Você está na página 1de 8

LESSON 1 WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY

Philosophy – comes from Greek word philos (means LOVE) and Sophia (means WISDOM). The Ancient Greeks used
this term to refer to a “love for wisdom” and soon applied to science or discipline which uses human reason to investigate
the ultimate causes, reasons and principles which govern all things.

Western Philosophy – primarily concerned with uncovering the truth through systematically argumentation and theory.
- Has greater emphasis on the use of reason rather than faith and an increase focus on man
as an individual
- Led to the development of more scientific, theory-based approach in philosophy and a more
individualistic, self-oriented approach in analyzing the human condition

Sophists – an important group that emerged and influenced learning in Ancient Greece
- Were teachers who traveled throughout the Greece and taught people who wished to learn
- Were excellent public speakers

For philosophos arguments must be based on sound reasoning. Their central belief was that man need not know all
things in the world, but one must continue to inquire and seek to understand and learn about the human condition

Notable Ancient Greek Philosophers

1. Pythagoras (570 BCE to 495 BCE) - a mathematician and scientist he was credited with the formulation of the
Pythagorean theorem. His work earned him many followers and established a community of learners who were
devoted to the study of religion and philosophy
2. Heraclitus (535 BCE to 475 BCE) – proposed that everything that exist is based on a higher order or plan which
he called logos. For him, change is a permanent aspect of the human condition and he was credited with the
saying, “no man ever steps on the same river twice”
3. Democritus (460 BCE to 370 BCE) – devoted himself to studying the causes of natural phenomena. He was among
the first to propose that matter is composed of tiny particles called atoms
4. Diogenes of Sinope (412 BCE to 323 BCE) – known as an advocate of a simple and virtuous life. For Diogenes,
one should not only talk of virtue but should know it in words and actions. His emphasis on austerity and simplicity
often went to the extreme and was said to have lived like a beggar. He was also known to be vocal critic of well-
known philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle. His teaching and views were later developed by his followers and
influenced the development of several schools of philosophy such as Cynicism and Stoicism.
5. Epicurus (341 BCE to 270 BCE) – believed that philosophy could enable man to live life of happiness. His views
gave rise to Epicureanism – a school of philosophy which believes that wisdom and simple living will result to a life
free from fear and pain
6. Socrates (470 BCE to 399 BCE) – considered the foremost philosopher of ancient times. Made great contributions
to the field of ethics. Socrates was a known critic of intellectuals during his time, but he himself did not claim to be
wise and merely considered himself a midwife that helped inquiring minds achieve wisdom. Also believed that
philosophy could enable a man to live a life of virtue. He was credited with formulating the Socratic Method – a
means of examining topic by devising a series of questions that let the learner examine and analyze his knowledge
and views regarding the topic
7. Plato (427 BCE to 347 BCE) – student of Socrates, wrote down his teacher’s writings and incorporated some of his
own ideas into them. His teachings and writings were considered the foundation of Western philosophy. Plato’s
most significant ideas include his Theory of Forms, which proposes that everything that exists is based on an idea
or template that can only be perceived by the mind, these nonphysical ideas are eternal and unchanging also
focused his studies on the ideal society and proposed an ideal model of government and society which ruled by
wisdom and reason. He was also known for his dialectic method of inquiry where two opposing ideas are discussed
in an attempt to arrive at new knowledge. Plato’s lasting contribution to learning was his founding of the Academy,
institution of higher learning which was the first of its kind in the West
8. Aristotle (384 BCE to 322 BCE) – attended the Academy and was a prominent student of Plato. However, he
disagreed to Plato’s theory of forms and took a different view in interpreting reality. For him, all ideas and views are
based on perception and our reality is based on what we can sense and perceive. This view greatly influenced the
study of the physical sciences. Aristotle was involved in a great variety of disciplines such as zoology, psychology,
ethics and politics. Also proposed a system for the classification of plants and animals. His studies in logic led to
the formulation of a formal process of analyzing reasoning which gave rise to deductive reasoning – the process by
which specific statements are analyzed to reach a conclusion or generalization.
9. Archimedes (287 BCE to 212 BCE) he gained renown for the practical aspects of his philosophical inquiries and
was considered a leading scientist in ancient times. A mathematician, physicist, engineer, inventor and astronomer,
Archimedes’ inquiries into mathematics to analyze natural phenomena. He is credited for several inventions such
as Archimedes screw, a devise for raising water and a method for determining volume using displacement.

WESTERN PHILOSOPHY

Historical Period School of Thought Main Features, Beliefs Notable Philosophers


Ancient Rome (1st century Stoicism Emphasis on morality, Seneca
BCE to 5th century CE) virtue, calm and emotional Epictetus
fortitude Marcus Aurelius
Medieval Period (5th to 15th Scholasticism Application of philosophy to St. Thomas Aquinas
centuries) define and explain religious St. Augustine
doctrines
Renaissance (14th to 17th Humanism Emphasis on the human Petrarch
centuries person; use of philosophy Desiderius Erasmus
to understand society, Niccolo Machiavelli
nature and humanity Francois Rabelais
WESTERN PHILOSOPHY

Historical Period School of Thought Main Features, Beliefs Notable Philosophers


The Enlightenment (17th Rationalism Reason and logic considered Rene Descartes
to 18th centuries) the basis of knowledge and Immanuel Kant
belief, man has innate Gottfried Leibniz
knowledge that can be
accessed through intuition or
deduction
Empiricism Knowledge is gained through David Hume
the senses and experience; Francis Bacon
reliance on inductive reasoning John Locke
to arrive at generalizations
Social and Political Discussions on the ideal Voltaire
Philosophy human situation and society; Jean Jacques Rousseau
emphasis on individual rights Thomas Hobbes
and liberties John Stuart Mill
Modern Period (19th to Existentialism Human experience is defined Soren Kierkegaard
20th centuries) by the views, emotions and Friedrich Nietzsche
actions of the individual Martin Heidegger
Jean Paul Sartre
Simone de Beauvoir
Pragmatism Emphasis on the practical use Charles Peirce
of knowledge and ideas William James
John Dewey
Phenomenology Experience is studied based Edmund Husserl
on the subjective viewpoint of
the individual
Absurdism Man will never understand the Albert Camus
human condition and the
meaning of life
Postmodernism, Post- Analysis on how knowledge, Jacques Derrida
structuralism ideas and power relations are Michel Foucault
defined

Eastern Philosophy – often described as “wisdom” literature, where stories, sayings and texts encourage people to adopt
an ethical and harmonious way of life. Has great emphasis on social relations and the family and community are
considered a central aspect of life. The goal of eastern philosophy is to achieve a balanced life and find one’s role in
society.
Classification of Eastern Philosophy

1. Theistic Philosophy – belief in a Supreme Being


2. Nontheistic Philosophy

EASTERN PHILOSOPHY

Historical Period School of Thought Main Features, Beliefs Notable Philosophers


ca.2000 BCE Judaism (Israel, the Levant) Belief in one God Abraham, Moses, various
(monotheism), who was a prophets
role in the ultimate destiny
of mankind; the Jewish Tanakh, Torah and various
people are God’s chosen scriptures
people
The observance of God’s
commandments will result
in rewards. A deeper study
and understanding of God’s
laws as revealed in the
sacred scriptures will lead
ca.1500 BCE Hinduism (India, South Belief in a pantheon of The Vedas
Asia) gods, with three main gods
– Brahma, Shiva and
Vishnu
Belief in a cycle of birth and
rebirth (samsara) which is
broken when a person
achieves ultimate union
with the Divine (moksha)
Emphasis on dharma, the
fulfillment of duties and
behavior in accordance with
the established order in the
world; individual actions
contribute to either a good
or bad effect (karma) in a
person’s life
EASTERN PHILOSOPHY

Historical Period School of Thought Main Features, Beliefs Notable Philosophers


ca.600 BCE Shinto (Japan) An animistic religion No distinct philosophers or
influenced by Japanese sacred texts
myth and traditions

The material and spiritual


worlds are closely
connected; rituals and
traditions are a way to
connect with the spiritual
world.

Mankind and the world are


essentially good and pure

Harmony and balance are


essential in maintaining
purity.
ca.600-500 BCE Jainism (India) Rejects the idea of a Mahavira
Creator and considers the
universe as eternal and Jain Agamas
unceasing; time is a wheel
which goes through cycles
of prosperity and suffering

Wisdom is developed
through practice of the five
main vows: ahimsa (non-
voilence), satya (truth),
asteya (honesty),
brahmacharya (chastity)
and aparigraha (piety)

Meditation, discipline and


respect for all life are
emphasized
ca.400 BCE Buddhism (South Asia, Shares number of main Siddharta Gautama
East Asia, Southeast Asia) beliefs (samsara, dharma, (Buddha) Tripitaka
moksha) with Hinduism

The four Noble Truths


describe worldly existence
as imperfect and influenced
by earthly desires and
suffering (dukkha); to rid
oneself of desire and
achieve liberation from
suffering, one must follow
the Eight-fold Path

Divided into 2 major


branches: Theravada and
Buddhism and Mahayana
Buddhism
Confucianism (East Asia) The contemplation of the Confucius
order of things can lead to
self-transformation. Self- The Five Classics
transformation can lead to
the betterment of the family
and society.

Human relationships are


based on mutual
obligations; individuals
should perform their
intended roles and
contribute to social order
ca.200 BCE Taoism Emphasis on the unity and Lao Tzu
harmony among opposing
elements (yin and yang; I Ching, Tao Te Ching and
individuals must seek to Zhuangzi
understand and act in
accordance with the natural
order
EASTERN PHILOSOPHY

Historical Period School of Thought Main Features, Beliefs Notable Philosophers


ca.610 CE Islam (West Asia) Belief in one God (Allah; Muhammad
commitment to faith is
shown through the practice Quran
of The Five Pillars:
testament of faith
(shahada), daily prayers
(salat), alms-giving (zakat),
fasting during the month of
Ramadan (sawm) and
pilgrimage to the holy city of
Mecca (hajj)

Religion and society are


closely intertwined; all
Muslims are members of a
community (ummah)
bounded by faith

Divided into two major


branches: Sunni Islam and
Shia Islam
ca.1440 CE Sikhism (India) God is believed to have Guru Nanak
created the universe and is
present everywhere and in Guru Granth Sahib
everything

Man communicates with


God through meditation and
his ultimate destiny in union
with the Divine.

Apart from meditation,


believers must devote
themselves to selfless
service and action

How do we characterize the study of Philosophy?


a. One way of looking at Philosophy as to consider it a way of analyzing frameworks.
Framework – defined as a way of thinking about the world and is composed of the views and beliefs of a person
1. Internal questions – questions dealing with our correctness and values which can be addressed using
our own personal frameworks
2. External questions – those that seek to question the vary frameworks upon which people base their own
beliefs and views.
b. Philosophy can also be thought of as an examination of a particular area of knowledge

Branches of Philosophy
1. Philosophy in Human Person – which looks into the nature of man
2. Aesthetics – deals with beauty and what makes things beautiful
3. Logic – deals with correct reasoning
4. Epistemology – discusses the nature of knowledge and knowing
5. Ethics – deal with moral questions and dilemmas
6. Political philosophy – studies government and deals with questions of justice, power and the rights and obligations
of citizens.
7. Metaphysics – deals with questions regarding reality and existence

2 important facts in philosophizing


1. Reflective
2. Meditative activity

Lesson 2 DOING PHILOSOPHY

Major questions in Philosophy


1. Reality – refers to the state of existence of things independent of human consciousness
2. Certainty – refers to perfect knowledge that is free from error or doubt (truth)
Rationalism – a theory which believes that knowledge is a priori knowledge or based on pure reasoning
without the benefit of any experience
Empiricism – theory which considers knowledge to be a posteriori knowledge or knowledge gained from
experience
Skepticism – questions the certainty of established doctrines or truths and believes that the mind has limits
in perceiving and understanding reality – thus all knowledge is uncertain.
3. Causality – refers to causes of events and phenomena. Examining event through cause-and-effect relationship
4. Ethics – deals with the standards of right or wrong which define human behavior
Systematic Doubt – a skeptical attitude in looking at ideas, events or things. Each aspect of the question is analyzed to
determine its validity or truthfulness
Argument –engage in discussion and debate on their ideas
Dialectic – varies and differing ideas and perspectives are analyzed and from the information gathered, news ideas and
views are formulated
Socratic Method – a method of analyzing a topic by formulating a series of question designed to analyze its various aspects
and examine and clarify a person’s views on it.
Axioms – refer to assumptions which are taken for granted in a philosophical discussion. Provides a foundation and direction
in philosophical studies
Occam’s razor – it is a problem-solving used in analyzing possible explanations regarding a phenomenon. States that
among possible explanations, the one which has the least assumptions is the most acceptable
Formal Logic – a systematic analysis of the validity of arguments and statements. Often entails the use of syllogisms or
logical arguments presented in a series of related statements.
Thought experiment and allegory – imagine scenarios used to illustrate a certain problem or describe a theory.

Practical uses of Philosophy in our lives


1. Requires a person to engage in analysis and interpretation of concepts, definitions, arguments and problems
2. Problem-solving and decision making are important aspects in life which can benefit from a knowledge of philosophy
3. A philosopher is also a good communicator who can clearly and adequately present his/her ideas.
4. Knowledge of philosophy can contribute to self-development

Lesson 4 PHILOSOPHY AND MAN

How does Philosophy view the nature of man?


“Understanding of the nature and condition of man is the foremost goal of the discipline”

Man – general term which is commonly used to refer to the human race
- Other related terms include humanity , mankind , humankind

Human – refers to a species –homo sapiens sapiens or modern human


Person – much more complex term which generally refers to a human being granted recognition of certain rights, protection
and responsibilities

Various Perspectives Regarding the Nature of Man

1. Biological Perspectives – considers man as a part of the natural world and a product of evolution

Modern Humans (homo sapiens sapiens) – most successfully adapted species on planet
- With highly developed physical features such as
a. Bipedalism
b. Highly developed hands
c. Smaller jaws and teeth
d. Larger, more developed brains

Two so-called primal instinct


1. Survival 2. Reproduction

Additional human traits and capabilities


a. Planning and intentional action
b. Innovation and creativity
c. Communication through language and writing
d. Technology
e. Symbolic interaction as evidenced by religion and art

Culture – considered man’s most significant achievement which sets apart from the evolution of humanity from other
species

2. Psychological perspective – places emphasis on human behavior and thought processes in analyzing human nature.
Man possesses mental faculties that enables him to possess awareness, a sense of self, and the capacity to perceive
and experience.

Significant mental faculties and capabilities of man:


a. Psyche – refers to the human mind and is divided into conscious mind – the part which governs awareness and
unconscious mind – consists of latent repressed emotion, thoughts and desires.
b. Rationality – the state of being reasonable, the ability to understand experience in order to solve problems, do
tasks and engage decision making and judgement
c. Intelligence – the ability to perceive information, store knowledge, and apply in various situations
d. Introspection – the ability to examine one’s own conscious thoughts, feelings, mental state and the capacity for
self-reflection.

3. Economic Perspectives - focuses on man’s ability to engage in productive activities in an effort to meet his wants
and needs.
- considers man as a productive being; his primary goal is to produce and engage in labor
Economic Man (homo economicus) – driven by rationality and self-interest in his desire to possess wealth.

4. Theological Perspectives – considers man as God’s creation


Man is considered to have a special relationship with the Creator, being created in his image and given an immortal
spirit

How does Philosophy define the Human Person?


Human Person – refers to the individual and all the attributes and characteristics that set him or her apart from other human
beings. Significant concepts relates to human person are self, identity and personhood.

Awareness of self – most unique traits of humans

Sentience – the ability to feel and experience


- Seen as the ability to perceive the surroundings and react to stimulus such as pain

Views as to nature of SELF


a. Self as innate - holds that the self is an essential part of the human being & self-awareness is natural and innate
b. Self as emergent – holds that awareness of the self is gained through interaction with the world and other human
beings
c. Self as integrated and developing – holds that the self is composed of varied elements that change overtime

Identity – defined as the distinct personality of an individual


- Composed of a person’s unique physical characteristics, mental attributes, experiences, memories ideas and
views
- Said to persist through time, though certain aspects of it may change
Personhood – is the recognition of a human being as a distinct entity – person

Notions which justify the recognition of personhood:

1. The person as an “autonomous being” – holds that a human being is considered a person if he/she possesses
the ability to determine his/her life through “reasoned free choice”
- Assumes that man possesses reason, the capacity for reflection and the ability to engage in
decision making
2. The person as a unified individual – asserts that human being has the inherent capacity to function as a person
- Emphasizes the potential of the human being and recognizes that each human possesses the
means to achieve his/her capabilities
3. The person in relation to others - asserts that human being becomes a person through interactions with other
human beings.

PHILOSOPHY AND SPIRITUALITY

Embodiment - central concept in discussing the nature of the human soul


- Primarily based on the discussion on the nature of human consciousness
- Defined man’s embodiment as embodied cognition – that man is able to perceive and experience reality through
his physical body.
Enactivism - states that cognition arises through interaction between organism and its environment
Spirit - essential element in the salvation of mankind

Proposed varied ideas on the nature of the spirit according to Greek philosophers
1. Plato – the human mind is immortal and persists after the death of the body
- believed that spirit is composed of three parts
a. Logos – mind or reason
b. Thymos – emotion
c. Eros – desire
2. Aristotle – regarded the soul as integrated into the human body; the soul is the part of man’s essence which enables
him to achieve his ultimate purpose

Physicalism – believes that physical processes determine the state of the mind
Idealism – holds that mental processes and thought are the only reality
Monism – argues that the human being is composed of elements that are neither physical nor mental
Dualism – believes in the distinctiveness of the physical and mental nature of man

Avicenna – argued that self-awareness and consciousness exists even if the body is deprived of its senses
Rene Decartes – proposed that the mind and body exist as two separate entities which interact with one another
St. Thomas Aquinas – believed that the soul is the first actuality of the body; for there to be a body, there should first be a
soul
- The soul has substance but has no physical or concrete form, and is able to exist even without the body
St. Augustine –considered the soul the driving force which governs the body and defines the human person

How does the spirit define the nature of man?

1. Trichotomic view – holds that man is composed of three essential parts: body, soul (defined as the component
which gives man life and will) and spirit (enables man to establish connection with God)
2. Dichotomic view – views man as composed of the body and the spirit
3. Psychosomatic unity – asserts that man is of single or unitary constitution and that the body and spirit are
inseparable and integrated.

Theology – the study of God and other religious concepts

God – is acknowledged as the Supreme Being which governs all existence and the center of faith and devotion of a religion.
Theism - the belief in the existence of a God or several deities
Monotheism – believe in a single God.
- Its characteristics includes the following:
a. Omniscience – God is all-knowing
b. Omnipotence – God is all-powerful
c. Omnipresence- God is ever-present
d. Benevolent – God is perfectly good, just and all-loving
e. Divine Simplicity – all attributes are integrated and embodied by HIM – God is not just good: He is goodness
itself
f. Eternal – God is timeless and has no beginning and end

Revealed Theology – study of God through the analysis of sacred texts


Natural Theology – employed reason to substantiate the existence of God

Several arguments on the existence of God

1. Ontological Argument – contends that since man, a rational being, is able to conceive the notion of a Supreme
Being, then it holds to reason that such Supreme Being exists
2. Teleological Argument – focuses on the purpose a God would play in the universe. Also argues that a Supreme
Being is necessary for the continued existence of an orderly complex universe
3. Cosmological argument – takes into account the nature of existence and the universe and recognizes the
existence of God as an explanation of how things came to being in our reality
St. Thomas Aquinas – proposed several arguments which point to God as the prime mover, the first cause of existence
and the source of being of reality and the universe
Gottfried Leibniz – based the belief on the existence of God on the principle of sufficient reason
- All facts and events must have an explanation

4. Moral argument - holds that man’s ethical nature is brought about by the existence of God. Consider God a
necessary being for the universe and all existence to make sense

Agnosticism- considers metaphysical concepts such as God to be inherently unknowable.


Atheism – is the rejection or non belief in the existence of God or any deity.

If God exists, what is His role in our lives?


God plays a central role in redemptive salvation as it is through him that saving faith is effected. God also takes an
active role in the human condition (divine providence) through blessings, miracles, divine inspiration and revelation.

Immanence – regards God as manifesting Himself in the world as a unique entity.


Transcendence - depicts God as existing outside the material world and those presence is beyond physical laws and even
human knowledge and understanding
Panentheistic – view that God is both beyond and within the universe which Christians adopt
Pantheistic – view that God is an all-encompassing presence in the universe and has no distinct presence as an entity
Pandeistic – views where God was a distinct entity but lost this state when He transformed into the universe.

Immanuel Kant - proposed that human transcendence is based on rationality. Humans are able to comprehend certain
abstract concepts that have no equivalent physical object or sensory experience.
Jean-Paul Sartre – considers the person’s ability to comprehend and relate to objects and beings outside of his own self
as an indication of transcendence. For him, transcendence lies in the ability of persons to relate to people, things and
experiences in a meaningful manner.

MAN AND HIS ENVIRONMENT

Environmental philosophy – is the branch of philosophy that is concerned with the natural environment and humanity’s
place within it.
- Major issues tackled are humanity’s role in the natural world, the interaction between nature and human
activities and humanity’s response to environmental challenges
Anthropocentrism – the belief that humans are the central and most significant species on the planet. This holds that
humans are considered the primary cause that drives changes in the environment
Deep ecology – sees the natural world as being maintained by the interrelationship among living organisms and that every
living thing on the planet is dependent on each other for survival
- Regards human interference as a significant threat to the natural world and all living things
Gaia Hypothesis – suggest that non-organic elements on the planet play a significant role in maintaining balance in the
environment as they interact with living organisms to regulate the various systems that enable life to continue thriving on
Earth.

Environmental Ethics – emerged in 1970s and advocated human responsibility and action with regard to environmental
issues.
- Emphasizes key ideas that combine philosophical, pragmatic and theological perspectives
a. All nonhuman elements of the world, including animals and natural resources have intrinsic value and
should be preserved
b. The preservation of the environment is beneficial for humans, as it will continue to provide for the present
and future generations
c. Man has responsibility to safeguard the planet as it has been entrusted to him by God

Social Ecology – applies an ecological and ethical approach in analyzing society and sees a relationship between social
problems and environmental problems
Environmental justice – refers to the fair distribution of environmental benefits, as well as the burden of meeting
environmental challenges
Environmental aesthetics – originally discussed concepts of beauty in nature but has recently been increasingly influenced
by environmental concerns
Environmentalism – has also become an important issue in international politics as governments and international
organizations have devoted efforts to discuss environmental issues and formulate plans to address them.

Você também pode gostar