Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Theories on Origin:
1. Creationism
2. Spontaneous Generation/Abiogenesis
3. Biogenesis
4. Chemical Evolution
5. Panspermia
Branches of Biology:
Microbiology – microorganisms
Botany – plants
Zoology – animals
Mycology – fungi
Phycology – algae
Taxonomy – naming and classifying organisms
Cytology – cells
Embryology – formation & development of organisms
Anatomy – structures and body parts
Physiology – functions of organisms and its parts
Biochemistry– biological composition
Genetics – heredity and variation
Evolution – origin of organisms
Ecology – relationship of organisms w/ the environment
Molecular Biology – molecules that make up the cells
Genomics – genetic material (DNA)
Proteomics – different proteins
Immunology – immune system
Bioinformatics – biological data using computer programs
Biotechnology
application of biological concepts to make beneficial products
uses basic molecules of life to make new products
used in business, agriculture, bioremediation, food processing, energy production, medicine,
pharmaceuticals
A. Divine Creation
Malakas at Maganda (PH Version)
B. Spontaneous Generation
“abiogenesis”
life from non-living or inanimate objects
proposed by Aristotle
believed by many for at least 2,000 years
life came from pre-existing life
proven through a series of experiments
Francesco Redi (1668) Lazzaro Spallanzani (1767)
John Needham (1748) Louis Pasteur (1861)
LAW OF BIOGENESIS
a) Francesco Redi: life came from living matter and not from spontaneous generation.
b) John Needham: life was caused by spontaneous generation; he did not heat the broth
long enough to kill the microorgansims.
c) Lazzaro Spallanzani: life came from living matter; but there is no oxygen in his set-up.
Year Event
1668 Francesco Redi attacks spontaneous generation and disproves it for large organisms.
John Needham adds chick broth to a flask and boils it, lets it cool and waits. Microbes
1745
grow and he proposes it is an example of spontaneous generation.
Lazzaro Spallanzani repeats Needham’s experiment, but removes all the air from the flask.
1768
No growth occurs.
1859 Louis Pasteur’s swan-neck flasks show that spontaneous generation does not occur.
Thomas H. Huxley gives his “Biogenesis and Abiogenesis” lecture. The speech offered
1870 powerful support for Pasteur’s claim to have experimentally disproved spontaneous
generation.
John Tyndall publishes his method for fractional sterilization, showing the existence of
1877
heat-resistant bacterial spores.
C. Chemical Evolution
proposed by Alexander Oparin and John
Haldane
life came from inorganic molecules that
were converted by lightning to organic
molecules which became the precursor
for formation of first cells
D. Panspermia/Cosmozoic Theory
proposed by Svante Arrhenius
life was formed in outer space and were transported to Earth through meteors or cosmic
dust
Key Points
For many centuries many people believed in the concept of spontaneous generation, the
creation of life from organic matter.
Francesco Redi disproved spontaneous generation for large organisms by showing that
maggots arose from meat only when flied laid eggs in the meat.
Spontaneous generation for small organisms again gained favor when John Needham showed
that if a broth was boiled (presumed to kill all life) and then allowed to sit in the open air, it
became cloudy.
Louis Pasteur ended the debate with his famous swan-neck flask experiment, which allowed air
to contact the broth. Microbes present in the dust were not able to navigate the tortuous bends
in the neck of the flask.
BIOLOGY PIONEERS
1. Aristotle
1st biology teacher
Father of Biology and Zoology
2. Hippocrates
Father of Medicine
Hippocratic Oath for doctors (part of his life-long legacy)
3. Leeuwenhoek Dutch
his hobby was lens grinding
he did not invent the microscope, he perfected microscope lenses
first person to see:
bacteria
protozoans
red blood cells
sperm cells
he did not support spontaneous generation
4. Lister
hospital conditions were dirty and infectious so he used phenol as a disinfectant
Father of Aseptic Surgery
5. Fleming
accidentally discovered first antibiotic (penicillin)
6. Salk
developed 1st polio vaccine injection (1955)
didn’t patent vaccine, didn’t want to profit from his discovery
7. Sabin
developed oral polio vaccine (1959)
Vaccines are weakened forms of diseases that tricks body into making antibodies
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
a) Metabolism: Gathering and Using Energy
chemical and physical reactions within the body that allows organisms to grow and
maintain its structures
enables organisms to acquire energy and nutrients in order to sustain themselves
nutrient uptake, processing and waste elimination
Catabolism – breaking down of organic matter to harvest energy and molecules
Anabolism – use of energy to build up molecules (ex. photosynthesis)
b) Irritability
capability of an organism to respond to stimuli or external factors like light, temperature,
pressure, sound, presence of chemical substances, food sources, etc.
c) Motility
possible with the use of locomotor organs
examples: microorganisms, plants, animals/humans
organisms tend to move in search for food, reproduction and response to the changing
environment
d) Adaptation: Survival of the Fittest
capability of an organism to make adjustments to changes in the environment
fundamental process in evolution which led to the diversity of life
e) Evolution: Change is Permanent
evolution – changes in characteristics of a group of organisms over time
evolutionary adaptation – gradual or rapid change in body structure or behavior to be
suited and to survive a new environment
f) Reproduction: Continuation of Life
production of new cells from cell division (unicellular organisms)
production of new individuals, either sexually or asexually which is necessary for the
perpetuation of the existences of species
Sexual: use of two individuals contributing their sex cells to produce a unique individual
of their kind.
Asexual: an organism makes copies of itself; common in lower life forms.
g) Growth & Development: It’s Inevitable
Growth – increase in all parts of the body brought about by increase in tissues, coupled
with cell division or cell enlargement.
Development – defined stages in an organism’s life cycle which are accompanied by
changes.
h) Heredity: Unity Amidst Diversity
DNA – molecule of life that carries the instruction for assembling protein that is responsible
for variations (eye, hair or skin color).
i) Organization of Life: It’s All a Heirarchy
atom biosphere
living organisms are now classified into six kingdoms: Bacteria, Archaea, Protista, Plantae,
Fungi, Animalia
divided into three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya
j) Homeostasis: Keeping it Balanced
ability of an organism to maintain a constant internal environment despite the changes
in the external environment
sweating, goose pimples/goosebumps, ear-popping, shivering
FUNCTIONS OF A CELL
basic unit of life
synthesis of molecules
communication
cell metabolism and energy release
reproduction and inheritance (DNA)
Cell Structure
Organelles: specialized structures in cells that perform specific functions; ex. Nucleus,
Mitochondria, Ribosomes, etc.
Cytoplasm: jelly-like substance that holds organelles
CELL MEMBRANE
outermost component of a cell
Functions: selective barrier, encloses cytoplasm
Extracellular: material outside cell
Intracellular: material inside cell
CELL
Prokaryotic: False Nucleus; Bacteria; Archaebacteria
Eukaryotic: True Nucleus; Plants; Animals; Fungi; Protists
Organelles
Membrane Transport: Passive - Diffusion and Facilitated Diffusion; Active - Transport Proteins
and Vesicular Proteins
CELL THEORY
all living things are made up of cells
cells are the basic units of structure and function in an organism – new cells are produced from
existing cells
Apoptosis: ensures the proper development and to keep the body’s natural process of mitosis.
Matthias Schleiden
all plants are made up of cells
Theodore Schwann
all animals are made up of cells
Rudolf Virchow
cells came from pre-existing cells
Prokaryotic Cells
“before the nucleus” (pro – before; karyon – kernel/nucleus)
oldest living organisms
most numerous
smaller and simpler in structure
has a nucleoid (not bounded by a membrane)
do not have membranous organelles
do not contain histones
Shapes of Bacteria:
Cocci: spherical
Bacilli: rod-shaped
Sporchaete: spiral-shaped
Vibrio: comma-shaped
Eukaryotic Cells
“true nucleus” (eu – true; karyon – kernel/nucleus)
with nucleus bounded by a membrane
contains other membrane-bound organelles
more complex
mostly multicellular, few unicellular
Cell Membrane
squishy
encloses cell contents
monitors what comes in/out
Cytoplasm
water and nutrients
cytoskeleton – made up of microtubules, filaments and intermediate filaments; gives the cell its
shape (animal cells)
Centrosomes
assemble microtubules
contains centrioles (in animal cells)
Ribosomes
Amino Acids - Polypeptides
Golgi Apparatus
protein processing and packaging
sends products out
Vesicles
phospholipid membranes
ship golgi body products
vesicular transport
cytosis “cell action”
Lysosome
cell digestion
enzyme sacks
Cell waste: building material
Nucleus
stores the cell's DNA
makes cell laws
uses DNA to make laws
Chromatin
holds DNA
Cell division: Chromosomes
Nucleolus
makes RNA
m(essenger)RNA: Ribosomes
Mitochondria
respiration
energy: ATP
Cell Wall
surrounds plasma membrane
made of cellulose and lignin (very tough)
Plastids
make and store needed compounds
plastids and mitochondria started as bacteria
Chloroplasts
most important Plastids
Light: Sugar and Oxygen
Thylakoid: 1
Grana: Group
Stroma: Space
Central Vacuole
push water in the vacuole
turgor pressure created
reinforces the plant
Nucleus
headquarters
genetic information
activities director
Osmosis
osmosis
molecules go through a semipermeable membrane
just water
molecules move around to create equilibrium
Diffusion
molecules spread out over a large area
everything but water
molecules move around to create equilibrium
Passive Transport: Facilitated Diffusion
passive transport of molecules across the membrane via specific channel proteins
Active Transport
the movement of molecules across a cell membrane in the direction against their
concentration gradient
requires the use of ATP
Phagocytosis
“to devour” (cell eating)
even protists, like amoeba perform phagocytosis
“to drink” (cell drinking)
Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
an endocytotic mechanism in which specific molecules are ingested into the cell (ex.
Cholesterol)
receptors on the plasma membrane of the target tissue will specifically bind to the molecules
located outside of the cell
DNA-DNA DNA-RNA
Friedrich Meischer
studied white blood cells by collecting used bandages from hospitals
used alcohol to dissolve lipids and enzymes that break down proteins then noticed a gray object
left (“nuclein”)
Rosalind Franklin
first to confirm the helical structure of DNA
x-ray diffraction
not recognized for her work
DNA REPLICATION
Helicase – unzipping enzyme
DNA Polymerase – building enzyme
Primase – initiating enzyme
Ligase – glue-ing enzyme
GENETIC CODE
Photosynthesis
process of converting light energy to chemical
energy and storing it in the form of glucose
(sugar)
PHOTOSYNTHESIS EQUATION
Cellular Respiration
process by which the chemical energy from nutrients is released and partially captured in the
form of ATP
sugars (glucose) are converted into usable energy (ATP)
Photosynthesis vs Cellular Respiration
Glycolysis
breakdown of glucose
takes place in the cytoplasm
with or without oxygen
2 ATP
2 pyruvates
2 NADH
Krebs Cycle
TCA (Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle) or Citric Acid Cycle
pyruvic is broken down into carbon dioxide
takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria
requires oxygen
2 ATP
8 NADH
2 FADH2
6CO2
Why 36 or 38?
depends on which shuttle that is used to transport the electrons from glycolysis into the
mitochondria
if malate-aspartate shuttle – 38 ATP will be produced (trades cytoplasmic NADH for
mitochondrial NADH)
if phosphero-glycerol shuttle – 36 ATP is produced (trades cytoplasmic NADH for mitochondrial
FADH2)
NADH yields 3 ATP which would result to 38 ATP if malate shuttle is used. FADH2 yields 2 ATP
resulting to 36 ATP if the phosphero-glycerol shuttle is used.
Cellular Respiration
Cell Cycle
repetitive pattern of growth and division that occurs in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
Interphase
“living” phase of the cell
cell obtain nutrients, respires, grows, transcribe
its DNA, protein synthesis
non-dividing stage
Chromosome
Haploid (n) = 23
Diploid (2n) = 46
46 chromosomes in humans
o 23 pairs
22 pairs of autosomal chromosomes
1 pair of sex chromosomes (allosomes): X and Y
male: 46 XY
female: 46 XX
Mitosis
division of the mother cell into two daughter cells with the same amount and quality of
genetic material (2 identical daughter cells)
for somatic cells
Meiosis
cell division which produces gametes (egg and sperm cells)
takes place in the testes and ovary
reductional (diploid to haploid)
the union of haploids in fertilization maintains the chromosome set (diploid of the species)
results to 4 genetically different cells
Gametogenesis
production of gametes
o Spermatogenesis: sperm production at the testes; 4 sperm cells
o Oogenesis: egg cell production at the ovary; 1 egg cell, 3 polar bodies
Mitosis vs Meiosis
The purpose of mitosis is to increase the number of cells. The purpose of meiosis is to produce
gametes. They are different ways of cell division and reproduction.
Genetic Disorders
non-disjunction
failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate properly during cell
division
aneuploidy – not normal number of chromosomes
o monosomy – presence of only one chromosome from a pair
o trisomy – additional chromosome
Discovery 2: Transmutation
Jean Baptiste de Lamarck
Around 1800, scientists began to wonder whether species could change or transmute.
Lamarck though that if an animal acquired a characteristic during its lifetime, it could pass it
onto its offspring.
Hence, giraffes got their long necks through generations of straining to reach high branches.
Discovery 7: Genetics
Mendel and his peas
From 1856-63, a monk called Gregor Mendel cultivated 29,000 pea plants to investigate how
evolution worked i.e., how characteristics were passed down the generations.
He figured out the basic principles of genetics. He showed that offspring received
characteristics from both parents, but only the dominant characteristic trait was expressed.
Mendel’s work only came to light in 1900, long after his death.
Discovery 9: Opposition
Despite the achievable of scientific consensus on evolution, some Christian groups continued
to oppose the concept.
In 1925, the teaching of evolution was outlawed in Tennessee, USA, resulting in the infamous
Scopes Monkey Trial.
Evidence 1: Biochemistry
The basic similarity of all living things suggests that they evolved from a single common
ancestor.
As we have already seen, all living things pass on information from generation to generation
using the DNA molecule.
All living things also use a molecule called ATP to carry energy around the organism.
Evidence 4: Homology
The pentadactyl limb is ancestral to all vertebrates but modified for different uses.
Evidence 8: Geography
Geographic spread of organisms also tells of their past evolution.
Marsupials occur in two populations today in the Americas and Australia.
This shows the group evolved before the continents drifted apart.
ORGAN SYSTEMS
Tissues
group of cells with similar structure and function plus extracellular substance (matrix)
Histology: study of tissues
Types of Tissues
1. Epithelial Tissues
Location: cover body (internal and
external)
skin, kidney, trachea, glands
cells close together
form most glands
have free surface
Functions:
Protect (skin)
Act as a barrier (skin keeps bacteria out)
Diffusion and filtration (lungs and kidneys)
Secretion (sweat glands)
Absorption (small intestine)
2. Connective Tissues
cells are far apart
contain large amounts of extracellular matrix
classified based on type of extracellular matrix and function
extracellular matrix contains 3 components: protein fibers, ground substance, fluid
ground substance: proteins and sugars
Functions:
enclose and separate (around
organs and muscles)
connect tissues (Tendons: bone to
muscle; ligaments: bone to bone)
support and movement (bones)
storage (bones store calcium and
adipose tissue stores fat)
cushion and insulate (adipose
tissue protects organs and helps
conserve heat)
transport (blood)
protect (immune cells)
Cartilage
type of connective tissue
composed of chondrocytes
contains collagen
withstands compressions
provides support, flexibility, strength
Blood
liquid connective tissue
erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets
transport food, oxygen, waste, hormones
3. Nervous Tissue
consist of neurons or nerve cells
found in brain, spinal cord and peripheral nerves
controls and coordinates body movements
includes axons, dendrites and cell bodies
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
Skin
weighs 9 lbs
used to determine body fat
2 main regions: epidermis and dermis
Functions:
protection (water loss, microbes, UV light)
sensation (hot, cold, pain, pressure)
temperature regulation (helps maintain homeostasis)
excretion (removes waste)
vitamin D production (UV light stimulates production)
Epidermis
1st major skin region (outside)
composed of stratified squamous epithelium
Keratinization: process in which new cells (with keratin) push old cells to surface
Dermis
2nd major skin region (middle)
dense connective tissue
contains collagen and elastic fibers
contains fibroblasts, nerve endings, smooth muscle, glands, blood vessels, and hair follicles
Cleavage lines: area where skin is most resistant to stretching; due to orientation of collagen
fibers; important in scarring
Hypodermis
below dermis
foundation of skin
attaches skin to underlying bone and muscle
contains loose and adipose tissue
½ of body’s fat
SKELETAL SYSTEM
Functions:
support
protect
movement
storage
blood cell production
Components:
a. Bone
b. Cartilage – reduce friction and model for bone formation
c. Tendons – attach bone to muscle
d. Ligaments – attach bone to bone
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
muscle tissue is specialized for contraction
contraction moves the body and body parts
3 types: skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, cardiac muscle
NERVOUS SYSTEM
Functions:
sensory input (sensory receptors respond to stimuli)
integration (brain and spinal cord process stimuli)
control of muscles and glands
mental activity (brain)
homeostasis
Main Divisions:
1. Central Nervous System (CNS) – brain and spinal cord
2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) – 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves
Neuron Structures:
1. Dendrite: receives stimulus from other neurons or sensory receptors
2. Cell body: processes stimulus, contains a nucleus
3. Axon: transmits stimulus to a gland, muscle, organ, or other neuron
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Functions:
controls homeostasis regulates metabolism and growth
maintains water balance regulates heart rate and blood pressure
controls uterine contractions monitors blood glucose levels
controls milk production aids the immune system
regulates ions (calcium, sodium, reproductive functions
potassium)
Components:
1. Endocrine glands: secrete their product directly into the bloodstream
2. Chemical signal: molecules that are released from one location, move to another location,
and produce a response
Types of Chemical Signals
a. Intracellular: produce in one part of a cell and move to another part of the same cell
b. Intercellular: released from one cell and bind to receptors on another cell
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
Functions:
regulates blood supply
generates blood pressure
routes blood
ensures 1-way blood flow
Blood Vessels
carry blood
exchange nutrients, waste products, gases within tissues
transport substances
regulate blood pressure
direct blood to flow to tissues
Blood Flow
blood flows from arteries into arterioles
arterioles into capillaries
capillaries into venules
venules to small veins
veins return to heart
Vessel Structures:
Arteries
carry blood away from heart
thick with a lot of elastic
Veins
carry blood toward heart
thick with less elastic
Capillaries
exchange occurs between blood and tissue fluids
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
Components:
Lymph – fluid that enters lymphatic capillaries composed of water and some solutes
Lymphocytes
Lymphatic vessels
Lymph nodes
Tonsils
Spleen
Thymus gland
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Nose
External Nose: composed mainly of hyaline cartilage
Nasal Cavity: extends from nares (nostrils) to choane; choane – openings to pharynx; hard palate is
its roof
Functions of Nose:
filters
airway for respiration
involved in speech
olfactory receptors
warms air
sneezing dislodges materials from nose
Pharynx
throat
common passageway for resp and dig systems
Nasopharynx: takes in air
Oropharynx: extends from uvula to epiglottis; takes in food, drink, air
Laryngopharynx: extends from epiglottis to esophagus; food and drink pass through
Lower Respiratory Tract:
Larynx
o in front of throat, consists of cartilage
o Thyroid cartilage: largest piece, Adam’s apple
o Epiglottis: piece of cartilage; flat that prevents swallowed materials from entering
larynx
o Vocal folds/cords: source of voice production; air moves past, vibrates, produce
sounds; force of air determine loudness; tension determines pitch
Trachea
o windpipe
o contains cilia pseudostratified columnar epi
o smoking kills cilia
o coughing dislodges materials from trachea
o divides into right and left primary bronchi (lungs)
Bronchi
o divide from trachea
o connect to lungs
o lined with cilia
o contain C shaped pieces of cartilage
Lungs
o primary organ of respiration
o cone shaped
o rest on diaphragm
o right lung – 3 lobes
o left lung – 2 lobes
o contains many air passageways (divisions)
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Teeth
32 in normal adult
incisors, canine, premolars, molars, wisdom
20 primary teeth (baby teeth)
each tooth has a crown, cusp, neck, root
center of tooth is pulp cavity
enamel is hard covering protects against abrasions
cavities are breakdown of enamel by acids from bacteria
Salivary Glands
includes submandibular, sublingual, parotid
produce saliva
contains enzymes to breakdown food
mumps is an inflammation of parotid gland
Esophagus
tube that connects pharynx to stomach
transport food to stomach
joins stomach at cardiac opening
Heartburn
o occurs when gastric juices regurgitate into esophagus
o caused by caffeine, smoking, or eating or drinking in excess
Stomach
located in the abdomen
storage tank for food
can hold up to 2 liters of food
produces mucus, hydrochloric acid, protein digesting enzymes
contains a thick mucus layer that lubricates and protects epithelial cells on stomach wall form
acidic pH (3)
Small Intestine
6m in length
major absorptive organ
chyme takes 3-5 hours to pass through
contains enzymes to further breakdown food
contains secretions for protection against chyme’s acidity
Large Intestine
absorb water from indigestible food
contains cecum, colon, rectum, anal canal
Cecum: joins small intestine at ileocecal junction; has appendix attached
Appendix: 9cm structure that is often removed
Liver
digestive and excretory functions
stores and processes nutrients
detoxifies harmful chemicals
synthesizes new molecules
secretes 700ml of bile each day
Bile: dilutes and neutralizes stomach acid and breaks
down fats
Pancreas
located posterior to stomach and inferior part or left
upper quadrant
head near midline of body
tail extends to left and touches spleen
endocrine tissues have pancreatic islet that produce
insulin and glucagon
exocrine tissues produce digestive enzymes
URINARY SYSTEM
Functions:
excretion
blood volume and blood pressure control
pH regulation
concentration of solutes
vit D production
red blood cell concentration
Components:
2 kidneys
2 ureters
1 urinary bladder
1 urethra
Kidney
shape and size: bean-shaped, weighs 5 oz.
between 12th thoracic and 3rd lumbar vertebra
Nephron
functional unit of kidneys
over 1 million/kidney
Ureters
small tubes that carry urine from renal pelvis of kidney to bladder
Urinary Bladder
in pelvic activity
stores urine
can hold a few ml to a max. of 1000 ml
Urethra
tube that exits bladder
carries urine from urinary bladder to outside of body
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Functions:
production of gametes
fertilization
development and nourishment of new individuals
production of sex hormones
Gametes
sex cells
sperm in males
oocytes (eggs) in females
Meiosis
special type of cell division that leads to formation of sex cells
Each sperm cell and each oocyte contains 23 chromosomes.
Fertilization
union of sperm and oocyte
Zygote
what develops after fertilization
develops into an embryo 3-14 days after fertilization
Embryo
14-56 days after fertilization
Fetus
56 days after fertilization
ECOLOGY
Ecology – study of interactions between organisms and their environments, focusing on energy
transfer; science of relationships.
Community - several interacting populations that inhabit a common environment and are
interdependent.
Ecosystem - populations in a community and the abiotic factors with which they interact (ex. marine,
terrestrial).
Biosphere - life supporting portions of Earth composed of air, land, fresh water, and salt water.
Niche
Habitat
Limiting factor - any biotic or abiotic factor that restricts the existence of organisms in a specific
environment. (amount of water, amount of food, temperature, amount of space, availability of
mates)