Forensic Processing of the Terrestrial Mass Fatality Scene: Testing New

Search, Documentation and Recovery Methodologies

Dennis C. Dirkmaat, Ph.D., D.A.B.F.A.1, Joseph T. Hefner, B.S.1, and Michael J. Hochrein, B.S.2
1
Mercyhurst Archaeological Institute, Mercyhurst College, Erie, Pennsylvania
2
St. Louis Office of the Federal Bureau of Investigaton, St. Louis, Missouri

Introduction
The documentation and recovery of physical evidence associated with a mass fatality scene (especially a

com merc ial airp lane c rash) is a trem endo usly co mplic ated u ndert aking . The s heer v olum e of m ateria l, usua lly

concentrated in one area, and the chaotic dispersal of the evidence often leads investigators to minimize the

importance of proper and detailed documentation of the surface distribution of the remains. Random

pedestrian walk-overs of the a rea in conjunction with flagging o f material is frequently considered to

comprise an ade quate search and location strategy. This is often combine d with less than accurate

documentation of provenience (i.e., description of the precise contextual setting and location) of the various

classes of material, primarily because is it assum ed that the information to be gained is negligible and cost- in-

time for such effort is appreciable. Thus, the overwhelming emphasis is on removing the evidence from the

scene as quickly as possible in order to begin the process of identifying the victims, determining the cause of

the crash, and clearing the scene from the public eye. Howeve r, very important informa tion relevant to

details of the crash, and even victim identification, can be uncovered through more careful documentation of

the distribution of both vehicle parts and human remains. It is imperative, therefore, that more exacting

search, documentation and recovery methodologies, resulting in efficient and effective scene processing, be

implemented on mass fatality scenes. It is argued here that methodologies directly applicable to these

conte xts alr eady exist w ithin th e disc ipline o f foren sic arc haeo logy. M ethod ologie s curre ntly us ed suc cessf ully

on conventional forensic scenes involving one or a limited number of individuals can easily be modified to be

of immediate and significant utility on much larger m ass fatality scenes. In this paper we propo se and test a

recently developed set of protocols to be implemented during the search, documentation and recovery of

physica l evidenc e assoc iated w ith large, m ulti-victim disaste r scenes .

Background Research

The numerous benefits to a forensic investigation of utilizing accurate and comprehensive documentation of

context at outdoor scenes involving human remains and other physical evidence have recently been presented

(Dirkmaat and Adovasio 1998). Primary among these benefits is the enhanced ability to accurately reconstruct

events surrounding and subsequent to the death episode including determinations of manner of death,

mechanisms of dispersal/removal of physical evidence, and post-mortem interval. Clearly, the application of

methodologies developed and refined in the field of archaeology provide the most comprehensive means of

data collection at outdoor scenes and have successfully been applied to forensic contexts that include

outdo or surfa ce scatt ers, buried bodies and fat al fires (Dirk maa t, in press).
The documentation process at all outdoor forensic scenes should, minimally, involve written and

photographic (even videographic) documentation of the scene, as well as the production of maps in plan-view

(essen tially, a schem atic re prese ntatio n of th e horiz onta l distrib ution of phy sical e viden ce) an d prof ile

(displaying the vertical distribution of physical evidence; created when dealing with buried remains). At

smaller scenes involving single or limited numbers of individuals, relatively unsophisticated mapping

instruments, such as Brunton compasses, transits, plane tables and alidades, can meet the primary objective

of the mapping process, which is the accurate notation of the location and distribution of all relevant

physical evidence relative to a fixed po int in space (i.e., a primary datum). Ma pping with these instrume nts

is, howeve r, often time-in tensive, susce ptible to opera tor error, and ill-suited to the collection o f data in

three rather than two-dimensions. However, in the last few years, a sophisticated mapping instrument has

becom e available tha t has not on ly solved these dilemma s but has be come ra ther com monplac e. Electronic

surveying instruments (infrared theodo lites) have revolutionized the surveying process. W hen combined w ith

an electronic data recorder, a total staotn

i can describe theocl ation of a marked point in three-dimensions

(relative to the fixed datum) very rapidly and extremely accurately (often to within two or three

millimeters). Primarily developed for engineering/construction projects, the instrument has been

incorporate d into the m apping of a rchaeologic al sites for a num ber of years (F igure )R.ecently, foren sic

archaeological recoveries, which also require precise mapping of physical evidence distribution, have

benefitted from the new technology (Figure )B.etter maps hav e allowed researchers the op portunity to

uncover patterns in the distribution of physical evidence at an outdoor scene that may reveal the original

position and orientation of the victim at death, separate human from animal activity relative to the

dispersal/removal of item s, and even provide clues w ith respect to determination o f manner of dea th

(Dirkm aat an d Adov asio 19 98).

At a mass fatality scene, the tremendous amount of physical evidence associated with the incident requires a

fast, efficient and accurate distributional data collection methodology, especially when evidence is spread

out over acres rather than a few meters. Without question, the use of total stations in mapping efforts at

these sc enes w ould see m to p rovide a perfect s olution.

The senior author and other members of the Mercyhurst Archaeological Institute, Mercyhurst College, Erie,

Pennsylvania were involved in the on-scene documentation of the physical evidence associated with the crash

of USAir Flight 427 (Boeing 747) on approach to Pittsburgh International Airport in Hopewell Township, Beaver

County, Pennsylvania on 8 September 1994. Following a randomized search over the crash site, during which

physical evidence associated with the crash was flagged, a Sokk ia total s tatio n wa s used to pie ce-plo t near ly

10,000 pieces of physical evidence. Three-dimensional distributional data (East-West coordinates, North-

South coordinates, and Depth below Datum) for both individual aircraft parts and human remains strewn

-2-
over an area covering approximately two acres were entered into the data recorder associated with the total

station. The information collected was downloaded into a mapping program (AutoC AD), which allowed for

the completion of very detailed (and extremely accurate) maps of scene surface contours and precise

locations of all plotted pieces of physical evidence, including aircraft parts and human remains (Mercyhurst

Archae ologica l Institute, 1 994).

Although quite successful in producing state-of-the-art maps for this terrestrial mass fatality scene, the

proper utilization of this technology has not b een routinely implemente d on subsequent m ass fatality

incidents on land. In addition, search methods still involve random pedestrian walk-overs of the scene, during

whic h ma terial is flagg ed. Of ten, th ere is n o atte mpt t o doc ume nt pre cise su rface distrib ution al dat a at a ll.

Physical evidence is merely collected into transp ort vessels, with the sole concern of getting th e material to

the temporary morgue as quickly as possible. As is emphasized by a recent publication on the subject of mass

fatalities (Jense n 2000), m uch mo re exacting m ethodolog ies must be impleme nted in order to ensure

efficient and accurate recording of all relevant data.

It is suggested here that improvements in the documentation of the mass fatality scene can be attained

through: 1) the implementation of new and rigorous location, documentation and recovery protocols, and 2)

the routine utilizat ion of rather c omm on, though sophisticate d, electronic surv eying instrum entation. Th is

paper will describe new protocols to be considered, as well as report on tests of those methodologies that

were completed during the processing of a mock crash scene and a week later at the airplane crash site of

Missouri Governor Melvin P. Carnahan on October 17, 2000.

Methodology
nd-
During the w eek of Oc tober 2 6th, 2000, the Evidence Response Team (ERT) of the Federal Bureau of

Investigation (FBI), St. Louis, Missouri Office, hosted a five-day training seminar for local law enforcement

authorities and other FBI personnel entitled Crime ScenA

e rchaeology. As parotf that short-course, a two-

day field exe rcise involving th e processing of a mo ck small airpla ne crash site w as com pleted. Standa rd

recovery protocols as well as the new documentation and recovery protocols proposed here were used. The

primary purpose of the exercise was to test the effectiveness (i.e., how much of the physical evidence was

located) and the efficiency (i.e., speed and accuracy of the documentation process) of the new

methodologies relative to standard methods in practice today.

Prior to th e sem inar, me mbers of the F BI-ERT, St . Louis, M O, unde r the direc tion of o ne of the author s (MJH ),

distrib uted a total o f 400 moc k plan e part s, cloth ing an d plas tic hum an bo nes o ver an area a pprox imat ely

52,800 ft 2 (1.2 acre) in dimensions consisting of recently mowed grass and wooded edge. The perimeter of

the disaster scene was cordoned-off with crime scene tape. The scene was then divided into two equal areas

-3-
(Areas A and B) and 20 0 pieces of evidence distributed in ea ch section. An electronic total station wa s used to

collect precise evidence distribution information and assign sequential field specimen numbers to all 400

elements w ithin the mo ck area. This f irst mappin g episode w as com pleted by m embers o f the Missou ri

Highway Patrol (Crash Reconstruction Team), St. Louis FBI-ERT, and one of the authors (JTH). Maps of

evidence distribution produced during subsequent mapping episodes in the course of the Forensic Archaeology

seminar were compared to this (Reference) map in efforts to determine accuracy of point plotting efforts.

Later in the week, thirty seminar participants utilized the recently developed field protocols, described

below , during th e search , docum entatio n, and re covery of the ev idence lo cated in Area A (See Fig ure _).

Three different common scene processing methodologies were used by teams of 10 individuals during search,

documentation and recovery of items distributed in Area B (See Figure _). The results of the scene processing

efforts conducted in the two areas were then compared for efficiency and effectiveness.

Area A Scene Proce ssing: New Proto cols

Protocol Step 1. Search and L ocation Efforts

The scene processing protocol utilized in Area A was divided into four discrete episodes comprising four

teams. Th e first step involv ed the intensiv e and thoro ugh search and locatio n of physica l evidence. M embers

of the search team assembled at one edge of the demarcated crash scene shoulder-to-shoulder. One member

of the team w as chosen as team leader. This individual determined the pac e and direction (with the aid of a

Brunton compass) of the search. The search team proceeded slowly and carefully in a single line in one

direction (preferably in a cardinal direction). Each searcher scanned the surface area a few feet ahead of

them. A visual overlap of 30 to 40 degrees in viewing area was expected. If an item was identified, it was

promptly marked with a pin flag in the immediate vicinity. The item was not evaluated (i.e., picked up,

moved, or disturbed) by the searchers. Attempts were made to flag each and every item, regardless of size,

within t he searc h path.

Protocol Step 2. Total Statio n Data C ollection and A ssignmen t of Field Spec imen Nu mbers

While the search ensued without pause, the second component of the protocol called for the incorporation of the tota l

station in strume nt into th e docu menta tion pro cess.

The to tal sta tion re prese nts the com binat ion of an ele ctron ic infra red su rveyin g tran sit and a han d-held

computerized data recorder. The total station accurately measures distances and angles and converts them

into three-dimensional grid coordinates. The transit emits an infrared laser, which is reflected off of a prism

held vertically at th e point of inte rest. The time required for the laser to return to the instrum ent is

measure d and calcula tions are perfo rmed to o btain distanc e. The accu racy of tota l station point p lots vary

only slightly between different models of laser transits. Most are accurate to 2 minutes for angular

-4-
measurements and 3 mm for distance (S okkia ). The d istance, north and east co ordinates, elev ation are

then stored in the data recorder. At this time the operator is able to enter a code to distinguish the class of

material recorded or to enter any special notes about that location. Data recorders can store as many as

500,000 different points. These points can be downloaded into a personal computer for permanent storage

and incorporated into a variety of mapping programs during the production of detailed topographic and

distributio nal ma ps.

An additional advantage of the total station in plotting many points over a large area is that the instrument

can be moved from one location to the next during the same mapping episode and without compromising the

accuracy of the map. This can be accomplished rather easily by shooting in the new data point where the

total station will be relocated. The coordinates are then entered as the machine s new location. Every point

ta ken from the new loca tion wi ll be co nsi ste nt ly o ffs et f rom t he o rig inal lo cat ion a nd wi ll fall in to t he s ame

grid as the points taken from the first location.

At the mock plane crash site, a location near the perimeter of the scene with good overall visibility of the

crash site was chosen for the emplacement of the datum and the total station. The total station team

consisted of a well-trained and experienced instrument operator, who represents the key to the success of

the entire documentation effort. Another member of the total station team is an assistant to the operator

who provides written backup documentation of the electronic transit data. This person may also write the

Incident Narra tive, which is a detailed desc ription of eve nts occurring d uring the reco very exercise . The third

member of the team is the prism operator who positions the reflecting mirror associated with the Total

Station in the immediate vicinity of the physical evidence.

The d ocum entat ion of physi cal ev idenc e loca tion u tilizing the to tal sta tion c an be gin alm ost im med iately

after the commencement of the search. The prism operator places the reflecting prism immediately adjacent

to the pin flag and within a cardboard target. The total station operator obtains the location data and stores

it on the data recorder.

The second important duty of the total station team is the assignment of a unique item number (termed the Field

Specimen number) to each discrete collection of physical evidence. This Field Specimen number, which can be

sequentially assigned by the instrument, is then written on the pinflag and the target. The flag and target rem ains with

the item throu gh subsequ ent docum entation effo rts and helps ins ure that errors in provenience notation through all

four steps of the scene processing protocol is limited or eliminated.

Protocol Step 3. Photographic Documentation

The Photographic Documentation Team minimally includes three members: one person to place the scale and

-5-
north arrow adjacent to the physical evidence, the photographic note-taker and the photographer. Following

emp lacem ent of the sc ale an d nort h arro w, the photo graph er tak es the photo graph ic ima ge at a pprox imat ely

4 feet above the ground surface with the film plane level to the ground surface. With a normal lens (e.g., 50

mm) on a cam era at this height, the photograph will include approximately 50 cm by 60 cm of ground surface

(including the target and the Field Specimen number). The photographic notation includes Field Specimen

number and camera settings (minimally, f-stop and shutter speed). Multiple photographic formats can be used

to document the evidence, including 35mm color and black/white, digital stills, and even digital videography.

The pinflag a nd the targe t are mark ed in such a m anner that it is e asily recognize d that phot ographic

documentation has been com pleted and the next team can complete the pro cessing effort.

Protocol Step 4. Physical Evidence Collection and Preservation

The last team involved in the processing of the evidence at the mass fatality scene in the newly proposed protocols is

the Physical Evidence Co llection and Preservation Team . The physical evidence associate d with each uniqu e Field

Specim en numb er is placed into properly labeled receptacles, pin flags and targ ets are removed and the evidence is

taken off-site.

Area B Search and Recovery Methods

The search methodology used in Area B involved both random pedestrian walk-overs and more organized

straight-line searches of the crash scene. Pin flags were again used to mark the location of physical evidence.

Following completion of the search, Area B was subdivided into four discrete areas in which different

mapping protocols were used. In one section of Area B, a dumpy level transit was used to collect

distributio nal data in the for m of a bearing (degree angle fro m nort h) and d istance from in strume nt. In

another section of Area B a grid system consisting of a series of 5 m by 5 m units was constructed an d used to

measure coordinate locations for each piece of physical evidence. In the third area, a base-line method of

mapping was used in which points are measured on either side of a central line. The amount of time required

to comp lete the mapp ing pro ced ure for each su bse cti on of Ar ea B was no ted as were the num ber of i tems

mapped, thus providing a relative measure of the speed of the mapping process.

Results

1. Location of Evidence : The intensive , shoulder-to-sho ulder search ef fort in Area A resulted in the rec overy

of 199 o f 200 (99% ) items. The u pper incisor tha t was m issed was relocated un der tramp led grass with the aid

of the Refer ence M ap. In A rea B, the ra ndom pede strian searc h mis sed 1 4 of 2 00 (9 3 %) ite ms, p rima rily

smaller pieces such as individual hand and feet elements. When a subsequent straight-line search was

conducted, all 200 items in Area B were eventually located.

2. Duration o f Mapping Efforts: The to tal time requ ired to com plete the searc h, docum entation an d recovery

-6-
efforts for all areas of the mock crash site were carefully noted with respect to eventually determining

efficiency of the mapping effort.

The pro cessing of Area A, whic h incorp orated the new ly propo sed m ethodo logy, req uired ap proxim ately 2.5 hours

for the in tensive searc h of the 0.6 a cre area (Step 1), approxim ately 3 hours to map with the elect ronic total station

(Step 2), and approximately 1.5 hours to photograph document (Step 3) and remove the physical evidence (Step 4). It is

reiterated that these activities proceeded concurrently and the total time from search commencem ent to removal of

the last item from the scene was approximately 4 hours.

The processing of the three subsections in Area B took considerably longer to complete due to the fact that search and

documentation activities did not occur concurrently. As a result, the baseline mapping section required approximately

8.5 hours to complete, the grid mapping section required approximately 9.5 hours, and the dumpy level transit section

required approximately 11.5 hours.

3. Accuracy of Mapp ing Efforts: The accuracy o f the plotted po ints generate d by the tota l station are

unquestioned and fall within millimeters or less. This accuracy remained even when the instrument was

moved from loca tion to locatio n. The coord inates for ea ch item do cumente d by the three mappin g teams in

Area B w as eventua lly plotted on a larg e hand-draw n map in th e MAI Fore nsic Anthrop ology Lab oratory. This

allowed for a comparison of item location to the first total station generated map as an assessment of

accuracy. An attempt was made to determinhee trange and average distance between the points on the

two maps when overlain upon one another. By far, the most accurate item plots were obtained by the dumpy

level. Inac curacie s in item location amo unted to an ave rage of ca. 2.16 ± 2.20 inches (ra nge of 0 .005 to 10.1

in ). The area that appears to have produced the least accurate plots was the 5 x 5 m grid section of Area B.

A mean error of ca. 3.6 ± 3.2 in (range of 0.24 to 12.5 in) was noted. The section of Area B that was plotted

using a b aseline m ethod a verage d 3.0 ± 1 .28 in erro r (range o f 0.005 to 5.81 in).

Area B plot inaccuracies can be attributed to two different but associated problems: 1) human error in the initial

field recording process due to inexperience in the technique or the instrument; and 2) mechanical inaccuracies due

to limitations in the mapping instrument technology.

Test of the New Methodologies

Only a week after the com pletion of the training seminar described above, several of the FBI-ER T mem bers
involved in the seminar had the opportunity to test the new protocol at an actual disaster scene, following the
tragic crash ofthe aircraft carrying Missouri governor Melvin P. Carnahan. The recovery of physical evidence and
human remains from the crash of Governor Melvin P. Carnahan s aircraft proceeded over the course of several
days (17 -22 Oc tober 20 00). Th e investiga tion team , which inc luded m emb ers of the NTS B, MSH P, and F BI-

-7-
ERT, largely followed the new recovery protocol described above; several members of the team had been
trained in the new protocol less than a week before. Due to the physical limitations of the crash site (a steep,
slippery area with heavy tree cover and rain immediately following the crash) and the politically sensitive nature
of the case, certain modifications were made to the standard methodology. Because of the terrain and the need
for rapid recovery, the site was divided into arbitrary sectors rather than a square grid, with the corners of each
sector plotted using the electronic total station. Also, the investigative team decided to focus their efforts on a
100% collection of human remains as quickly as possible, with collection of noncritical inorganic debris being
carr ied ou t in a les s sys tem atic m ann er. A s eco nd et s wa s em ployed for th e pur pos e of d ocu me nting debr is, in
order to facilitate the rapid collection of both human and nonhuman evidence from the scene; the data from the
two ets records were later combined to form a composite map.

Apart from these variations, the investigation proceeded acc ording to the protocol laid out above, with a four-
step recovery and docum entation team. Following the initial documentation and recovery process, seco ndary
and tertiary s earche s with cad aver do gs and meta l detectors were ca rried out in or der to en sure the accura te
collection of all human remains and critical nonhuman debris. Representatives of the NTSB and FBI-ERT who
participated in the recovery of the scene, were extremely pleased with the results of the investigation, and
indica ted th at the new proto col w as inv aluab le in co llectin g all im porta nt evid enc e and hum an re ma ins. T his
suc ces sful te st of th e new inves tigativ e pro toco l, partic ularly in diffic ult terr ain an d rus hed circu ms tanc es, c learly
demonstrates the utility of the method and its value in disaster-scene investigations.

Conclusions

The goal of the project was to develop and test a new search, documentation and recovery methodology applicable to

the processing of physical evidence associated with mass fatality incidents on land. When implemented, the new

protocols will result in the effective and efficient processing of these very large and complicated forensic scenes. The

protocol addresses a number of important aspects with respect to these types of localities

1. Benefits accrued through the m ore intensive search strategy: Tw o of the primary goa ls of a mass fatality

response operation are to positively identify all of the victims and to accomplish this as quickly as possible.

Pressure on the disaster response team is particularly intense and comes from the families, the airline

involved, politicians, and the media. An important concern, therefore, is to remove human biological remains

from the in cident locality a s quickly and a s complet ely as possible. C urrent hum an rema ins recovery

strate gies c onsis t of ra ndom walk overs that re sult in in com plete lo catio n of m ateria l and m ultiple

opportunities to disturb evidence. Biological material may be exposed to the elements (and decompositional

forces) for days or even weeks before it is located. It might even be missed entirely. Further, the removal of

remains from the scene may be delayed for days until searches are completed (i.e., very few new locator

flags are set).

-8-
The protocol proposed herein requires a very intensive and thoro ugh search strategy in wh ich the goal is to

locate all of the remains on the surface during the first pedestrian sweep. Subsequent search sweeps will be

used to locate limited numbers of previously buried or hidden items. These searches can even be completed

with the aid of cadaver dogs. Though the search is time and manpower intensive, the documentation and

subsequent recovery of material can commence almost immediately after the search begins and is not

delayed as described above. Processing of remains in the morgue can begin nearly coincidentally with the

comm encem ent of th e search .

2. Benefits accrued through the utilization of the total station: The total station can note the location of

evidence e xtremely p recisely (within m illimeters and in th ree-dimens ions) and rap idly. In addition, this

distrib ution al dat a can be use d to cr eate p lots of evide nce di stribu tion (w hethe r hum an rem ains, v ehicle

parts, or even personal effe cts), natural featu res (trees, buildings, e tc.), and topog raphic ma ps of the terra in

of the site. One comprehensive map or Individual maps of specific classes of physical evidence (human

remains, vehicle parts, topography) can be generated from the same data collection episode. These maps can

theoretical aid investigators in developing more comprehensive and accurate reconstructions of the mass

fatalit y incid ent, a s well a s aidin g in the perso nal ide ntifica tion p roces s. For e xam ple, dis tributi on of vehic le

parts may provide clues to impact orientation, discrete fragmented human remains of one individual may be

associated, personal effects may be linked to specific victims, and more precise reconstruction of the original

positions of particular individuals (such as crew members) may be presented.

As noted above, the total station operator assigns unique designations (based on the instrument-generated sequence

numbers) to the documented items, eliminating the possibility of duplicate Field Specimen number assignments, a

problem that often plagues most conventional mass fatality scene recoveries.

If the area is large or the view for the instrument obstructed, the total station can be moved without compromising

the accuracy of data collection. Further, in large operations, multiple total stations can be used to direct data

recovery efforts and collect provenience data. The data from multiple electronic total statio ns can easily be co mbin

ed (m erely b y sho oting -in a co mm on ref erenc e poin t), thus dram atica lly increasing the efficiency of the

recovery process without compromising the effectiveness.

3. Benefits accrued by the photographic documention and collection teams: The new protocol calls for

improved documentation of the physical evidence at a mass fatality locality not only through the

st anda rdi zed use of t he t otal st ati on b ut i mpr ovem ents in the pho tog raph ic do cume nta tion of all it ems

recovered. Improvement in this area of the mass fatality recovery includes: 1) all photographs will include

prism targets, scales and north arrows and will be shot at a standardized height (photographer height or even

a unique camera mount rig) and orientation (parallel to the ground surface), 2) comprehensive written and/or

-9-
verbal nota tions of eac h discrete Field S pecimen will be taken; a nd 3) multiple p hotograp hic and vide ographic

formats (including but not restricted to 35 mm slide, prints, or digital images) can be accommodated. Digital

or digitized images are particularly useful in Geographical Information System (GIS) presentations of the

scene documentation.

4. Scene Processing Efficiency: The sequencing of the four steps of the new protocol (from initial search

through eventual recovery of physical evidence) makes the processing of the scene very efficient. The four

recovery tea ms, describe d above, fo llow one an other during th e processing of the scene in a very spec ific

sequence that commences almost immediately after a previous team has completed its assigned task.

Although the individual com ponents o f the new p rotocol are m ore intensive t han is found in most rec overy

strateg ies, the se quencin g actua lly results in a reduced total do cume ntation duratio n.

Given the situation that: 1) the total station operator alone assigns unique Field Specimen numbers; and 2)

this number remains with the item until the evidence recovery team removes the provenience markers,

opport unities to confus e prove nience a re reduc ed dram atically.

In summary, the new mass fatality scene processing protocol was designed with the goal to create a

methodology that allows for the efficient and effective recovery of all physical evidence associated with the

mass fatality incident in such a m anner that huma n error is minimized and the o pportunity to identify

victims, as well as possible causes of the incident is maximized.

References Cited

Dirkmaat, D.C.

1995 New Methodologies for Search and Recovery. In Disaster Management News. December, pp. 1-2.

Dirkmaa t, D.C. and J.M . Adovasio

1997 The Role of Archaeology in the Recovery and Interpretation of Human Remains from an Outdoor

Forensic Setting. In Forensic Taphonomy: The Postmortem Fate of Human Remains, pp. 39-64, edited

by William D. Haglund and Marcella H. Sorg. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

Jensen, Robert A.

2000 Mass Fatality and Casualty Incidents: A Field Guide. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

Mercyhurst Archaeologica l Institute

1994 AutoCAD map of USAir Flight 427 crash site, Hopewell Township, Beaver County, Pennsylvania.

Prepared for the National Transportation Safety Board. On file.

-10-
-11-