The Nucleus

Dr P. Baricholo SPH1104/6 2016

 The Nucleus

• Binding Energy and Nuclear Forces

• Radioactivity
• Decay Processes
• Alpha Decay
• Beta Decay
• Carbon Dating
• Gamma Decay

Dr P. Baricholo SPH1104/6 2016

 BINDING ENERGY AND NUCLEAR FORCES

• The total mass of a nucleus is always less than the sum of the masses of its nucleons.

• Since mass is a measure of energy, the total energy of the bound system (the nucleus)
is less than the combined energy of the separated nucleons.

• This difference in energy is called the binding energy of the nucleus and it is the
energy that must be added to a nucleus to break it apart into its components.

• In order to separate a nucleus into its constituent protons and neutrons, energy must be
put into the system.

• Conservation of energy and the Einstein mass–energy equivalence relationship show

that the binding energy of any nucleus of mass MA is

𝑀𝑒𝑉
𝐸𝑏 𝑀𝑒𝑉 = [𝑍𝑀 𝐻 + 𝑁𝑚𝑛 − 𝑀𝐴 ] × 931.494 (1)
𝑢

• where M(H) is the atomic mass of hydrogen, MA represents the atomic mass of the
element 𝐴𝑧𝑋, mn is the mass of the neutron, and the masses are all expressed in atomic
mass units.

Dr P. Baricholo SPH1104/6 2016

 BINDING ENERGY AND NUCLEAR FORCES
Calculate the binding energy of the deuteron, which consists of a proton and a neutron, given
that the atomic mass of the deuteron is M2 = 2.014102 u.

Solution: We know that the atomic mass of hydrogen and the mass of the neutron are
M(H) = 1.007 825 u
Mn = 1.008 665 u
• Using equation 1, we find for the deuteron binding energy

𝑀𝑒𝑉
𝐸𝑏 𝑀𝑒𝑉 = [𝑀 𝐻 + 𝑚𝑛 − 𝑀2 ] × 931.494
𝑢

𝑀𝑒𝑉
𝐸𝑏 𝑀𝑒𝑉 = [1.007825𝑢 + 1.008665𝑢 − 2.014101𝑢] × 931.494
𝑢

𝑀𝑒𝑉
𝐸𝑏 𝑀𝑒𝑉 = 0.002388𝑢 × 931.494 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟐𝟒 𝑴𝒆𝑽
𝑢

• This result tells us that in order to separate a deuteron into its constituent parts at rest (a
proton and a neutron), it is necessary to add 2.224 MeV of energy to the deuteron. One
way of supplying the deuteron with this energy is by bombarding it with energetic particles.
• If the binding energy of a nucleus were zero, the nucleus would separate into its constituent
protons and neutrons without the addition of any energy; that is, it would spontaneously
break apart.
Dr P. Baricholo SPH1104/6 2016
 BINDING ENERGY AND NUCLEAR FORCES

What is the binding energy per nucleon for the heaviest isotope of hydrogen, 3H (called tritium)?
A plot of binding energy per nucleon, Eb/A, as a function of mass number for various stable
nuclei is shown in Figure 1

Figure 1
A plot of binding
energy per nucleon
versus mass number
for the stable nuclei

Except for the lighter nuclei, the average binding energy per nucleon is about 8 MeV.
Dr P. Baricholo SPH1104/6 2016
 BINDING ENERGY AND NUCLEAR FORCES
𝐸𝑏 2.224
• For the deuteron, the average binding energy per nucleon is = 𝑀𝑒𝑉 = 1.112 𝑀𝑒𝑉.
𝐴 2

• Note that the curve in Figure 1 peaks in the vicinity of A = 60. That is, nuclei with mass
numbers greater or less than 60 are not as tightly bound as those near the middle of the
periodic table.

• The higher values of binding energy near A = 60 imply that energy is released when a heavy
nucleus with A = 200 splits or fissions into several lighter nuclei that lie near A = 60.

• Energy is released in fission because the final state, consisting of two lighter fragments, is
more tightly bound, or lower in energy, than the original nucleus. Similarly, energy can be
released when two light nuclei with A = 20 combine or fuse to form one heavier nucleus.

• Another important feature of Figure 1 is that the binding energy per nucleon is approximately
constant for A = 20. In this case, the nuclear forces between a particular nucleon and all
the other nucleons in the nucleus are said to be saturated; that is, a particular nucleon
forms attractive bonds with only a limited number of other nucleons.

• Because of the short-range character of the nuclear force, these other nucleons can be viewed
as being the nearest neighbors in the close-packed structure shown in lecture 12. If every
nucleon could interact with every other nucleon, each nucleon would form (A-1) bonds, and
the binding energy per nucleon would be proportional to (A-1) rather than constant as
observed.
Dr P. Baricholo SPH1104/6 2016
 General features of nuclear binding force

• The attractive nuclear force is a different kind of force from the common forces of
electromagnetism and gravitation, and since it dominates the repulsive Coulomb force between
protons in the nucleus, it is stronger than the electromagnetic force.

• The nuclear force is a short-range force that rapidly falls to zero when the separation between
nucleons exceeds several fermis.

• The magnitude of nuclear forces depends on the relative spin orientations of the nucleons, as
shown by scattering experiments performed with spin-polarized beams and targets.

• Nuclear forces are independent of the electric charge of the interacting nucleons. As might be
expected from this “charge-blind” character of the nuclear force, the nuclear force does not
affect electrons, and so it enables energetic electrons to serve as point-like probes of the charge
density of nuclei.

• The charge independence of the nuclear force also means that the main difference between the
n–p and p–p interactions is that the p–p potential energy consists of a superposition of nuclear
and coulomb interactions

Dr P. Baricholo SPH1104/6 2016

 RADIOACTIVITY

• In 1896 Henri Becquerel (1852–1908, French physicist) accidentally discovered that uranyl
potassium sulfate crystals emitted an invisible radiation that darkened photographic plates
covered to exclude light.

• After a series of experiments, he concluded that the radiation emitted by the crystals was of
a new type, one that required no external stimulation and was so penetrating that it could
darken protected photographic plates and ionize gases. This process of spontaneous
emission of radiation by uranium was soon to be called radioactivity.

• Subsequent experiments by other scientists showed that other substances were even more
powerfully radioactive.

• Marie (1867–1934) and Pierre Curie (1859–1906) conducted the most significant
investigations of this type. After several years of careful and laborious chemical separation
processes on tons of pitch blende, a radioactive ore, the Curies reported the discovery of
two previously unknown elements, both radioactive, which they named polonium and
radium.

• Subsequent experiments, including Rutherford’s famous work on alpha-particle scattering,

suggested that radioactivity was the result of the decay, or disintegration, of unstable
nuclei.

Dr P. Baricholo SPH1104/6 2016

 RADIOACTIVITY

• Three types of radiation can be emitted by a radioactive substance:

• alpha (α), in which the emitted particles are 4He nuclei;
• beta (β), in which the emitted particles are either electrons or positrons and
• gamma (γ), in which the emitted “rays” are high-energy photons.

• A positron is a particle like the electron in all respects except that the positron has a charge
of =e.

• The symbol e- is used to designate an electron, and e+ designates a positron.

The radiation from a radioactive

source can be separated into three
components through the use of a
magnetic field to deflect the charged
particles. The photographic plate at
the right records the events. The
gamma ray is not deflected by the
magnetic field.

Figure 2
Dr P. Baricholo SPH1104/6 2016
 RADIOACTIVITY
• The three types of radiation have quite
different penetrating powers. Alpha particles
barely penetrate a sheet of paper, beta
particles can penetrate a few millimeters of
aluminum, and gamma rays can penetrate
several centimeters of lead.
• The rate at which a particular decay process occurs in a radioactive sample is proportional
to the number of radioactive nuclei present (that is, those nuclei that have not yet
decayed).

• If N is the number of radioactive nuclei present at some instant, the rate of change of N is

𝑑𝑁
= −𝜆𝑁 (1)
𝑑𝑡

• where 𝜆, called the decay constant, is the probability per unit time that a nucleus will
𝑑𝑁
decay. The minus sign indicates that is negative because and N are both positive; that
𝑑𝑡
is, N is decreasing in time.

• Rewriting equation (1)

𝑑𝑁
= −𝜆𝑑𝑡 (2)
Dr P. Baricholo 𝑁 SPH1104/6 2016
 RADIOACTIVITY

We can integrate the expression (2) to give

𝑁 𝑡
𝑑𝑁
= −𝜆 𝑑𝑡
𝑁𝑜 𝑁 0

𝑁
ln = −𝜆𝑡
𝑁𝑜

𝑁 = 𝑁𝑜 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 (3)

where the constant No represents the number of radioactive nuclei at t = 0. Equation (3) shows
that the number of radioactive nuclei in a sample decreases exponentially with time.

The decay rate R, or the number of decays per unit time, can be obtained by differentiating
equation (3) with respect to time:

𝑑𝑁
𝑅= = 𝑁𝑜 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 = 𝑅𝑜 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 (4)
𝑑𝑡

where 𝑅𝑜 = 𝜆𝑁𝑜 is the decay rate at 𝑡 = 0 and R = 𝜆𝑁.

Dr P. Baricholo SPH1104/6 2016

 RADIOACTIVITY

The decay rate of a sample is called its activity. Note that both N and R decrease
exponentially with time. The plot of N versus t shown in Figure 3 illustrates the
exponential decay law.

The half-life 𝑻𝟏 of a radioactive substance

𝟐
is the time it takes half of a given number
of radioactive nuclei to decay.
𝑁𝑜
Setting 𝑁 = at 𝑡 = 𝑇1 gives
2 2

𝑁𝑜 −𝜆𝑇1
= 𝑁𝑜 𝑒 2 Figure 3
2

It can be shown that

ln 2 0.693
𝑇1 = =
2 𝜆 𝜆

This is a convenient expression for
relating half-life to the decay constant.
Dr P. Baricholo
A plot of the exponential decay law for
radioactive nuclei. The vertical axis represents
the number of radioactive nuclei present at any
time t, and the horizontal axis is time. The
time 𝑻𝟏 is the half-life of the sample. SPH1104/6 2016
𝟐
 RADIOACTIVITY

𝑁𝑜
• Note that after an elapsed time of one half-life, radioactive nuclei remain (by
2
𝑁𝑜
definition); after two half-lives, half of these have decayed and radioactive nuclei
4
𝑁𝑜
remain; after three half-lives, remain; and so on.
8
𝑁𝑜
• In general, after n half-lives, the number of radioactive nuclei remaining is .
2𝑛

• Nuclear decay is independent of the past history of a sample.

• A frequently used unit of activity is the curie (Ci), defined as

1 Ci = 3.7 × 1010 decays/s

The SI unit of activity is the becquerel (Bq):

1 Bq = 1 decay/s

Therefore, 1 Ci = 3.7 × 1010 Bq.

The curie is a rather large unit, and the more frequently used activity units are the
millicurie mCi (10-3 Ci) and the microcurie, Ci (10-6 Ci).

Dr P. Baricholo SPH1104/6 2016

 DECAY PROCESSES

Alpha Decay

If a nucleus emits an particle ( 42𝐻𝑒), it loses two protons and two neutrons.

The atomic number Z decreases by 2, the mass number A decreases by 4, and the neutron number
decreases by 2. The decay can be written as

𝐴 𝐴−4
𝑍𝑋 → 𝑍−2𝑌 + 42𝐻𝑒

where X is called the parent nucleus and Y the daughter nucleus.

For example,
238
𝑈 and 226𝑅𝑎 are both alpha emitters and decay according to the schemes

238 234
92𝑈 → 90𝑇ℎ + 42𝐻𝑒

226 222
88𝑅𝑎 → 86𝑅𝑛 + 42𝐻𝑒

238 226
The half-life for the 𝑈 decay is 4.47 x 109 years, and that for 𝑅𝑎 decay is 1.60 x 103 years.

Dr P. Baricholo SPH1104/6 2016

 DECAY PROCESSES

Beta Decay

When a radioactive nucleus undergoes beta decay, the daughter nucleus has the same
number of nucleons as the parent nucleus, but the atomic number is changed by 1:

𝐴 𝐴
𝑍𝑋 → 𝑍+1𝑌 + 𝑒−

𝐴 𝐴
𝑍𝑋 → 𝑍−1𝑌 + 𝑒+

The nucleon number and total charge are both conserved in these decays. Two typical beta
decay processes are

14 14
6𝐶 → 7𝑁 + 𝑒−

14 12
7𝑁 → 6𝐶 + 𝑒+

In beta decay a neutron changes into a proton (or vice versa).

The electron or positron in these decays is not present beforehand in the nucleus but is
created at the moment of decay out of the rest energy of the decaying nucleus.

Dr P. Baricholo SPH1104/6 2016

 DECAY PROCESSES

Electron capture
A process that competes with e decay is called electron capture. This occurs when a parent
nucleus captures one of its own orbital atomic electrons and emits a neutrino. The final
product after decay is a nucleus whose charge is Z - 1:

𝐴 𝐴
𝑍𝑋 + 𝑒− → 𝑍+1𝑌 +𝜐

Generally, it is an inner K-shell electron that is captured, and this is referred to as K capture.
One example of this process is the capture of an electron by 74Be to become 73Li:

7
4Be + 𝑒 − → 73Li + 𝜐

The neutrino, 𝜐 (“little neutral one”) is electrically neutral and has little rest mass. It was
detected experimentally in 1956. It has the following properties:
• Zero electric charge.
• A rest mass that is much smaller than that of the electron. Recent experiments show
that the mass of the neutrino is not 0 but is less than 2.8 eV/c2.
• A spin of , which satisfies the law of conservation of angular momentum when
applied to beta decay.
• Very weak interaction with matter, which makes it very difficult to detect.
Dr P. Baricholo SPH1104/6 2016
 DECAY PROCESSES

Carbon Dating

• The beta decay of 14C is commonly used to date organic samples. Cosmic rays in the
upper atmosphere cause nuclear reactions that create 14C. In fact, the ratio of 14C to 12C
in the carbon dioxide molecules of our atmosphere has a constant value of
approximately 1.3 x 1012.

• All living organisms have this same ratio of 14C to 12C, because they continuously
exchange carbon dioxide with their surroundings. When an organism dies, however, it
no longer absorbs 14C from the atmosphere, and so the 14C / 12C ratio decreases as a
result of the beta decay of 14C, which has a half-life of 5730 yr.

• It is therefore possible to measure the age of a material by measuring its activity per unit
mass caused by the decay of 14C. Using this technique, scientists are able to identify
samples of wood, charcoal, bone, and shell as having lived from 1000 to 25,000 yr ago.
This knowledge has helped us reconstruct the history of living organisms—including
humans—during that time span.

Dr P. Baricholo SPH1104/6 2016

 DECAY PROCESSES

Gamma Decay

A nucleus that undergoes radioactive decay is left in an excited energy state. The nucleus can
then undergo a second decay to a lower energy state, perhaps to the ground state, by emitting
a high-energy photon:

𝐴 ∗
𝑍𝑋 → 𝐴𝑍𝑋 + 𝛾

where X* indicates a nucleus in an excited state.

The typical half-life of an excited nuclear state is 1010 s. Photons emitted in such a de-
excitation process are called gamma rays. Such photons have very high energy (in the range
of 1 MeV to 1 GeV) relative to the energy of visible light (about 1 eV).

When a nucleus decays by emitting a gamma ray, the nucleus doesn’t change its atomic mass
A or atomic number Z.

Dr P. Baricholo SPH1104/6 2016

 DECAY PROCESSES

Dr P. Baricholo SPH1104/6 2016

Dr P. Baricholo SPH1104/6 2016