Progress and recent trends in 48-volt-hybridisation and e-

boosting technology on passenger vehicles– a review

Bo Hu1,2*, Chunlin Chen2, Zhangsong Zhan2, Xueying Su2, Tiegang Hu2, Guangyong Zheng2, Zhiyong
Yang2

1: College of Vehicle Engineering, Chongqing University of Technology, China

2: Chongqing Changan Automobile Co Ltd

* b.hu@outlook.com

Abstract:

The electrification of the powertrain system will play an important role in reducing the fuel
consumption and engine-out emissions in the next few decades. Compared to the pure electric and
full hybrid concept, the 48-volt mild hybridisation and the accompanying 48-volt e-boosting
concept, due to its superior cost to benefit performance, may become the main stream for the next
generation fuel reduction measures. The mild hybrid system can realise advanced stop-start, active
and passive engine-off coasting, brake recuperation, boost assistance, e-creeping and torque
vectoring functions and is thus deemed to give approximately 10-15% fuel consumption benefits in
the NEDC driving cycle; and the e-boosting concept, due to its capability to further downsizing and
down-speeding, allows the engine operating points to be shifted into a more efficient area. A strong
synergy between the 48-volt mild hybridisation and the 48-volt e-boosting concept has been found
after reviewing both technologies and the trends for developing such a combined electrical system
are also discussed. Together with more engine and vehicle component electrification, the fuel
efficiency could be further improved, although the interactions between these technologies are
highly complex and need to be optimised in a system level.

Keywords: 48-volt, mild hybridisation, e-boosting, fuel consumption reduction, passenger vehicles

1
 showed off a 12-volt e-boosting system with its HyBoost
Introduction project in 2012 [5]. It was usually tandem with a
conventional turbocharger and used to only improve
The electrification of the powertrain system is currently
the transient response. However, due to the low power
considered to be the mega trend to meet the more
of the e-machine and the possible high current of the
stringent emission regulations and the increasingly
cable, the 12-volt system is not able to provide enough
strict fuel efficiency target [1].
pressure ratios continuously. The 48-volt electrical
system on the contrast is able to provide sufficient
Although a high-voltage hybrid system (like Toyota Prius
power to the e-booster without violating the current
or Honda Accord hybrid) can give a significant fuel
limit and is thus projected to be one of the most
economy benefit compared to a similar-sized
potential solutions for the next generation boosting
conventional vehicle, it is usually burdened with ‘high
systems.
price’ as the whole powertrain system needs to be
reconfigured and re-calibrated, not to mention the
Moreover, the 48-volt electrical system can also supply
additional battery and motor cost. The 48-volt hybrid
energy to some high-power accessories, such as air-
system (or so-called mild hybrid) which ‘can offer about
conditioning compressors, cooling fans and pumps,
70 percent of the benefit of a more traditional hybrid
which may further improve the fuel efficiency (due to
(with regard to fuel efficiency and CO2 reduction) but at
its capability to decouple the accessories from the
30 percent of the cost’ [2], is deemed to be one of the
engine) and enhance its corresponding performance
most cost-effective approaches that can meet the fuel
behavior.
efficiency and emission target within the recent decade.
It is widely accepted that the 48-volt hybridisation can
In this article, the system composition and the topology
reduce the fuel consumption in the New European
of the 48-volt mild hybrid system are first briefly
Driving Cycle (NEDC) by up to 15%, and in a real-world
introduced, following which the function of the mild
use – especially in cities – the savings are even higher
hybrid and how the corresponding function affects the
thanks to the greater share of driving spent in energy
fuel economy and performance is given for the purpose
recuperation phases, and can reach up to 21% [3]. Due
of understanding the interactions between the base
to the favourable cost-benefit ratio, Mercedes-Benz is
engine and the electrified components. Some e-
poised to launch a major electrification onslaught with
boosting prototypes are then discussed with the aim of
a switch to 48-volt systems that will allow the
identifying the relationship between the downsizing,
installation of mild hybrid assistance on almost its
the driveability and the down-speeding. Finally, the
entire range over the next few years from 2017 [4].
synergies between the 48-volt mild hybrid and the 48-
volt e-boosting concept are assessed to point out the
The turbocharging technology combined with
potential developments in the future.
downsizing is also an enabler to effectively improve the
engine’s fuel efficiency as it allows the engine’s Mild hybrid system composition and topology
operating points to be shifted into a more efficient area
in the frequently-used regions of the low-load It is known that in order to realise vehicle and engine
operation. However, most turbocharged engines are component electrification and hybridisation, a higher
not sufficiently dynamic because of the perceptible battery voltage against the conventional 12-volt should
time needed for the turbocharging system to spool up be used. When considering increasing the vehicle
(the so-called ‘turbo-lag’). Electrical boosting (e- architecture voltage level it is also important to
boosting, or Ecompressor, e-supercharging in different understand what is the most appropriate solution.
literatures), which is realised by electrically driving a Figure 1 shows the voltage levels of the 48-volt system
compressor (usually centrifugal) is able to significantly according to LV 148 (which is an official specifying
improve the dynamic performance of a turbocharged document issued by German original equipment
engine. This concept is not entirely new – Ricardo manufacturers (OEMs)) [6]. It specifies that using a 48-
2
volt system can maximise the system voltage without
the significant cost burden associated with increased
safety regulations associated with using a voltage over
60-volt [7]. Table 1 in the appendix summarises some of
the typical mass production and research vehicles with
48-volt electrical systems.
Figure 1. Voltage levels of 48-volt System according to
LV 148 [7]
In general, a 48-volt mild hybrid system includes the
following components (see Figure 2):
 48-volt BSG (Belt Starter Generator), ISG
(Integrated Starter and Generator), or IGM
(Integrated Generator and Motor) – systems
corresponding to P0, P2 and P4 configurations
 48-volt battery (approximately 0.3-1 kwh)
 48/12-volt bidirectional DC/DC
 12-volt conventional lead acid battery
Figure 2. 48V/12V Hybrid electrical subsystem topology
Currently the 48-volt electrical system does not replace
the car’s normal 12-volt electrical system, which is
connected to the 48-volt system via a DC-DC converter.
It is mainly because that all the other low-cost
accessories were initially designed to run on 12-volt and
3
upgrading them to a higher voltage requires a lot of
resources and support. In addition, the 12-volt
conventional starter in some applications has to be
retained to assist the cold start when the advanced BSG
or ISG is not working due to the characteristics of the
lithium ion battery.
Figure 3. The topology of the 48-volt mild hybrid system
According to the location of the Integrated Motor and
Generator, the 48-volt mild hybrid system could be
categorised into the following configurations (see
Figure 3).
 P0: Belt driven Starter and Generator
 P1: Crankshaft mounted E-machine
 P2: E-Machine on the gear input
 P3: E-Machine on the gear output
 P4: Axle Drive
Among them, the 48-volt P0 configuration is a
straightforward upgrade with the lowest impact on
vehicle package, cost, production and aftersales [8]. But
due to the energy loss between the BSG and the wheel
(no matter in motor mode or in generator mode), the
hybrid function is limited. The P4 configuration, on the
contrast, as its location the nearest to the wheel, could
fully realise the hybrid functionality and features the
potential for four wheel drive and torque vectoring.
Figure 4 shows the comparisons between each
configuration and it is found, after reviewing many
literatures, that most of the 48-volt electrical systems
currently on or will emerge the market are P0 layout,
which is upgraded from the existing 12-volt start-stop
system, and the quantity of the 48-volt P2 and P4
configuration, with the potential to recuperate more
brake energy and realise pure electric drive, are
increasing from the end of 2016.
Figure 4. Main characteristics of 48-volt system
configurations [8]

For the conventional 12-volt start-stop electrical

system, because of the low battery capability and the
low BSG rated power, the improvement of the fuel
efficiency over a typical representative driving cycle (for
example, NEDC or WLTC) is limited. But with the battery
upgraded to 48-volt and the corresponding motor and
generator power enhancement, assuming the same Figure 5. influence of recuperation power capability and
current limit, the CO2 reduction potential is greatly electric machine installation location on CO2 reduction
improved from approximately 5% to 15%. In addition, if potential for a D-segment vehicle during NEDC [11]
the current could be reduced due to the higher voltage,
the cable could be made thinner resulting in vehicle 48-volt mild hybrid function
mass reduction, which is also beneficial for fuel
The terms for ‘mild hybrid’ in different literatures are
consumption improvement.
not always the same. For clarity, in this article, the 48-
volt mild hybrid function only includes the interactions
It is also worth noting that the 12-volt conventional
between the base engine and the generator/motor,
start-stop system may bring some unpleasant startup
without considering the electrification of the other
vibrations due to the insufficient power of the starter
accessorises and the corresponding fuel efficiency
motor and the resulting prolonged startup period. On
improvement.
the contrast, the 48-volt advanced start-stop system
provides much quicker startup, for example, in [9] and
Advanced stop-start (including passive engine-off
[10], it is stated that the period for startup is reduced
coasting)
from 0.8s to 0.4s and from 0.4s to 0.2s respectively and
Compared to the conventional 12-volt stop-start micro
this will make the end-customers more willing to accept
hybrid system, the 48-volt mild hybrid system is able to
this technology than not using it through the life time of
delay the engine start and advance the engine stop,
the vehicle.
both of which can reduce the period for idling and thus
are beneficial for fuel efficiency improvement. For
Figure 5 shows the CO2 reduction potential for a D-
example, in [9, 12] it is claimed that, with the assistance
segment vehicle during NEDC under both 12-volt micro
of the 48-volt enhanced BSG, the engine start can be
and 48-volt mild hybrid system. It can be seen the P4
triggered when the clutch is released rather than the
configuration is the most fuel efficient concept over the
conventional approach with the engine start controlled
other layouts and that the 48-volt mild hybrid system
when the clutch is pressed. Also the engine-off
could provide much higher CO2 reduction potential.
operation can be carried out early with the vehicle
speed above 0 (or 3km/h in some applications) up to
20km/h [10]. Moreover, with the assistance of the 48-
volt motor, the combustion engine only needs roughly
half as much time as for the conventional 12-volt stop-
start systems, resulting in a more seamless shift
between the engine-off and engine-on operation.
4
The term ‘coasting’ refers to an operating mode of a
moving vehicle when the propulsion requirement is not
needed and the driver is not depressing the brake
pedal. Traditionally, in this mode, the fuel is usually cut
off (above a certain engine speed), but as the engine is
still coupled with the wheel, a significant proportion of
energy is lost in the engine drag and the transmission
frictions, which will result in a higher rate of
deceleration and may lead to the premature application
of the propulsion system. Passive engine-off coasting
(or in some literatures so called sailing), compared to
the conventional fuel cut-off approach, goes one step
further than the conventional coasting by placing the
transmissions into neutral and ceasing fuel injection,
which can eliminate the engine drag resulting in fuel
efficiency improvement. It might be noted here that the
clutch system needs to be electrified and some backup
power is required when the engine is off [13].
Active engine-off coasting
Active engine-off coasting differs from the passive
engine-off coasting by always engaging the transmission
system and using the recuperated energy to overcome
the vehicle drag losses. It is especially beneficial for the
NEDC driving cycle which requires the vehicle speed
near constant for some operating conditions. Figure 6
shows the comparison between the active and passive
engine-off coasting. It can be seen that the active
engine-off coasting is able to keep the vehicle speed
constant over a longer period of time, but for the P0
layout, due to the additional Internal Combustion
Engine (ICE) drag torque, transmission losses and axle
losses, the net fuel consumption benefit might not be
positive [13].
Figure 6. Passive vs. active engine-off coasting velocity
example [13]
5
Brake recuperation
Figure 7 shows the power and energy requirements at
the wheel to propel and brake a typical D-segment
vehicle over the NEDC driving cycle. Note that the peak
power and the total amount of energy available for
recuperation are 27kW and 1360kJ respectively.
Therefore, considering the total propulsion energy
required is 5730kJ, if all the energy available for
recuperation could be reused, there is a potential to
reduce the fuel consumption up to 24% via only the
brake recuperation function. If this exercise is repeated
for the WLTC drive cycle, due to the fact that the
proportion of the recuperation energy is 18% (6% lower
than the NEDC), the WLTC drive cycle only offers three
quarters of the achievable on the NEDC [11].
Figure 7. Power requirement for a D-segment vehicle
during NEDC [11]
If different mild hybrid configurations are compared,
seen from Figure 5, the energy conversion efficiency
from the wheel to the generator should also be
considered. This includes the transmission efficiencies
and engine pumping and frictions, and the generator
which is closer to the wheel will have the highest
recuperation potential if the battery and the generator
power could support.
Normally, there are two cases in the recuperation
function: 1) brake recuperation; 2) coasting
recuperation. The first function is triggered by the brake
pedal with the gear engaged. The engine ECU will
calculate a negative torque value applied to the
generator depending on engine speed, vehicle speed,
brake pedal position, SOC, et al. The second function is
usually started when the driver release both of the gas
pedal and the brake pedal and the gear is engaged. This
will give the driver a feeling of a perceptible drag if not
controlled well. In order to not disturb the feeling of the
vehicle coasting, the vehicle speed and the applied
torque shall be optimised with caution.
Also noted here that from the perspective of cost to
benefit view, there should be an optimal capability for
the battery (in [13] it is said that increasing the 48-volt
battery beyond the optimal size of 10Ah to 15Ah
offered no appreciable improvement in CO2 or energy
saving) and also the rated generator power.
Boost assistance (or torque assistance)
The term ‘Boost assist’ here only refers to the operation
with the 48-volt mild hybrid system to directly propel
the engine crankshaft or the vehicle, without any
assistance from the e-boosting system which will be
discussed in the next section.
This is usually realised by two possible scenarios: 1) the
motor is fuel-efficiency focused (hybrid mode); 2) more
power is required (sport mode). For the hybrid mode,
the motor torque is used to cover some of the torque
request, thus a well-controlled mild hybrid system will
calculate the request motor torque according to the
engine operating points to make the whole system the
most fuel efficient (in some literatures so called load
shifting). The sport mode refers to the calibration
without modifying the original torque demand map.
This approach will either give a more powerful engine
feeling which is especially true during the tip-in event,
or provides a method to achieve an aggressive
downsizing and down-speeding, which has already
proved to be effective on fuel consumption reduction.
6
E-creeping and torque vectoring
Figure 8. Powertrain architecture of Schaeffler’s high
performance 48-volt concept car [14]
E-creeping and torque vectoring are two achievable
functions which are normally referring to the electric
axle configuration (P4 layout). For example, Schaeffler’s
high performance 48-volt concept car (P0+P4, shown in
Figure 8) are demonstrated to be able to realise the e-
creeping function by actuating the P4 motor with
integrated two gear transmissions (with neutral gear).
By utilizing the first gear, a maximum 2000Nm launch
torque of the vehicle can be used for e-creeping (up to
35km/h) or launch procedure (a four wheel drive can
also be achieved). Furthermore, the e-creeping function
is able to activate before the transmission gear is
engaged, thus providing a superior launch and Noise
Vibration and Harshness (NVH) performance especially
during the stop-and-go-traffic.
In addition, seen from Figure 9, the torque-vectoring
function is realised by a controlled relative movement
of the differential housing and a drive shaft. It is
claimed that this system can deliver a continuous
torque difference left to right wheel of 1100Nm, which
is comparable to the today’s established hydraulic
torque vectoring systems [14].
Figure 9. Operation conditions in second gear (left) and
torque-vectoring mode (right) [14]
Other functions:
The 48-volt hybridisation can offer some other
functionalities, among which the ability to allow
emission reduction should be emphasised. For example,
in [10] it claims that the diesel engine’s nitrogen oxide
emissions produced during acceleration from low
engine speeds could be reduced by up to 10% in a 48-
volt hybrid system, as some of the necessary torque is
generated via the electric motor.

48-volt e-boosting technology Figure 10. Impact of advanced degrees of downsizing

(based on analysis of a 3.2 litre naturally aspirated
Turbocharging and downsizing, which is often
engine in a D-segment vehicle [16]
combined with direct injection (DI) have been proved to
stand out as one of the most important strategies for
achieving better fuel efficiency [15]. Figure 10 shows
the CO2 reduction potential for increased degree of
engine downsizing, which indicates that there is still
some potential for further downsizing to be attained
over the current levels [16]. However, further
downsizing an internal combustion engine using only
the single-stage turbocharger would not be considered
unless the steady-state low-end torque and the
transient performance could be enhanced somehow
Figure 11. Gas path layouts showing (a) post-turbo
[17]. There are several approaches that could partially
electric compressor, (b) pre-turbo electric compressor
address these issues while maintaining high specific
[16]
power/torque. Among them, twin turbocharger,
turbocharger + supercharger and turbocharger + e-
The e-boosting device, according to its performance,
boosting are three possible solutions [18]. In this
can be categorised into the following two clusters: 1)
article, only the turbocharger + e-boosting technology
transient machine; 2) transient and steady-state
will be examined. It might be noted here in order to
machine.
fulfil the fuel efficiency and emission regulations,
practically at least one turbocharger need to be
For the transient e-booster, the machine could only be
adopted to make use of the waste exhaust gas energy
operational for several seconds continuously and is just
[19].
used to charge the engine till its exhaust gas flow
becomes adequate to spool the turbocharger
In terms of the layout of the e-boosting systems, either
efficiently. This moment of charge by e-booster helps to
High Pressure (HP) or Low Pressure (LP)
mitigate the problem of turbo-lag, which is an inherent
implementations (see Figure 11) can be used. However,
deficiency associated with a turbocharger. A turbo-lag
due to the fewer material stress, sealing stress and
problem can be more profoundly felt in a vehicle fitted
packaging issues, most research institution and
with a small engine, which prevents efforts in the
automobile manufacturers currently employ LP
industry in pushing for further degree of engine
configurations [20-21].
downsizing [22]. For example, the 48-volt e-booster in
the Audi’s new generation SQ7 is only claimed to
enhance its transient response [23]. In addition, the e-
boosting device which is fitted in a Ford three-cylinder
1.0T EcoBoost shows that with the 3.3 kW rated electric
7
supercharger power, the transient torque demand end torque and transient performance.
response time could be reduced from 3 to 0.7s at 1500
rpm [12]. In the same literature, the authors also state
that for the turbocharger and e-booster compound
boosting systems, the turbocharger could be acted as a
pressure ratio multiplier so that the achievable inlet
manifold pressure is significantly higher than either the
turbocharger or the electric supercharger could provide
alone. This viewpoint is further investigated in [24-25]
and the authors report that, compared to apply the
electric energy directly to the wheels via an electrical Figure 13. V-Charge variable ratio supercharger [26]
motor, e-boosting can provide approximately 10 to 20
times the torque to the wheels than that using just the
electrical energy in a motor can depending on the use
case. Figure 12 shows the torque step comparison with
and without eCompressor to indicate the above point
from the perspective of energy release.

Figure 14. Aeristech eSupercharger [27]

From Figure 15 and Figure 16, it can be seen that both

Figure 12. Torque step comparison with and without
eCompressor: comparison of energy difference [24]
Figure 13 and Figure 14 show the layout of the Torotrak
variable drive supercharger system and the Aeristech
eSupercharger respectively. They look and even
function very similar, both of which are using the
centrifugal compressor to provide the request pressure
ratio within approximately 300ms. However, the V-
Charge system is powered by the belt which is
connected to the engine crankshaft whilst the
Aeristechl eSupecharger is directly driven by an electric
motor. If the literature [26] and [12] are compared, the
advantages and disadvantages for the variable drive
supercharger system and the e-boosting device can be
discussed, as they both use the Ford three -cylinder 1.0
L Ecoboost as the baseline and try to enhance its low-
8
the V-Charge system and the HyBoost e-boosting
system are able to improve the low-end torque, but the
ability to enhance the 1000RPM torque is quite
different, with the HyBoost system achieving
approximately 180Nm and the V-Charge system being
only around 145Nm. This is mainly because for the V-
Charge system, due to its inherent characterises of
being a mechanical supercharger, the power to provide
the pressure ratio has to be supplied by the engine
itself. For the time to torque response behaviour, both
systems are claimed to significantly improve its
performance. But it might be noted here that the
HyBoost system can only be operating for several
seconds, which is just used for transient tip-in, while
the Torotrak V-Charge system can be running
continuously, which might bring some other benefits
(for example, aggressive downsizing and down-
speeding).

Figure 15. Torque curves of the Torotrak V-Charge
system, Ford 1.5L EcoBoost and Ford 1.0L EcoBoost;
Standard: Ford 1.0L three cylinder EcoBoost, V-Charge
Test Results: Ford 1.0L three cylinder EcoBoost with V-
Charge technology fitted [26]
there must be sufficient overlap between the
eSupercharger operation map and the main
turbocharger map to enable a seamless handover
between the two devices. This avoids a torque
interruption, which would give an undesirable drive
feeling in the vehicle [11]. In addition, the combustion
situation could also be improved at high engine loads,
where the trapped residual gas fraction could be
reduced due to a higher delta pressure between the
inlet and the exhaust system for an e-boosting concept.
But this is only based on the assumption that the valve
overlap is not changed to still allow scavenging strategy.

Figure 17. Test results from the MAHLE downsizing

engine with combined eSupercharger and turbocharger
[11]

Figure 16. Torque curves of the 2.0L NA baseline engine

and the 1.0 L Hyboost engine with and without
supercharger (VTES) function [12]

The 48-volt e-booster which is designed to be operating

continuously has also emerged in the market in 2016 to
not only improve the engine transient performance but
also prolong the operation of the engine at low speed
and high-torque output. This development will further
enable an aggressive engine downsizing and down-
speeding to be carried out.

MAHLE showed a demonstrator vehicle that features a
48-volt Aeristech eSupercharger recently. Due to the
fact that this machine could be running continuously,
resulting in a significant improved low-end torque (and
also transient behaviour), a larger turbocharger could
be adopted without compromising its drivability (see
Figure 17 and Figure 18 for its steady-state and
transient performance). But it might be noted here that
9
Figure 18. Transient response improvement at 1500rpm
[11]
The Continental e-boosting technology also shows a
similar viewpoint by demonstrating its superior low-end
torque performance and the transient behaviour over
its turbocharged counterparts [24]. In addition to the
engine performance merit, Continental also
demonstrates that the e-boosting system could allow
the Particle Number (PN) engine-out and NOx emission
to be reduced. This is mainly due to the fact that the
scavenging strategy which is mainly used to enhance
the low-end torque in a turbocharged engine could be
eliminated, resulting in a stoichiometric exhaust
lambda. Figure 19 shows the Low End Torque (LET)
performance with scavenging, without scavenging and
without scavenging but with e-boosting technology.
Although this approach will not affect current emission
figures as the NEDC driving cycle does not need such a
high load, test cycles like WLTC and Real Drive Emissions
(RDE) in the future exhaust legislation might require
reduced scavenging to be implemented.
Figure 19. LET deficit for larger turbocharger without
scavenging [24]
The reduction of scavenging can also achieve some
BSFC benefits at high loads. For example, in Figure 20, it
is shown that at 1750rpm and 22bar BMEP, due to a
reduction of pumping work and engine-out exhaust
enthalpy and improvement of combustion efficiency,
6.8% fuel consumption reduction could be achieved.
10
Figure 20. Thermodynamic benefit of eCompressor
operation at N=1750 rpm, BMEP=22 bar [24]
If the literatures [28-33] are compared with the e-
boosting configuration, it seems that there will be an
additional potential benefit of the e-boosting device if
the drive motor of the compressor is run in the
‘generator mode’. This is realised in two of the
following scenarios:
1) De-throttling: At part load, instead of using a
throttle to control the engine torque, the speed
of the e-boosting device is regulated to provide
the vacuum whilst recovering some of the
throttling losses to the generator.
2) Turbo-expansion: At full load, instead of
opening the wastegate of a turbocharger to
limit the compressor pressure ratio, the by-
pass energy that would otherwise be lost could
be recuperated by controlling the speed of the
e-boosting device to provide a pressure ratio
that is below unity (but the total boost
pressure is maintained)
FEV showcases its 48-volt technology at 2016 SAE
World Congress on an AMG A45 [34]. It is said that the
maximum torque of 450 Nm can become available early
in the speed range at 1750 rpm, which is 500 rpm
earlier than in the series version. This system, although
not realizing downsizing concept, can obtain a
reduction in fuel consumption of up to 15% via just
down-speeding.
Figure 21. CO2 glide path breaking down individual
measures and their CO2 benefit [12]
By adopting the e-boosting concept, there are some
other second-order fuel efficiency benefits. For
example, in [12] it is claimed that the larger
turbocharger could lower the part-load BSFC and is able
to contribute up to 2% improved fuel consumption. In
addition, for some single-stage turbocharged
applications, at partial loads, the turbocharger
wastegate may be controlled partially closed in order to
speed-up the turbocharger. This is done to improve the
transient performance and will sacrifice some fuel
efficiency. However, the engine fitted with an e-
boosting system will not have to trade the part-load
BSFC for the transient response and this will result in
some fuel efficiency improvement, which to the
author’s knowledge refers to the control strategy
refinement in Figure 21. For engines with exhaust gas
recirculation (EGR) systems, an increased EGR rate
could also be used at part load which according to
literature [20] has 4.6% fuel economy improvement.
Figure 22. Power-split electromechanical transmission
system of the SuperGen supercharger. The approximate
power flow is shown for a mid-load condition [35]
flow supercharger impeller (see Figure 22). This system
is voltage agnostic (because the drive energy is supplied
by the FEAD with only limited and occasional draw from
the battery) and appears to be an ideal bridging
technology to the 48-volt e-boosting as well as a
complete solution to the problem, which is capable of
delivering higher boost pressures because of its
mechanical drive path.
Additional benefits of the 48-volt electrical
system
With the introduction of a 48-volt electrical system
within a vehicle, the opportunity arises to electrify
further vehicle and engine components that are
traditionally mechanically driven. This on one hand will
bring some fuel efficiency benefits as the electrified
devices (such as water pump and oil pump) can be
operated in ‘demand controlled’ mode without any
fixed mechanical drive; and on the other hand provides
some second-order advantages, for example deletion of
the FEAD to reduce the length of an engine and
capability to be still operating during engine-off
condition. Figure 23 shows the evaluation of the
possible electrified vehicle and engine components and
the predicted emissions reduction by electrifying these
components can be seen in Figure 24 [8]. It is claimed
in literature that an overall potential of up to 16% CO2
reduction compared to the baseline is feasible.

For all the materials above, the e-boosting devices are

running under high-voltage (above the conventional 12-
volt electrical system) and this does assume that the
original equipment manufacturers are able to manage
the transition from 12-volt to 48-volt across multiple
engine and vehicle platforms simultaneously. It might
be noted that the 12-volt e-boosting system also exists,
but due to their low power capabilities, they are usually
considered not sufficient to achieve the required
performance. But there is one exception: SuperGen Figure 23. Evaluation of electrified engine components
concept, which can realise a similar performance using
[8]
just 12-volt electrical systems. SuperGen supercharger
is a power-split electromechanical transmission
technology with an epicyclic traction drive and two
small permanent-magnet motors that provide a fully
variable transmission between the engine front-end
accessory drive (FEAD) belt and the high speed radial
11
 Figure 25. Audi’s prototype electromechanical rotary
dampening system: eROT [38]

Audi has also implemented its 48-volt electro-

Figure 24. Predicted emissions reduction by electrifying
mechanical active roll stabilisation system on its new
component [8]
generation SQ7 (see Figure 26). This system uses
planetary gears that are driven by small motors to
The coolant pump and the air-conditioning compressor
couple and uncouple the roll bars individually from the
may be the first set of components that would be
chassis. If uncoupled, the anti-roll bars will allow a more
electrified in the upcoming 48-volt electrical systems.
comfortable ride, but when active, Audi claims reduced
For example, both in the Ricardo’s ADEPT project [36]
understeer, less roll in corners and increased lateral
and in the new Mercedes-Benz M256 engine [37], the
acceleration.
48-volt electrical system serves not only the BSG/ISG,
but also the coolant pump and the air-conditioning
compressor, and a DC/DC converter is used to power
the rest of 12-volt electrical systems.

Audi is currently developing a prototype

electromechanical rotary dampening system called
‘eROT’, in which electromechanical rotary damper
replace the hydraulic dampers used today for an even
more comfortable ride. This new eROT technology,
which is based on a high-output 48-volt electrical
system, can also convert the kinetic energy during
Figure 26. Audi’s electro-mechanical active roll
compression and rebound into electricity. This is
stabilisation system (eAWS) [23]
achieved, as can be seen from Figure 25, by using a
lever arm which transmits the wheel carrier’s force via a
In the ADEPT powertrain architecture (see from Figure
series of gears to an electric motor, in order to generate
27), there is an additional exhaust gas energy recovery
electricity. It is claimed that under customer driving
system (rated at 2.4kW) which is capable of providing
conditions, the CO2 reduction could be up to 3g/km
further power recuperated from the exhaust
[38].
downstream of the turbocharger [36].

12

Figure 27. CPT’s exhaust-mounted 48V turbine
integrated exhaust gas energy recovery system (also
known as TIGERS) [36]
Synergy between the 48-volt mild hybrid and
the 48-volt e-boosting concept
Before investigating the synergy between the 48-volt
mild hybrid and the 48-volt e-boosting concept, it might
worth noting that the optimisation potential mentioned
above may not be summed up and most of them are
dependent on each other. For instance, both the
electrical water pump and the electrical oil pump can
achieve similar functions: i.e. provide the cooling on
demand and reduce the warm-up time. Furthermore,
whether the measures will be paid off also has to be
evaluated and is better to be below the CO2 or fuel
consumption penalties depending on the specific
nations. For example, in Figure 28 it indicates that the
addition of the power steering pump is the most cost-
effective and all measures seem to be very attractive
when comparing the European CO2 penalties of 95€/g
CO2 implemented in 2019.
Figure 28. Estimated reduction in CO2 (NEDC)
associated with component cost increase on bill of
material (BOM) basis
13
If the 48-volt mild hybrid system and the 48-volt e-
boosting technology are compared, it can be seen that
they both have the capability to enhance the low-end
torque and improve the transient behaviour and it
seems to be unnecessary to have both technologies
implemented in the same vehicle at first glance.
Nevertheless, due to the relatively low capability of the
48-volt battery, the boost assistance from the 48-volt
mild hybrid motor can only be operating in a limited
time and is thus considered not sufficient to realise
prolonged acceleration. On the contrast, the e-boosting
technology (especially for the devices that can be
operating continuously) is able to achieve further
downsizing and down-speeding, mainly due to the fact
that the e-boosting machine can have the compounding
effect with the turbocharger (and the corresponding
combustion) with much less power required and that
the power to the e-boosting system can be supplied by
the battery continuously (compared to the 48-volt mild
hybrid system, the BSG/ISG cannot be in generator
mode while simultaneously providing boost, also see
Figure 29) [11]. In addition, for the 48-volt e-boosting
concept, a larger turbocharger could be employed
which is able to significantly increase the engine’s rated
power, whilst for the 48-volt mild hybrid system, due to
the characteristics of a motor, usually at high engine
speed, the torque assistance capability is significantly
limited.
Therefore, if the 48-volt e-boosting system is mainly
supporting the downsizing potential while the mild
hybrid system primarily realises the normal hybrid
functions, with their common function (which is boost
assistance) controlled in a system level, the benefits of
both concepts may be summed up directly. In addition,
as the fuel consumption of the vehicle fitted with both
measures can be reduced as much as 25% with the cost
significantly lower than the full hybrids and pure
battery electric vehicles, such a system has a strong
possibility to emerge in the near future. This viewpoint
has been found, when the authors are modifying this
article, consistent with a study conducted by ICCT (The
International Council on Clean Transportation), which
demonstrates that there are excellent synergies
between the 48-volt e-boosting concept and the 48-volt
hybridisation systems with a predicted 20-25%
reduction in fuel consumption at less than $1,400 cost
[39]. 3: The 48-volt e-boosting concept is able to enhance
the low-end torque and improve the transient response
for conventional turbocharged engines, thus allowing
aggressive downsizing and down-speeding to be carried
out. The electrification of the other vehicle and engine
components can bring some other fuel efficiency and
comfort performance benefits but the cost to benefit
attribute needs to be evaluated fully before
implementing.

4: After reviewing the literatures. It is found that there

is a strong synergy between the 48-volt mild hybrid and
the 48-volt e-boosting concept if the fuel efficiency is to
be optimised.

Acknowledgement

The author(s) would like to thank Changan UK Technical

Centre for their technical support in this article.

Declaration of conflicting interests

Figure 29. Schematic of the primary operating modes The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest
for the 48V system [11] with respect to the research, authorship, and/or
publication of this article.
Conclusions
Funding
After reviewing the potential of the 48-volt electrical
system on passenger car vehicles, the following The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following
conclusions are drawn: financial support for the research, authorship, and/or
publication of this article: This research was supported
1: 48-volt electrical system is one of the most cost- by Changan Automobile Co. Ltd
effective approaches that can meet the fuel efficiency
and emission target within the recent decade. To be Abbreviations
more specific, it can realise mild hybrid, e-boosting
BMEP Brake Mean Effective Pressure
concept and further engine or vehicle component BSFC Brake Specific Fuel Consumption
electrification. BSG Belt Starter Generator
CO2 Carbon Dioxide
2: For the mild hybrid function, the 48-volt electrical DI Direct Injection
eAWS Electro-mechanical Active roll
system can achieve advanced stop-start, active and
stabilisation system
passive engine-off coasting, brake recuperation, boost FEAD Front End Accessory Drive
assistance, e-creeping and torque vectoring functions, HP High Pressure
et al and is deemed to reduce approximately 10-15% ICCT The International Council on Clean
fuel consumption depending on the use mode. The Transportation
ICE Internal Combustion Engine
trend of developing the 48-volt mild hybrid system
IGM Integrated Generator Motor
seems to be moving from the P0 configuration to the ISG Integrated Starter Generator
P4. LET Low End Torque
14
LP Low Pressure
NEDC New European Driving cycle
NVH Noise Vibration and Harshness
OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer
PN Particle Number
RDE Real Driving Emissions
TIGERS Turbine Integrated exhaust Gas Energy
Recovery System
WLTP Worldwide Harmonised Light Vehicle Test
Procedures

15
 Renault
48V electric Golf GTI Changan Honda Civic Focus Scénic a&
Focus (ADEPT) JAC M4 Audi SQ7 Kia Optima
system demo EADO demo (FEVER) Grand
Appendix

Scénic
Topology P0+E- P0 P0 P0 P4 P0 P0+E- P0 P0+E-
boosting boosting boosting

Motor power Aristech 10.5kW - 7.5kW motor - - - 6kW Valeo

(max and eSuperchar and 12.5kW (continues) 10kW
continues) ger 6kW Generator
(continues)
Motor max 50Nm - - - - - 60Nm -
torque
Battery type Lead- Lithium - Lead-carbon Lead- - - Lithium Lead-
and capacity carbon carbon 0.5kWh carbon

BSFC reduction - Up to 15% 10 percent 78g/km Up to - - To 16%

16
in NEDC more 15% 3.5L/100k reduction
efficient percent m

Maximum 35bar 12.56bar - - - - 28.26bar - -

BMEP (1500- (4000- (1000-
4000rpm) 5000rpm) 3250rpm)
Specific power 161kw/L 57.5kw/L - - - - 80kw/L - -
output
Engine Type Turbocharg NA gasoline Turbocharge Turbocharged - Turbocha Turbocharg Both Turbocharg
ed gasoline d diesel diesel rged ed diesel gasoline ed diesel
Table 1. Typical mass production and research vehicles with 48-volt electrical systems

gasoline and diesel

Displacement 1.2L 1.6L 1.6L 1.5L - 1.5L 4.0L - 1.7L
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