2013/11/20

Seminar on Actions and Effects of Actions on Buildings in Structural Eurocodes

Tuesday, 19 November 2013 Nanyang Technological University

DESIGN BY DIRECT SECOND

ORDER ANALYSIS
(EUROCODE 3 & EUROCODE 4)

J Y Richard Liew
Professor
Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering
National University of Singapore

Singapore’s Global University 1

Analysis methods in Eurocodes

Analysis can achieve 2nd order by:

1) Direct or Indirect 2nd order analysis

The following methods have limitations

2) 1st order analysis and amplified sway
moment
3) 1st order analysis and “sway” effective
length.

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What is Second-Order Analysis?

Sway
Displacement
1st Order Analysis 2nd Order Analysis

Load P P

H H

x x

h
x / h

Frame

M(x) = Hx M(x) = Hx + PPx/h

M(h) = Hh M(h) = Hh + P
3

Second-Order Effects
P

• P– effect :
– due to floor sway
– 1st order frame stiffness modified
– dominant effect

• P– effect : P– effect

– due to beam-column deflection

P
– 1st order member stiffness modified
– significant only for relatively slender members
– Implicitly included in column curves
e0


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Frame Behaviour
Factored load level
Displacement

Load
Full elastic response

Load
Peak load

Deformed
geometry
Geometric and 
material nonlinearity
Elastic limit
Service load level

Frame

Displacement

Frame stability
Significant of second order effects depends on
critical buckling load factor:
αcr= Ncr/NEd

Frame

Nonsway

Sway

Direct

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What is αcr? EN 1993-1-1 (Cl 5.2.1(3))

Critical buckling load factor: αcr= Ncr/NEd

αcr = factor by which the design loading would have to be

increased to cause elastic buckling in a global mode
Ncr = elastic critical buckling load from global buckling
analysis based on initial elastic stiffness.
NEd = design loading on the structure

Design of Sway Frames αcr< 10
If the effects of deformed geometry has to be considered, the
design of sway frame may be accomplished by one of the
following methods:
1. Direct second order analysis that considers frame and
member stability
2. Member buckling check with second order moment or
amplified moment method
3. Member buckling check using column effective buckling
lengths according to the global buckling mode of the
structure.
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Member Buckling Checks

Second order moment / amplified moment OR

Member Buckling Resistance Check 

Biaxial bending combined with flexural buckling about
MAJOR axis

Effective length for sway frame

Second order moment / amplified moment OR

Member Buckling Resistance Check 

Biaxial bending combined with flexural buckling about
MINOR axis

Effective length for sway frame
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Amplified Sway Method

Perform first order analysis and amplify all

For typical rectilinear frame
horizontal loads (i.e. wind and equivalent
horizontal forces) by the factor:

αcr > 3.0

SSEN 1993-1-1 5.2.2(5)

This approach is valid for
 Single storey frames designed on the basis of elastic global analysis
 Multiple storey frames provided that all storeys have similar distribution of 
(1) vertical loads; 
(2) horizontal loads; 
(3) frames stiffness with respect to the applied storey shear forces. 

Not applicable for complex structures 10

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Effective Lengths and Critical Load Factor

αcr can be used to calculate column effective length
Critical Buckling Load Factor αcr= Ncr/NEd
Effective length of a column in a frame

Ncr = 2EI/(KL)2 = Ne/ K2

K = Effective Length factor

Ne = Euler buckling load

Effective Length factor:

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Effective Buckling Length

Effective buckling lengths Lcr for compression members

Non‐sway mode Sway mode

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Limitations of First Order Liner Analysis

• Only valid for cr ≥10

• First-order analysis and effective length method

could be used for frames dominated by sway
buckling modes (NOT for general frames as
calculation of cr is based on sway buckling
mode)

• Many effects such as snap-through buckling,

plastic strength reserve cannot be considered.
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Effective Length Method

The individual compression members should be checked with the
buckling length values based on a global sway buckling mode of the
frame.
Hybrid System
Use KL to design for these members?
Arches + Gridshell

αcr= Ncr/NEd
from buckling analysis

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Be Careful!
• Critical buckling load analysis is not
second order analysis
• It is often used to check if the structure is
sensitive to buckling.
• It is a means to calculate amplified second
order moment or effective length factor.
There are limitations to the use of these
simplified methods.

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Paradox of Effective Length Method

NEd = 0 NEd

Effective Length Factor

KL= 

EC3:1-1 - SSNA 2.10

How about beam and joint design?
The design of beams and joints should be based on Beam?
second order moments. Joint?

Design using KL
Second order moment is still needed!

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3 methods Currently Available for

Structural Steel Design in EC3
• Linear analysis and member capacity checks
using effective length method or moment
amplification method (with limitations)
• Second-order analysis not considering member
imperfections -
We call it second order indirect analysis
• Second-order analysis considering global and
member imperfections -
We call it second order direct analysis

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Many structural analysis programs claim second-order analysis

using straight elements/members. In fact, they only do indirect
second-order analysis, because
(1) P- of individual member is not considered or
(2) Member imperfections are not totally accounted for.

 SSEN 1993-1-1 Singapore national annexes adopts recommended

values from EN1993-1-1 Table 5.1 as
Buckling curve Elastic analysis Plastic analysis
acc. To Table 6.1 e0/L e0/L
a0 1/350 1/300 e0
a 1/300 1/250 L
b 1/250 1/200
c 1/200 1/150
d 1/150 1/100
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Example:

Design load The critical buckling load = Ncr = 100kN

NEd = 20 kN
αcr= Ncr/NEd = 5

αcr is not for direct design since it does not consider

imperfection. It is only use for amplification factor or
effective length
NEde0
e0 = L/250

L Second order moment = Af NEde0

Second order moment OR

Member verification is
needed.
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Effective length KL

Alternatively, the design can be done

using a direct second order analysis

Axial load keeps increasing until cross section failure occurs

Nb, Rd

Use curved member with initial

imperfection according to EC 3
M
e0 = L/250 based on column curved “b”

Check section failure L

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Second-order direct analysis

• For complex structures - more economical with
average saving in steel weight about 25%.
• Safer as “old” method could under-design critical
members and over-design redundant members
• More efficient as design and analysis are
automatically done by computer software -
“old” method needs manual input of effective
length factor and member imperfections for each
member in each load case.

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Second-order analysis is mandatory for slender & complex

structures in many codes like EC-3, HK Steel Code & AISC

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Directly Second Order Analysis Method is

not familiar to most structural engineers

(1) Design engineers do not understand the method of

second-order analysis & non-linear theory
many engineers think they know but they actually
overlook many essential points like use of member
initial imperfection to Table 5.1 in Eurocode-3

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(2) Consideration of frame imperfection

using buckling mode (Eurocode-3)

Overlooking of the above gives design NOT to

code requirements & will be inadequate !
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AISC- Direct analysis method is the preferred method

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Books have been published on

this new method a decade ago

http://www.amazon.com/Stability-Design-
Semi-Rigid-Frames-
Chen/dp/0471076708#reader_047107670
http://en.nidacse.com/ 8
http://as.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyT
26
itle/productCd-0470030615.html#

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Can a Braced Frame be a Sway Frame?

Yes, when lateral deflection is large.

Especially for high-rise building.

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Resistance to horizontal force is 
provided by concrete core

(a)
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Difficulty in using the effective length method :

Should the effective length be 3m, 5m or 8m ? 29

Braced frame is always stable?

Can we design the members in a braced frame using the member length between the two node points?

Experience shows that conventional method over design the main members and under-design the bracing members

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collapse of a telecom tower in Vietnam

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under-design of the bracing members

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Collapse of Water Tank Tower - Brunei

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Mix of braced and unbraced frames

Temporary Support

braced

Unbraced

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Slender braced frame

- Crane Tower

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Fundamental differences
between old and new codes (1)
• Old codes mention nothing about analysis as it
is often based on linear analysis. Checking of
strength and stability is at the design stage.
→ Analysis simple and design complex.

• Member stability check approach - Design

formulae have many limitations including
uncertainty associated with the use of member
effective length.
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Fundamental differences
between old and new codes (2)
• Modern codes consider member and frame
stability directly into the analysis and design
becomes simple.
→ Analysis complex and design simple.

• System stability & performance-based

approach and can be applied to different
scenarios including analysis for progressive
collapse.

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Proper direct second-order

Analysis & Design to Eurocode-3

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Direct second-order or P- analysis

Considers global geometrical change with

buckling mode as imperfection mode +
member curvature change [see 5.2.2.3(a)]

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Second-order P- elastic direct analysis

• Check only the cross sectional strength - the design
resistance is reached when the section Capacity is
reached.
• The design resistance is taken as the load causing the
formation of the first plastic hinge for plastic (class 1)
section or compact (class 2) section or first yield semi-
compact (class 3) section or slender section with further
reduction of cross-sectional properties due to local
buckling.

Cross section check:

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Second-order P- plastic

analysis or advanced analysis

• One member failure does not necessarily

indicate structural failure. The structure
can resist higher loads if redistribution of
forces are allowed.
• In Eurocode, plastic analysis can only be
used for members with sufficient rotational
capacity to enable redistribution of
bending moment.
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Second order analysis of highly

nonlinear frame

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Second Order Plastic Hinge Analysis

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Advanced Analysis of 3-D frame

Subject to Extreme Loads

At initial At first At first

yielding buckling of At limit 43
plastic hinge
member load

Collapse
Analysis of
Composite
Frames

20-story building
subjects
to Wind Load

At first plastic hinge 44

At collapse

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Imperfections
• In Eurocode-3, a special feature is the
consideration of frame and member
imperfections which are not so explicitly
expressed in most other codes.

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Imperfections

Imperfections are essential for a reliable and safe

design by second-order analysis.

The effects of imperfections shall be taken into

account as.
• frame imperfection based on global buckling
mode – load case sensitive
• Member imperfection to be modelled using
curved element with initial curvature - Table 5.1
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Eurocode 3 SSEN 1993: 1-1

Frame imperfection should be

based on global buckling mode

Member imperfection should be modeled

by 47
CURVED element with initial curvature

Frame imperfections
5.3.2 - The effects of frame imperfections shall be
incorporated in frame analysis using an equivalent
geometric imperfection or equivalent horizontal force.

• EHF = 0.5% of the vertical

load should be applied
horizontally to a frame which
is basically regular in order
to simulate imperfection.
• For temporary structures,
the frame imperfections or
EHF should be increased.

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Global imperfection pattern and magnitude

• We can use the Eigen-buckling mode as

imperfection pattern.
• In software, we can specify the Eigen-
buckling mode option and a magnitude
equal to 0.5% x height of a frame
• For dome or shell structure, a maximum
value of imperfection = span/300 is
suitable

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Member imperfections
For a compression member, the equivalent initial
bow imperfection specified in Table 5.1 of
Eurocode-3 may be used in a second order
analysis of the member.

 SSEN 1993-1-1 Singapore national annexes adopts recommended

values from EN1993-1-1 Table 5.1 as
Buckling curve Elastic analysis Plastic analysis
acc. To Table 6.1 e0/L e0/L
a0 1/350 1/300 e0
a 1/300 1/250 L
b 1/250 1/200
c 1/200 1/150
d 1/150 1/100
50

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NIDA Software

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Second-order direct analysis

with PROPER consideration of
Imperfections

Second-order P- elastic or plastic

analysis can be used in all cases. No
effective length nor moment amplification is
required. Only section capacity check is
needed.

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If we consider both P- and P-

 effects, we need not worry
about the effective length and
the design is more efficient and
accurate.

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Second-order direct analysis

allowing for P- and P- effects

Simple section capacity check for

all members in the software
according to steel grade and
section type used

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Design and applications

Example 1 Simple benchmark example for
testing of software
• Determine the elastic buckling load and buckling
resistance of a fixed-pinned column by 1
element/member.
• Do not use 2 or more elements per member which is too
complicated for practical structures as it requires
determination of mid-span nodal coordinates for direction
of member imperfection.

If the software being used by yourself cannot give you a

right answer for a simple column, how can you expect it to
give you a correct answer for real structures?
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Example 1
CHS88.9x3.2 (A= 8.62cm2, I=79.2cm4, Z=17.8cm3, S=23.5
cm3, fy=355 N/mm2, E=2.05x105 N/mm2)

Methods Elastic buckling Design Load

load (kN) Capacity
(kN)

NIDA 131 111.5

Analytical 130.8 -

EC3 Code - 114.6

Second order direct analysis predicts the same load as EC3 based on cross section check

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NIDA- Nonlinear Integrated Design and Analysis software

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NIDA Software

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Advanced analysis of 6-storey frame

The 6-storey steel frame has been used as a benchmark
example by Vogel (1985) for testing of a second-order
plastic analysis program. The limit load calculated by most
researchers for the frame is 1.1.

NIDA Software

1.1

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• The section sizes of the members are shown in adjacent

figure by colour indication. All connections are assumed
rigid between members and pinned to supports. The roof
of the frame is under a uniformly distributed load (UDL)
of 31.7 kN/m and beams at other levels are under a UDL
of 49.1 kN/m. Horizontal notional forces equal to 0.5% of
the vertical loads are applied at each floor levels.
Member imperfection assumed to be 1/300.
• The load deflection curve is plotted which indicates that
the same limit load by Vogel (1985) is obtained.

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NIDA Software

Tianjin Olympian stadium

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NIDA Software

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NIDA Software

Client : Macau SAR Government

Architect : Eddie Wong & Associates
Structural Engineer : Dr. S.L. Chan 62

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Recent projects

NIDA Software

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NIDA Software

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Second-order plastic direct analysis of Structural Steel Truss at MICE

area of Marina Bay Sands Integrated Resort Project, Singapore

NIDA Software

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NIDA Software

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2008 HKIE/IStructE structural award

NIDA Software

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Gardens by the Bay
The Cloud Forest and The Flower Dome

Hybrid of Arches and Gridshell

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This method has been used for

court case & investigation

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Collapse Investigation of Tower Crane

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Second order over turning moment

Full-scale test verifications

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Direct Second Order Analysis of

Steel-Concrete Composite
Frames to EC4

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Modelling of Composite Beam in EC4

Gravity + Lateral Loads

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Modelling of composite Columns

B

Concrete-filled section
Concrete-cased section

Composite Stiffness

Steel Section Re-bars

Concrete
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Modelling of Semi-Rigid
Connections

Four-parameter power model Standardised Reference

Curves

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Steel and Composite Joints

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20-Storey Composite
Building Frame

Load-deflection curves of the 20-storey steel and composite frame

30 % Increase by considering
composite action

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Core-Braced Frame
System

Republic Plaza 80

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Nonlinear Fire Analysistechnique

Compartment
Fire

Use fine meshes (shell elements) to

model members in the fire
compartment

Compartment
Fire

Response to fire on floating production platform

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Conclusions :Their differences are

Direct Second Order Analysis First order Linear Analysis
Design is included in the analysis Only for αcr > 10
Frame classification is not need Frame classification is needed

Check section capacity Check individual member buckling

More reliable as buckling is checked by
rigorous nonlinear theory
Implemented in modern design codes
Design speed is faster as effective
lengths are not needed
More economical or safer design
Collapse analysis and progressive
collapse analysis can be carried out
Simple to use as imperfections are
automatically computed by software for
all load combinations
capacity and estimate effective buckling
length
Less reliable as buckling is checked by
column buckling length
Allowed to be used in modern design
codes, but it is not the preferred method
Design speed is slower as effective
lengths are needed
May not be safe as some critical
members may be under-designed
Limited to simple problems and system
“true” capacity cannot be obtained
Design is tedious as effective lengths
need to be computed for different load
cases and cannot be done automatically 83

Closure
• Advanced nonlinear analysis has been developed for
core-braced, semi-rigid, steel and composite frames

• Mixed formulation is suitable for analysing real-size

structures
• Beam-column element is efficient
• Plastic hinge or spread-of-plasticity fibre elements
can capture complex inelastic behaviour
• Nonlinear analysis results in more predictable and reliable
performance leading to buildings with greater economical
value

• Emergence of performance based codes will lead to an

increased need and reliance on nonlinear analysis
84

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