened by a user.
Direct Privileges
Privileges are used to control the actions a user can perform in a database.
Role Privileges
A user can be granted privileges indirectly through the use of roles.
Database Schema
• A schema is a named collection of objects

• A user is created, and a corresponding schema is created
• User can be associated only with one schema
• Username and schema are often used interchangeably
Schema Objects
Tables
Triggers
Constraints
Indexes
Views
Sequences
Stored program units
Synonyms
User-defined data types
Database links
Creating a New User: Database Authentication
SQL>CREATE USER aaron IDENTIFIED BY soccer DEFAULT
TABLESPACE data TEMPORARY TABLESPACE temp QUOTA 15m ON
data PASSWORD EXPIRE;
Creating a New User: Operating System Authentication
• OS_AUTHENT_PREFIX initialization parameter specifies the format of the

usernames
• Defaults to OPS$
SQL>CREATE USER aaron IDENTIFIED EXTERNALLY DEFAULT
TABLESPACE USERS TEMPORARY TABLESPACE temp QUOTA 15m
ON data PASSWORD EXPIRE;
Changing User Quota on Tablespace
SQL>ALTER USER aaron QUOTA 0 ON USERS;
Dropping a User
SQL>DROP USER aaron;
• Use the CASCADE clause to drop all objects in the schema if the schema
contains objects.
SQL>DROP USER aaron CASCADE;
• Users currently connected to the Oracle server cannot be dropped
Obtaining User Information

Information about users can be obtained by querying the data dictionary.
• DBA_USERS
SQL>SELECT username, default_tablespace FROM dba_users;
• DBA_TS_QUOTAS
Managing Privileges
Privileges
A privilege is a right to execute a particular type of SQL statement or to access
another user’s
object. These include the right to:
• Connect to a database
• Create a table
• Select rows from another user’s table
• Execute another user’s stored procedure
Two types of Oracle user privileges:
• System: Enables users to perform particular actions in the database
• Object: Enables users to access and manipulate a specific object
System Privileges
The privileges can be classified as follows:
• Privileges enabling system wide operations; for example, CREATE SESSION,
CREATE TABLESPACE
• Privileges enabling management of objects in a user’s own schema; for
example, CREATE TABLE
• Privileges enabling management of objects in any schema; for example,
CREATE ANY TABLE
System Privileges: Examples

Category Examples
INDEX CREATE ANY INDEX
ALTER ANY INDEX
DROP ANY INDEX
TABLE CREATE TABLE
CREATE ANY TABLE
ALTER ANY TABLE
DROP ANY TABLE
SELECT ANY TABLE
UPDATE ANY TABLE
DELETE ANY TABLE
SESSION CREATE SESSION
ALTER SESSION
RESTRICTED SESSION
TABLESPACE CREATE TABLESPACE
ALTER TABLESPACE
DROP TABLESPACE
UNLIMITED TABLESPACE
Granting System Privileges

SQL>GRANT CREATE SESSION TO emi;
SQL>GRANT CREATE SESSION TO emi WITH ADMIN OPTION;
SYSDBA and SYSOPER Privileges

Category Examples
SYSOPER STARTUP
ALTER DATABASE ARCHIVELOG
RECOVER DATABASE
ALTER DATABASE BACKUP
CONTROLFILE TO
ALTER DATABASE OPEN | MOUNT
SHUTDOWN
SYSDBA ALTER DATABASE BEGIN/END BACKUP
RESTRICTED SESSEION
RECOVER DATABASE UNTIL
CREATE DATABASE
SYSOPER PRIVILEGES WITH ADMIN
OPTION
System Privilege Restrictions

O7_DICTIONARY_ACCESSIBILITY parameter
• Controls restrictions on SYSTEM privileges
• If set to TRUE, access to objects in SYS schema is allowed
• Default is FALSE
– Ensures that system privileges that allow access to any schema do not allow
access to SYS schema
Revoking System Privileges

SQL>REVOKE CREATE TABLE FROM emi;
Granting Object Privileges

SQL>GRANT EXECUTE ON dbms_output TO jeff;
SQL>GRANT UPDATE ON emi.customers TO jeff WITH GRANT OPTION;
Revoking Object Privileges

SQL>REVOKE SELECT ON emi.orders FROM jeff;
Obtaining Privileges Information

– DBA_SYS_PRIVS
– SESSION_PRIVS
– DBA_TAB_PRIVS
– DBA_COL_PRIVS
Auditing
• Auditing is the monitoring of selected user database actions
• Used to
– Investigate suspicious database activity
– Gather information about specific database activities
Auditing Guidelines
• Define what you want to audit
– Audit users, statements, or objects
– Statement executions
– Successful statement executions, unsuccessful statement executions or both
• Manage your audit trail
– Monitor the growth of the audit trail
– Protect the audit trail from unauthorized access
Auditing Categories
• Audited by default
– Instance startup and Instance shutdown
– Administrator privileges
• Database auditing
– Enabled by DBA
– Cannot record column values
• Value-based or application auditing
– Implemented through code
– Can record column values
– Used to track changes to tables
Auditing Options
• Statement auditing
SQL>AUDIT TABLE;
• Privilege auditing
SQL>AUDIT create any trigger;

• Schema object auditing
SQL>AUDIT SELECT ON emi.orders;
Auditing Options
Fine-Grained Auditing
• Provides the monitoring of data access based on
content
• Implemented using the DBMS_FGA package
Viewing Auditing Options
Data Dictionary Views

• ALL_DEF_AUDIT_OPTS
• DBA_STMT_AUDIT_OPTS
• DBA_PRIV_AUDIT_OPTS
• DBA_OBJ_AUDIT_OPTS
Obtaining Audit Records

– DBA_AUDIT_TRAIL
– DBA_AUDIT_EXISTS
– DBA_AUDIT_OBJECT
– DBA_AUDIT_SESSION
– DBA_AUDIT_STATEMENT
Managing Roles
What is a Role?
Oracle provides for easy and controlled privilege management through roles.
Roles are named groups of related privileges that are granted to users or other
roles. They are designed to ease the administration of privileges in the database.
Benefits of Roles
• Easier privilege management
• Dynamic privilege management
• Selective availability of privileges
• Can be granted through the operating system
• Improved performance
Creating Roles
SQL>CREATE ROLE oe_clerk;
SQL>CREATE ROLE hr_clerk IDENTIFIED BY bonus;
SQL>CREATE ROLE hr_manager IDENTIFIED EXTERNALLY
Predefined Roles
Role Name Description
CONNECT, These roles are provided
RESOURCE,DBA for backward compatibility
EXP_FULL_DATABASE Privileges to export the database
IMP_FULL_DATABASE Privileges to import the database
DELETE_CATALOG_ROLE DELETE DELETE privileges on
data dictionary tables
EXECUTE_CATALOG_ROLE EXECUTE EXECUTE privilege on
data dictionary packages
SELECT_CATALOG_ROLE SELECT SELECT privilege on data
dictionary tables
Modifying Roles
SQL>ALTER ROLE hr_clerk IDENTIFIED EXTERNALLY;
SQL>ALTER ROLE hr_manager NOT IDENTIFIED;
SQL>ALTER ROLE oe_clerk IDENTIFIED BY order;
Assigning Roles
SQL>GRANT hr_clerk TO hr_manager;

SQL>GRANT oe_clerk TO scott;
SQL>GRANT hr_manager TO scott WITH ADMIN OPTION;
Establishing Default Roles

SQL>ALTER USER scott DEFAULT ROLE hr_clerk, oe_clerk;
SQL>ALTER USER scott DEFAULT ROLE ALL;
SQL>ALTER USER scott DEFAULT ROLE ALL EXCEPT hr_clerk;
SQL>ALTER USER scott DEFAULT ROLE NONE;
Application Roles
• Application roles can be enabled only by authorized PL/SQL packages
• The USING package clause creates an Application Role
SQL>CREATE ROLE admin_role IDENTIFIED USING hr.employee;
Enabling and Disabling Roles

• Disable a role to revoke the role from a user temporarily
• Enable a role to grant it temporarily
• The SET ROLE command enables and disables roles
• Default roles are enabled for a user at login.
• A password may be required to enable a role.
Enabling and Disabling Roles

SQL>SET ROLE hr_clerk;
SQL>SET ROLE oe_clerk IDENTIFIED BY order;
SQL>SET ROLE ALL EXCEPT oe_clerk;
Removing Roles from Users

SQL>REVOKE hr_manager FROM PUBLIC;
SQL>REVOKE oe_clerk FROM scott;
Removing Roles
SQL>DROP ROLE hr_manager;
Displaying Role Information

Role View Description
DBA_ROLES All roles that exist in the database
DBA_ROLE_PRIVS Roles granted to users and roles
ROLE_ROLE_PRIVS Roles that are granted to roles
DBA_SYS_PRIVS System privileges granted to users and roles
ROLE_SYS_PRIVS System privileges granted to roles
ROLE_TAB_PRIVS Object privileges granted to roles
SESSION_ROLES Roles that the user currently has enabled
SQL> SELECT role, password_required FROM dba_roles;
RMAN(Recovery Manager)
Recovery Manager (RMAN) is an Oracle provided utility for backing-up,
restoring and recovering Oracle Databases. RMAN ships with the Oracle
database and doesn't require a separate installation. The RMAN executable is
located in your ORACLE_HOME/bin directory. In fact, RMAN, is just a Pro*C
application that translates commands to a PL/SQL interface. The PL/SQL calls
are statically linked into the Oracle kernel, and does not require the database to
be opened.
Benefits of RMAN
· Backups are faster and uses less tapes (RMAN will skip empty blocks)
· Less database archiving while database is being backed-up
· RMAN checks the database for block corruptions
· Automated restores from the catalog
· Files are written out in parallel instead of sequential
Recovery Catalog
Recovery catalog holds RMAN repository data for one or more databases in a
separate database schema, in addition to using the control files of the databases.
Start by creating a database schema (usually called rman). Assign an

appropriate tablespace to it and grant it the recovery_catalog_owner role. Look
at this example:
sqlplus sys/ as sysdba

SQL> create user rman identified by rman;
SQL> alter user rman default tablespace tools temporary tablespace temp;
SQL> alter user rman quota unlimited on tools;
SQL> grant connect, resource, recovery_catalog_owner to rman;
SQL> exit;
Next, log in to rman and create the catalog schema. Prior to Oracle 8i this was
done by running the catrman.sql script. > rman catalog rman/rman
RMAN> create catalog tablespace tools;
RMAN> exit;
You can now continue by registering your databases in the catalog. Look at this
example:
rman catalog rman/rman target backdba/backdba

RMAN> register database;
Offline backups with RMAN
RMAN can be used for offline backups regardless if the database is in

ARCHIVELOG or NOARCHIVELOG mode.
SQL> select LOG_MODE from v$database;
LOG_MODE
------------
NOARCHIVELOG
Ensure the database is in MOUNT mode
Shutdown the database and start the instance in mount mode:
SQL> shutdown immediate;

Database closed.
Database dismounted.
ORACLE instance shut down.
SQL> startup mount;
ORACLE instance started.
Total System Global Area 209715200 bytes
Fixed Size 1289748 bytes
Variable Size 138412524 bytes
Database Buffers 67108864 bytes
Redo Buffers 2904064 bytes
Database mounted.
SQL> exit
Disconnected from Oracle Database 10g Enterprise Edition Release 10.2.0.3.0 –
Production With the Partitioning, Oracle Label Security, OLAP and Data
Mining options
Use RMAN to backup

Now, let's use RMAN to backup the database:
$ rman target /
connected to target database: O10GR2 (DBID=1094333359, not open)
RMAN> backup database;
Starting backup at 30-MAY-07

using target database control file instead of recovery catalog
allocated channel: ORA_DISK_1
channel ORA_DISK_1: sid=156 devtype=DISK
channel ORA_DISK_1: starting full datafile backupset
channel ORA_DISK_1: specifying datafile(s) in backupset
input datafile fno=00001
name=/app/oracle/product/10.2.0/db_1/oradata/o10gr2/system01.dbf
name=/app/oracle/product/10.2.0/db_1/oradata/o10gr2/sysaux01.dbf
name=/app/oracle/product/10.2.0/db_1/oradata/o10gr2/example01.dbf
name=/app/oracle/product/10.2.0/db_1/oradata/o10gr2/users01.dbf
name=/app/oracle/product/10.2.0/db_1/oradata/o10gr2/undotbs01.dbf
channel ORA_DISK_1: starting piece 1 at 30-MAY-07
channel ORA_DISK_1: finished piece 1 at 30-MAY-07
channel ORA_DISK_1: backup set complete, elapsed time: 00:01:15
including current control file in backupset
including current SPFILE in backupset
Finished backup at 30-MAY-07
Online backup with RMAN
RMAN can only take online backups if the database is in ARCHIVELOG

mode.
SQL> select LOG_MODE from v$database;
LOG_MODE
------------
ARCHIVELOG
Ensure the database is running
Ensure your database is up and running before starting the on-line backup:
SQL> startup;
ORACLE instance started.
Total System Global Area 209715200 bytes
Fixed Size 1289748 bytes
Variable Size 138412524 bytes
Database Buffers 67108864 bytes
Redo Buffers 2904064 bytes
Database mounted.
Database opened.
SQL> exit;
Use RMAN to backup
Now, let's use RMAN to backup the database:
$ rman target /
connected to target database: O10GR2 (DBID=1094333359)

RMAN> backup database;
Starting backup at 30-MAY-07

using target database control file instead of recovery catalog
allocated channel: ORA_DISK_1
channel ORA_DISK_1: sid=141 devtype=DISK
name=/app/oracle/product/10.2.0/db_1/oradata/o10gr2/system01.dbf
name=/app/oracle/product/10.2.0/db_1/oradata/o10gr2/sysaux01.dbf

name=/app/oracle/product/10.2.0/db_1/oradata/o10gr2/example01.dbf
name=/app/oracle/product/10.2.0/db_1/oradata/o10gr2/users01.dbf
name=/app/oracle/product/10.2.0/db_1/oradata/o10gr2/undotbs01.dbf
including current control file in backupset
including current SPFILE in backupset
Finished backup at 30-MAY-07

Submitted by Rajat Garg AT Jsoft Solution Ltd. Vijayanagar Works, Toranagallu

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JSOFT SOLUTION Ltd. VIJAYANAGAR WORKS, TORANAGALLU

i.About Jsoft Solution

i. Oracle Architectural Components

Headquartered in Bangalore, JSoft Solutions would operate from major metros

Jsoft provide the service to whole JSWgroup.

As part of the US $ 8 billion O. P. Jindal Group, JSW Group has diversified

JSW Steel Ltd

ISO:14001 for Environment Management System

OHSAS:18001 for Occupational Health & Safety Management System

· Preparation and grooming of the next generation of young thinkers.

Headquartered in Bangalore, JSoft Solutions would operate from major metros

· Data center Management

· Reduce the total cost of IT operations with assured quality of services

· End-to-End Implementation of different Modules of Oracle Applications

· Helping in resource planning to have a cut edge in the competitive market

framework like SOA (Services Oriented Architecture) and Oracle's BPEL

JSoft is capable of providing customised solutions based on the needs of the

· Customised Business Application Development – Web-based & Stand

· Utilisation of latest technologies with skilled resources

· Shop Floor Automation

This domain help in manufacturing domain by providing :

· Second Level Automation

· Jsoft BPO Solutions focuses on pioneering new service lines, geographies

· Unique Co-sourcing Model JSoft BPO Solutions has designed a unique

Business Unit description:

Managed Services unit’s focus is to deliver world-class support and

· Development and Institutionalizing process based on ITIL framework for

Transition and Operation Management

o Ensure Stability in Software Release Builds by focus on adequate

Transition and Operation Management

o Leveraging Six Sigma, Lean principles and drive towards

· Reducing total cost of ownership by optimizing cost of delivery through

· Capabilities to provide ‘On Demand’, ‘On Need by’ services to

Supporting all these verticals is Managed Services, PMO (Project Management

PLANTS AND PROCESS INVOLVED IN CONVERSION OF RAW

2. COREX AND BLAST FURNACE:

Into liquid hot metal in blast furnace and corex plant.

A. Blast furnace plant.

3. BASIC OXYGEN FURNACE (BOF):

· Three units each with a capacity of 130 metric tons.

Caster I and II:

· TECHNOLOGY- SMS DEMANG.

5. HOT STRIP MILL (HSM):

6. COLD ROLLING MILL (CRM):

A) CONTINUOUS PICKLING LINE:

B) COLD COMPACT MILL:

· AUTO SHAPE CONTROL USING SHAPE METER ROLLS ON BOTH

C) ELECTROLYTIC CLEANING LINE:

D) BATCH ANNEALING FURNACE:

E) SKIN PASS MILL:

F) RECOILING CUM INSPECTION LINE:

· TENSION LEVELING MODE.

G) AUTO PACKAGING LINE:

THE FOLLOWING ARE THE PRODUCTS OF JSW;

· Hot Rolled pickled oiled Coil

· Hot Rolled skin passed Oiled coil

· Cold rolled Full Hard Coil

· Cold Rolled Closed Annealing Coil

· Hot Rolled Sheets and Plates

· Cold Rolled Sheets and Plates

· Hot Rolled Slit Coil