AJ Handbook of

Building Structure

EDITED BY Allan Hodgkinson

The Architectural Press, London

-.

AJ Handbook of Building Structure Introduction
Allan Hodgkinson
Consultant editor and authors
The consultant editor for the Handbook is Allan Hodgkinson
MEng, FICE, FIStrUCtE, MCOnSE,, Principal of Allan Hodgkin-
son &, Associates, consulting civil and structural engineers.
Allan Hodgkinson has been the AJ consultant for structural
design since 1951;he is a frequent AJ contributor and is the
author of various sections of this handbook.
The authors of Lach section will be credited at the start of
the section of the Handbook in which their material appears.
The original Architeck’ Journal articles wero edited by
Esmond Reid, BArCh, and John RlcKean, BArCh, MA, ARIBA,
ACIA, ARIAS.
The frontispiece illttstralaon shows one o f the most
magnificent builrlitq structures from the era of the Eiffel
Tower, the Forth Bridge and the great railway stations.
The Palais des Machines for the Paris Exhibition of 1889
(Contarnin, Pierron (e: Charton, engineers) was a pioneer
example of three hinged arches.
Preface to the second edition
There have been considerable changes in some British
Standards, Codes of Practice, and Building Regulations
sinco 1974;and unlike the reprints of 1976 and 1977, this is
a substantially revised and updated re-issue of the now
well-established AJ Handbook of Building Structure.
The principal changes are in the sections on Masonry (re-
written to take account of the 197F Building Regnl nt’ions,
and the new BS 5628 ‘limit state’ code of practice); and on
Timber (substantially revised to take account of the new
timber gradings).
Steel handbooks have been replaced for a11 types of struc-
tural sections; and technical study Steel 3 has therefore
been revised accordingly.
In gcnernl, the new ‘limit state’ npproach bo design is tlis-
cussed (eg in the seciion on JIasonry); but in VICW of the
rcjcction of tho limit state Codes and draft Codcs in their
present form, by the majority of practical designcrs, it has
been thought prudent to retain the allowable stress methods
of design as the basis of the handbook.
Finally, it should be mentioned that tho opportunity has
boon taken to bring all rcfercnccs i n this Handbook up to
dato; and to correct a number of misprints of the first edition.
ISBN 0 85139 273 3 (paperbound)
First published in book form in 1974 by
The Architec;ural Press Limited London
Reprinted 1976, 1077
Second edition 1980, 1982, 1983
Printed i n Great Britain by
Mackays of Chatham Ltd
I
4 .
This handbook
Scope
Thoro arc two underlying themos in this new handbook on
building structure. First, the architect and engineer hnvo
complementary roles which cannot be separatod. A main
objoct of this handbook is to allow tho architect to talk
intelligontly to his engineer, to apprcciatc his skills and to
undorstand tho reasons for his decisions. Socond, thu
building must always bo scon as a whole, wheru the succcss-
fill conclusion is thc result of optimiscd decisions. A balancc
of planning, structure or services docisions may not ncccs-
sarily provide tlio cheapest or best solution from any of
theso soparato standpoints, but the wholo building should
provido tho right solution within both tho client’s brief and
his budget.
Tho handbook provides a reviow of tho wholo structural
field. It includes soctions on movemont in buildings, fire
protection, and structural lcgislation, where philosophy of
dosign is discusssed from the firm base of practical cxperi-
once. Foundations and spocific structural matorials are also
covered, while sufficient guidance on analysis and design
is givun for the architect t o deal with simplo structures
himself.
Arrangement
Tho handbook doals with its subject in two broad parts.
The ’first deals with building structuro generally, tho second
with the main structural materials individually.
Tho history of the structural designer and a general
survey of his field today is followed by a section on basic
structural analysis. The general part of tho handbook
concludes with scctions on structural safoty-including
deformation, f i e and legislation-and on the sub-structure:
foundations and retaining structures.
Having discussed the overall structure, the sections in the
second part of tho handbook discuss concrete, steelwork,
timber and masonry in much greater detail. Finally them
are sections on composite structures and on new and
innovatory forms of structuro.
Presentation
Information is presentod in three kinds of format: technical
studies, information sheets and a design guide. The technical
studies are intended t o givo background understanding.
They summarisc goncral principles and include information
that is too general for direct application. Information sheets
aro intended to give spocific data that can bo applicd
directly by the dosigncr.
Keywords aro usod for idontifying and niimboring technical
studios and inforination shoots: thus, tochnical study
STRUCTURE 1, information shoot FOUSDATIONS 3, and so on.
The design guido is intondcd to roniind designers of tho
propcr sequence in which decisions rcquirod in the design
process should be takon. It contains concise advice ancl
roforences to detailed information at each stage. This might
seem tho normal starting point, but the guide is published at
the ond of the handbook as i t can be employcd only when
the dosigner fully understands what. has been discussed
earlier.
The gciwral piittern of use, then, is first to read tho relevant
toclinical studies, to undorstand t.ho design aims, t.ho
probleins involved and tho rango of nvailablo solutioiie.,
Tho inforinntion shocts then may be r:s~dhs a design aid, tL
soiirco of dtittx nnd design information. Tho design guide,
acting also as n check list, ensures thnt docisions are t.aken
in tho right, sequenco and that nothing is left out.
AJ Handbook of Building structure Introduction: Section 2 28

Section 2
Structural analysis
Scope
The later sections on foundations and structural materials
are presented in such a way that complex mathematics
ere not essential to an understanding of structural design.
They are intended to give readers a structural awareness,
and an appreciation of structural form; the detailed design
work being carried out by a consulting engineer.
However, information is given on the calculation of simple
structural mombors, and the purpose of this present section
is to provide an clementary knowledge of terms and their
mathematical basis. Detailed examples on the sizing of
members is dealt with under each structural material. This
section covers olomentary statics, the internal conditions
and strengths of materials, beam a n d stiht theory, and
analysis of some typcs of structure.

Author
The author for Section 2 is David Adler BSC DIC MICE, a
civil engineer with varied experience in both consulting
and contracting.

The cover illustration which appears on the previous page

:ompares suapenaion by a single rope, bearing a total lo&d, with
he load borne by two ropes using a pulley. The engraving is
dapted from Leoni’s English translation (1755)of Alberti’s
Ten books on architecture’, and illustrates book VI, chapter VII
David Adler uhich wncerns simple mechanics. /- - ..
29
Technical study
Analysis 1
Statics and strengths
of materiaIs
1 Introduction
1.01 The majority of architects would regard structural
analysis as bcing entirely pure and applied mathematics.
This is not strictly correct. Mathematics is an important tool
but not the only one. The testing of existing structures,
mock-ups and models, and analysis of the results, as well
as photo-elastic methods, provide an alternative approach.
1.02 I n addition, it should be appreciated that the most
abstruse mathematics and the most rigorous analysis can
produce no better answer than the correctness of the basic
assumptions made. Mathematics cannot give all the
answers about a problem any more than an architectural
model will exactly reproduce the appearance of the finished
building. Mathematical analysis, in fact, does construct an
abstract model of the structure. The limitations of the
particular model in each case must always be remembered
by the problem-solver, just as the architect remembers that
the brickwork of his model is actually perspex.
2 Statics
Force
2.01 Force is almost indefinable. It is known mainly by its
effects: acceleration, strain and so on.
2.02 A force has three characteristics: magnitude, direction,
and point of application. I n these respects it can be repre-
sented by a straight line, its length proportional to the
magnitude of the force 1.
2.03 Any two or more forces acting at the same point can
be replaced by one combined force called their resultant.
The magnitude and direction of the resultant can be
obtained by the method known as the parallelogram of
forces 2.
1 Force represented by
straight line. Length is
proportional to magnitude 2 Parallelogram of forces
Technical study Analysis 1 para 1.01 t o 2.08
Section 2 Structural analysis
This w the first of two technical studies by DAVID ADLER,
which provide a simplified mathematical background to
some of the terms used i n the later sections on struclural
materials, and on foundations and retaining walls
..
2.04 Conversely, any force can be ‘resolved’ into separate,
smaller forces called components in given directions. Assu-
ming forces are acting in one plane only, a force P at an
angle 4 with the horizontal xx axis 3, can be resolved into
components P cos 4 for the xx axis and P sin 4 for the YY
axis in the direction of these axes 4.
2.05 Resultants and components of forces are replacements.
Replacements must not be confused with equilibriants which
are described in para 2.12.
Y
P sin q5 P
X
3 Diagram showing 4 Resolution of forces. Force
convention of horizontal xx P is resolved into ita
axis and vertical YY axis horizontal and vertical
components
Moment
2.06 To understand the concept of ‘moment’, first consider
a ‘plane’ system of forces. This is a system which is confined
to two dimensions, and can be represented on a piece of
paper by lines as described in para 2.02. No forces act out
of, or into the plane of the paper.
2.07 The moment of a force about a point is found by
multiplying the magnitude of the force by the distance of
its line of action. Thus in 5, the moment M of force P about
point A, is the product of P, the magnitude of the force, and
the distance d of its line of action from A measured perpen-
dicular to the direction of the line of action.
Thus Moment = Force x distance, or M = P x d
2.08 But, more usually, forces act in three dimensions, in ,
which case point A becomes an axis perpendicular to the
plane of the paper, but the same definition applies.
d‘ \;“ 5 Moment of a force.
Moment is qual to force
P x distanced
Technical study Analysis 1 para 2.09 t o 2.1 7
Couples
2.09 A couple is formed by two forces, equal in magnitude
P, acting in parallel but opposite directions distance d
apart. The moments M of those forces from any point A,
distance x from one of the forces, are given in the formula
below and shown in 6.
D /
6 A couple. Two forces equal
i n magnitude, parallel and
I P opposite in direction
Moment = force x distance x +
force (distance d
-,
distance x)
= force x distanced
or M = P x x + P ( d - x ) = P x d
This value is independent of the position of the point about
which moments are taken. The two forces form a couple or
pure moment. The value of a couple in a given plane is
constant everywhere in that plane.
Equilibrium
2.10 A force P acting on a free body of mass m in space, will
P
result in that body moving with acceleration -.
If a body
m
does not move (or moves with constant speed in a frictionless
environment), then forces acting on that body are said to be
in equilibrium. That is, the resultant of all the forces is zero.
2.11 First consider a very small body, small enough, in fact,
to be a point. This point body is in equilibrium, so that all
the forces acting on it must have zero resultant 7a. Instead
of using the parallelogram of forces, described in para 2.03,
the polygon of forces is used 7b. Alternatively, the com-
ponents of each force can be considered in the x and Y
directions. These components also have zero resultant, and
IM they all act in the same direction, the arithmetical sum
of all the components is zero. in each direction 8. Finding
the components in direction x and summing to zero is
referred to as resolving i n direction x.
b wrresponding polygon of
Jorces. Magnitude and
l a Forces acting at a point direction of forces represented
in equilibrium, therefore by length and direction of
resultant is zero: lines
2.12 If the point body is not in equilibrium, then the forces
on it have a resultant. A force equal in magnitude to this
resultant, but exactly opposite in direction, will cause the
system to be in equilibrium, so this force is called the
epuilibriant. For example, a brick weighing 45 N resting on
a level table-top has a downwards force of 45 N acting on
it 9. It does not move, so the table is supplying an equili-
briant of 45 N upwards. This type of equilibriant is usually
30
called a reaction. This proves the first law of statics which is:
Action and reaction are equal and opposite.
2.13 Now consider a perfectly rigid body of larger dimen-
sions, in space. Forces &FB acting on this body, but unlike
the point body considered earlier, these forces are not all
applied a t one point, but at a number of positions around,
and possibly even inside, the body. These forces can be
resolved in the X, Y ,and z directions*, and the components
in these directions will still sum to zero if the forces are in
equilibrium. This means that the body will not move up,
down, or sideways. There is, however, a further mode of
movement not yet investigated: the body could rotate.
2.14 If the body does not rotate, the moments of the forces
on that body must also be in equilibrium. I n a plane body
(of only two dimensions) moments can be taken about any
point, and the sum of the moments of all the forces will be
zero. I n three dimensions, moments can bo taken about any
axis and the same will be true.
i?
Y
I
I P
3- -.
-X
8 Forces at a point with
weiqht 45N resolution into components
along the xx and YY axeS
9 Ac!ion and reaction are
equal and opposite (first law
of statics)
reaction 45N
9
2.15 Four equations apply to a plane body in equilibrium:
1 and 2: Resolution of forces in two different directions
3 and 4: Moments taken about two different points.
Only three of these four equations are independent. By the
laws of algebra the values of only three unknown quantities
can be discovored. If this is not sufficient to find out all the
forces on the body, the system is said to be statically
indeterminate.
2.16 When considering a body in three dimensions it is
possible to determine:
1 resolution of forces in three directions
2 moments about three axes.
Of these six quantities, any five will give all the information
it is feasible to obtain in this way.
Example
2.1 7 In the example of the plane body shown in 10, discover
the forces necessary to maintain equilibrium horizontally:
P - 100 = 0 (must have zero resultant to maintain
equilibrium)
:. P = 100
*As prevlously explained in fig 3 Xx and YY are the horizontal axis and
vertical axis respectively in one plane only. The zz axis is the third dimension
axls, acting perpendlcular to the other two
31 Technical study Analysis 1 para 2.1 7 t o 3.01

Now take moments about point X,the intersection of forces the mass of the body werc concentrated at this point, its
P and Q: bohaviour under outside forces would be the same.
R x 6 - 100 x 3 = 0
.’. R = 50 Example
Finally, resolve vertically: 2.20 A convenient type of rigid body to use as an example
R-Q=O is a retaining wall. Assume that thc a.ctua1wall is quite long,
.‘. Q = It but that a slicc is taken from the middle, of unit length 15.
But R = 50
.’. Q = 50 2.21 There are only three forces on this slice of wall:
I n this examplo there wero throe unknown forces, P, Q and 1 its own weight W, acting a t the centre of gravity of the
R so that three equations wore sufficient to find their slice
mag nit udes . 2 pressure of the earth behind the wall P : soil mechanics
theory indicatcs that this pressure is likely to act as shown
Forces and moments: Summary in 15.
2.18 Three facts are self-evident and important to remember: 3 the reaction under the foot of the wall R.
1 Two forces in equilibrium must be equal in magnitude 2.22 These three forces must pass through one point; the
and opposite in direction at tho same point of application 11 reaction must thereforc pass through the intersection of the
2 Three forcos in equilibrium must pass through a point weight W and thc earth pressure P. The magnitude and
(if tho lines of action are extended far enough). Their direction of this reaction is obtained from the triangle of
magnitudes must conform to the triangle of forces, 12 forces (see also 12). If this reaction as drawn does not pass
3 Any force P acting a t a given point can be replaced by a through the base of thc wall, but falls outside it, the wall
force of equal magnitude acting a t any other point in a will fall over.
parallel direction distant d from the original line plus a 2.23 It will be shown later that the wall can still fall over
couple of.magnitude Pd, 13. even when tho reaction passes through the base, if it does
not pass through the middle third of that base.
A b
I50 3 Strength of materials
‘3.01 The previous section on statics considered forces
acting on the structure as a whole. The later section on
theory of structures will deal with the forces acting within
the structure. This present section is concerned with the
Q forces acting within the materials of which these members
are composed.
10 Equilibrium. Example in 11 T w o forces in equilibrium T T
para 2.17 shows how to must be equal in magnitude A A

calculate forces P , Q and R and opposite in direction

trianqle of
forces
1 +
W W

12
P- 100
I
W
100
14 Finding the centre of
gravity. T h e body i s
suspended f r o m each of its
corners ( T ) .Where the
verticals d u e to its weight
( W ) converge, there is its
centre of gravity or centroid

t ,/--,500 t 12 Three, rces in

r t I equilibrium. Alagnitudes
I
I
and directions represented in
6 triangle of forces
13 Force replaced by
force+ couple. Force
P = 100. Couple = P x
13 d = 100 x 5 = 500

Rigid body mechanics trianqle of

2.19 A rigid body i n the r o d \vorld h n s mass. I t is thcrcforo forces
acted on by gmvity, which iii:poscs n downward force 15 Forces on a retaining Procedure: plot P and W to
called its weight. I f the bocly is susponded by n string, i t will wall. Earth pressure P and scale and inclination in the
rotatc until the tcnsion in tho string is in the same line as thc weight o j wall W catme a trian.gle of forces. J o i n ends
line of action of the wcight. The linos of action of the weight reaction. R under the foot of to obtain R whose
always pass through one particular point i n tho bocly, even the wall. Its magnitude and magnitude can be scaled and
when the position of tlic point wliere the string is attached is direction i s obtained f r o m direction determii?ed
changed 14. This point is called the centre of gravity, and ifq the triangle of forces (right).
- -
Technical study Analysis 1 para 3.02t o 3.08 32

Structure
3.02 A structure is any body of material acting in a way
which changcs the magnitudo, position, or direction of
natural forces to the advantage of the user 16.
3.03 A structure is usually coinposed of structural mcmbers.
A structural mcmber is nearly always of ono, or at the most
two homogenous matcrials, is prismatic (SCC later) and
connects two nodes, or points where other membors converge
17. The line joining tho nodes is callcd a longitudinal axis,
and the section of the inombcr is the plane figuro produced
by cutting the mcmber at right-angles to this axis. A mem-
ber is said to be prismatic whcn the scction dcos not vary
along its length 18.
3.04 A structure can bo composed of an amorphous mass of
miscellaneous content, or of non-prismatic mombers of
changing composition, but the vast majority of structures
fall into the normal category. The analysis of other types of
structuro is not within the scope of this section.
Stress
3.05 When studying the forces acting 011 tho section of a
mcmber it IS ncccssary to understand thc concopt of stress.
If a very sinall area of thc section IS consiciered, it can be
essumod that thc forcc on it IS evenly distributed. Thc stress
on that small are% 6A is then cqual to thc force 6P on the
6P
area, divided by the area (see 19): stress = -
SA
3.06 Usually thc stress will act at scme angle to the plane
of thc section. For conveniencc, it is rcsolvcd into com-
ponents (sec 2 0 ) :
1 direct stress (f), acts perpendicular, or normal to thc plane
of the section
2 shear strcss (s) acts parallel to, or i n the plane of the
section.

18 Ezample of a ‘prismatic’
member which has a
constant cross section. This
one is member 7 from 17a
16a 16b

a
5
-----,
--., 16 Examples of structures:
a reducing the magnitude of
a force; b altering the
5
73 ----, position of a force; and

1 i
c altering the direction of a
force
19a
/
16c
4
D P E

A H 19b
19a Forces acting on a
17a section; b forces on a small
area 6A
B 20 Resolution of stress into
direct ( f )and shear ( 8 )
stresses. (Shear stress is
shown on diagrams
throughout this section by
20 single headed arrow)
17b
B 3.07 Direct stress can bo compressive or tensile depending on
whether it is tending to shorten or lengthen the member.
A compressivo stress is usually referred to as positive, and
a tensile stress as negative 21a.
3.08 It is important to distinguish betwcen the stress acting
on the section, and the stress which is the equal but opposite
reaction to i t (para 2.12). As defined in para 3.03, the section
is prodticod whcn the member is cut. This reveals two
opposite faces, each face acting on the other with the equal
and opposite stress. I n this context ‘opposite’ means
‘opposite in direction’. For example, a left-to-right direct
17 Typical structures: a c cable-stayed bridge. Nodes stress on the right-hand face implies a right-to-left direct
building frame; b roof truss; are lettered. Members are stress on the left-hand face 21b. However, both of these
numbered (see para 3.03) stresses would tend to shorten thc member, and they are
 ~ . . .. .

33 Technical study Analysis 1 para 3.08 to3.18

therefore both compressive. A downward-acting shear

stress on the left-hand face would mean that there was an
iy
upward-acting shear stress on the right-hand face 21C.
3.09 It is usually most appropriate to consider the stress as
acting on the section, rather than emanating out of it. If all
the little bits of direct stress acting on the section in this
way are added up, the total direct force P on the seotion is
obtained.

23 Resolulion of shear vertical and horizontal

stresses on a section into components

cornpressive stress tensile stress

21a

24 Forces acting on a
21 b p section; P = direct force,
S, and S, = shear forces
i s,

I , '
5A(at 1,3)
first moment about x axis
- y I 6A -3 ~ d A
second moment about x axis
-Y'X b A - 9 s dA
21c

21a Conventions for showing stress. c shear stress;

compressive and tensile downward acting stress on -
X
-__ - X
stress, b compressive stress; left hand face balanced by
each force acts on the other similar upward acting stress
with equal and opposite on the right h n d face

25 How tojind thejrst and

22 Summation of direct
stresses on a section into
total direct force P
3.10 The little bit of force on each area is 6P which is equal to
f x 6A from para 3.05 above. Adding all the little bits
together can bo written as follows:
P =C(f x 6A).
x
The symbol means the sum of all suc?~.quantities . ., and .
BA means a little bit of A .
3.11 The shear forces can also be summod 23. As these will
vary in direction all over the plane of thc section, it is usual
to resolve these a second time into the vertical and horizontal
directions Y and x thus:
Sx = x(sx x 6A) and S, = x ( s y x 6A). (S = total shear)
3.12 All the small forces on the section have now been
recLced to three forces at three mutually perpendicular
directions: P, S, and S, (see 24). However, the points of
application of these forces are not known as these depend on
the actual distribution of the strosscs across the section.
To progress further it is necessary to investigate the
geometry of that section.
Section geometry
3.13 Consider the section in 25. First eatablish x and Y axes
so that any point on the section can be referred to by its
co-ordinates. The aroa of this point is 6 8 .
3.14 If all the little areas are added togother the area of the
Y
I second moments of area of a
section
section A is obtained:
A=Z6A
3.15 The value of the moment of the small area about the
Y axis is x x SA. All these moments added together give
the jirst moment of area of the section, G.
Thus G, = Z (x x 6A) and G, = 2'(y x 6A)
Centre of area
3.16 If the section is symmetrical about the x and Y axes,
each little area will be balanoed by an identical area on the
other side of the axis. The values of G, and G, will both be
zero. Even if the section is not symmetrical, it is always
possible to choose x and Y so that the first moments of area
about them ere zero. The origin of these axes (their inter-
section) is called the centre of area of the section. If the shape
of the soction were cut out in cardboard, the centre of
gravity of the body would be the same point as the centre
of area. It follows that if G is zero about two axes through a
point, it will always be zero for any other axis at any angle
through the same point.
3.17 The longitudinal axis of a symmetrical structural
member is usually assumed to run through the centres of
areas of the sections of the member.
3.18 A simple horizontal structural member is shown in 26.
A longitudinal axis passes through the centre of area of the
section. An x axis, which is horizontal, and a Y axis, which
is vertical, pass through the same centre of area. --
 Technical study Analysis 1 para 3.1 9 to 3.30 34

These separate parts are each stresses acting a t the same

points, so that
f = fa + fbx fby
3.24 From the definitions in the paragraph above, the
Following equations can be written (see also 27):
P = Z f x SA
M,= Z f x y x SA
M y = Z f x x x SA

+ -4

-
M x moment resultant in

M y - moment resultant
horizontal plane
-Ik~y6AtI~x’dA
jx6A
+ + -

27 Diagram to illustrate
equations. described i n para
3.26,,showing direct force
ond,resulhnt moments

3.25, The proofs OK,the following assumptions are given in

p&a,3.47. It wou1d:not be appropriate to give them here,
as they rely on the concept of strain which has not yet been
reached. At this point, these assumptions may simply be
26b I accepted:’
26a Horizontal structural at centre of area creating fa is constant in value over the whole section.
member subjected to direct two couples My and Mx, The value of. fbr is p r o p rtional
’ , to the distance from the
force P ; b force P replaced called bending moments x axis of. the element ixi question
by replacement force acting ie: f,, = k x y where k is a constant
similarly the value of fby is proportional to the distance
from the Y axis
Bending moments ie: fby= j x x,where j is a second constant.
’ 3.19.In para 3:12.and 24, it”wtwseenthat the forces on.the 3.26 If these xaluw are.now put into the equation in para
section could be reduced to three forces in mutually perpen- 3.23 it is seen that:
dicular directions: P, S, and S,. The shear forces S, and S, f = f a + k x y + j x x
will be considered later; in this section the direct force P and this may be substituted into the three equations in
will be examined in detail. para 3.24 to give:
3.20 When all the little elements of force on the section P = f a Z S A + k Z y x S A + j Z x x SA
were added together, the magnitude of their resultant was, M, = fa Z*(y,x SA) + k Z(ya x SA) +
j Z(x x y x SA)
+
found to be P 22. The position of the point of application My = fa Z ( x x SA) k Z ( x x y x SA) + j Z(xa x SA)
of this resultant was not discovered. Assume that this force These equations are illustrated in 27.
acts a t a point on the section with co-ordinates X and Y 3.27.In p$a 3.16 it was demonstrated that if the origin of
26a. the x and Y axes was the centre of area of the section, then
3.21 It was shown in para 2.18 that any force a t a given Z (x x SA) and Z y x SA were both equal t o zero.
point could be replaced by an equal force through another 3.28 The same is not true of Z (x2 x SA) and Z (y2 x SA).
point plus a couple. I n this way, the force P at X, Y can be These are called the second moments of area of the section,
replaced by a force P a t 0 , O(ie at the centre of the section) or sometimes the moments of inertia; and are represented
plus couples PX and PY acting in the horizontal and I, and I,.
vertical planes 26b. 3.29 The quantity Z(x x y x SA) is called the product of
3.22 All the little elements of direct stress on the section inertia and is shown as I,,.
have now been replaced by a force P through the centre of 3.30 The equations in para 3.26 can therefore be written
area of the section, and two couples. These couples are called as follows:
bending moments and are represented Myfor the moment in P ’= fa x A
the horizontal plane, and M, for the moment in the vertical M, = k x I, + j x I,,
plane. My = k x I,, + j x I,
3.23 Each little element of stress makes a contribution to These are the fundamental equations of bending for the
each of these quantities. The contributions can be separated general case. I n most practical examples of sections, the
out : value of I,, is zero. This is because most sections are sym-
fa is the part of the stress that adds up to make P acting a t metrical about a t least one axis: and this means that an
the centre of area of the section element of positive x x y always has a corresponding
f,, is the part that adds up to make M, negative value to balance it. However, a section like the
f,, is the part that adds up to make My. one in 32c is anti-symmetric about a diagonal axis, and for
(
35 Technical study Analysis 1 para 3.30 to3.40

Table I CalculatiotL of moment of inertia of section in 28.See para 3.36 for explanation of calculation
Aria Area-A Wlotmmentof- Moment of inettia~ofeach Inertia of each part about Total moment of
d r - about e
n - axis part about i t s o w n csntre centre oi area axis of whole inertia of the
enea = Ay of area axis n I, section = Ar' section

I 85 x 25 = 2 125 2125 x 12-5= 26562 --

85 x 25'
12
11 0 677 2125 X 154.5* = 50 724,000 50.8 X 10'

II 20 x 250= 5000 5000 x 150 = 750000 -

20 x 250'
12
26 042'000 5000 x 17* = 1 445 000 27.5 x 10'

111 175 x U)= 3500 3500 x 285 = 997500 --

175 x 20'
12
117000 3500 x 118' -48734poO 4 8 - 8 x 10'

Total 10 625 1 774 062 lx=17!74 ~10'

1 774 062
=--187
10 625

this section there is a value of Ixy.This will result in a the section is symmetrical about a vertical axis, the centre
twisting action of the member under bending, which will of BPB& must lie on this axis of symmetry; say y1 from the
greatly d u c e its calculated strength. reference axis at the top of the section. Divide the section
3.31 For any section, axes can be chosen through the centre into three rectangular arem I, II and m. Table I shows the
of area so that I,, for these axes is zero. These are called the calculations to be done. I n the first column, calculate the
principal m . The equations of bending aro usually quoted area of each part, and add to obtain the total area of the
for these axes in the form: section. I n the second column, calculate the first moment of
P =f,,xA each area about the reference axis, ie the ar& multiplied by
M, = k x I, the distance of the centre of area of each part. The sum of
M y = j x I, these quantities will give the first moment of area of the
3.32 I n para 3.25 the constants k and j werc defiled as section about the reference axis. If this is divided by the
area of the section, it gives the distance of the centre of area
from this axis.
so that tho equations above can be written: 3.37 The second part of the calculation starts with calcu-
P lating the moment of inertia of each part about its own
fa =
A
- centre of area axis. To this is added the Ara quantity as
shown in para 3.35 to obtain the inertia of each part about
fbx
-=- Mx the centre of area axis of the whole section. In the last
Y I. column these values are added to obtain the second moment
- MYI of area, or moment of inertia of the section.
x I Y
3.33 If the maximum stress on a section of a member is
required, these aro the equations that are used to calculate
it. Consider the case of bending about the x axis. As the
stress is proportional to the distance from this axis, the
maximum stress must occur a t the point on the section
furthest from it. 28 Example lojind second
If y, is the distance of that point from the x axis moment of area or moment
-
fba max
=-
M X of inertia of a section. See
para 3.31 to 3.33 and table
Y1 I, I
for explanation 1-1-75-

3.38 The value of second moment, can be obtained by this

3.34 As pointed out in para 3.31, these equations in this
method for any shape for which values of A, I, and position
form are only true for sections that are symmetrical about
of centre of area are available. (A table of shapes is given in
one or other vertical or horizontal axis, such as an I-section,
appendix 1). Other shapes have to be obtained by calcuhis
a channel, a solid round, hollow rectangular section and
methods beyond the scope of this handbook.
so on. For a completely non-symmetrical section such as
an angle, the product of inertia is only zero if the axes of
Summary
bending are principal axes.
3.39 The following equations for axid stress ha\-e beell
3.35 For steel sections, handbooks issued by the manufac-
developed :
turers will give the values of A, I,, I,, Z, and Z,. Most other
For bending about the x axis
materials are used in simple rectangular or circular shapes
Ma fbx
for which values of these quantities can be obtained from -=-
tables. (A few of these shapes are given in appendix 1 of [a Y
this handbook). Without going into elaborate mathematics, for the general cam
a few simple rules enable the calculation of the values for p M, M
P=-+- . xy+;-yxx
T

some sections not shown in manufacturers' handbooks. 1, l Y

I, (and Iy)are always taken about axes through the centre 3.40 The assumptions on which this equation depends are
of area of the section, About another axis parallel to the x :hat:
axis distant r away, the formula is: 1 either the x or the Y axis or both are axes of symmetry
I,, = I, Ara + 2 the intersection of t,hese axes is the centre of area of the
iection (to which must be added the assumptions contained
Finding the second moment of area n the equation in para 3.25)
3.36 To calculate thc second moment of area of the section 3 the dimensions of the section are small in comparison
shown in 28,first find the position of the centre of area. As with the length of the member

I-..
- ' .. .
Technical study Analysis 1 para 3.40 t o 3.52 36

4 the section of the member always remains plane

5 the material of the section is homogenous and elastic.

Strain
3.41 A thin metal rod under tension will stretch. This
movement under a force is called strain, and strain is
defined as the extension or contraction of unit length of the
member 29.

1-- L - e
I 31 Strain i n bending.
; :-i-- T-, Diagram shwa a member
strain- Q
under bending with two
L seotwna distance Z apart
subtending an angle 4. R Ls
29 Strain i s extension or e = extension; 1’ = teneile
radiw of ourvatwe. Fibre
wntraction of urvit length. form considered is d i s t a m Y
L = length of member; from neutral axis (seepam
3.41)
Elastic strain
3.47 Consider a fibre above the longitudinal axis of the
3.42 One form of strain is called elastic. Elastic strain haa
member through the centre of area of the section (called
two properties:
the neutral axis). If this fibre is distance y from the neutral
1 Hoake’s Law applies. This states that stress is propor-
axis, it will be extended during bending to a length of
stress
bional to strain, ie
atram
- = constant (called Young’s +
4 (R y); the extension is therefore 4 x y and the strain:
modulus)
+-or X Y -Y
6 x R R
2 Removal of the stress causes the member to return to its
stress
original state. Now -= E (Young’s constant) for an elastic material
3.43 Not all materials behave elastically. Some are like strain
modelling clay and deform increasingly under a constant E
(see para 3.42). Therefore stress = - x y = k x y as
stress, not returning to their original shape after the stress R
is removed. This behaviour is called plastic deformation. assumed in para 3.25.
3.44 Most structural materials behave in a manner similar
to that shown on the stress strain curve in 30. For low values Shear
of stress the material behaves elastically until the elastic 3.48 The detailed theory of shear stress is more complicated
limit is reached at point B. The behaviour is then more or than for direct stress. Therefore only an outline of the
less plaatic until the breaking point is reached at C. If the results is given here rather than a rigorous analysis of the
stress is reduced during the non-elastic deformation, the method.
material does not return to its original form but retains a 3.49 Shear stresses at each point on the section are resolved
permanent deformation as shown by the dotted line. into vertical and horizontal components (see para 3.11).
The resultants of all these components comprise the
vertical and horizontal shear forces on the section S, and
stres
S,. As for axial stresses, it can be shown that if these forces
C. pass through a certain point some special conditions
breaks
apply: there will be no torsion or twist of the member. If
the resultant of all the shear stresses does not p m through
this point, the moment of that resultant about the
point is the torsion on the section.
3.50 I n the case of shear forces the point is called the shear
centre. This is not always the same point a& the centre of
area. I n fact, it is the same point only when there axe two
axes of symmetry or anti-symmetry 32. A very common
case of misconception is the channel shown in 33. The shear
strain centre is a t point S, and a load of 20 N applied at the middle
30 Stwm-8tmA diagram shows dejomnation caused of the flange M will cause a torsion of 1 - 3 1 Nm on the
showing elastio limit where when stress is reduced after section
75 mm
Hooke’s Low (stress is
proportdonal to strain) no
elastic limit and materdal
does not return to itr,
(ie 28 mm +- 2
x 20N = 1310 Nmm

longer operates. Dotted line original form or 1 - 3 1 Nm)

Bending stress and strain Distribution of shear stress

3.45 Having introduced the concept of strain, the behaviour
of a member under bending can be examined more closely.
3.46 Fig 31 illustrates a member of elastic material under
bending. Any section that was plane before bending took
place is assumed to remain plane during bending. Two
sections distance z apart will then subtend an angle 4 at the
centre of bending such that z = 4 x R. (R is the radius of
ourvature).
3.51 For a symmetrical section with no horizontal shear, a
theory can be derived to find the maximum shear stress and
its position.
3.52 Consider the section in 34a. This section is assumed to
be subject to bending about the x axis only, with no direct
force. An arbitrary shape is chosen to develop a generalised
theory before considering special cases like I-sections or
rectangular shapes. I
‘I
 37 Technical study Analysis 1 para 3.53 t o 3.57

3.55 No\\. consider a thin slicc of the bea.ni of thickness 6z.

This is shown i n 35 which is not a section of the beam but
an elevation. The part of the slice corresponding to the
area H, of the section has been separated from the rest of
the slice. It has a force P on each face, and a shear force
s x s x 6z on its base from the rest of the slice. These
forces must be in equilibrium, so by horizontal resolution:
P I - P , = s x s x 6z
a b C Y :. n, (fb, - fb2)= 8 x s x
32 Sectionqvwit?&x?Lear M
centres at centre of a,ren NO\\.. f = - x SO that s x x x 6~ = Y- b By(M,- M,)
I I
2ON 3.56 By niet,hods outside the scope of these notes, it can be
shown that when 6z is allowed to get very small, the value
r
! -
of
M, - M, .
IS equal to the vertical shear force S, on the
62

+-
centre of whole section (see 34b).
/area
-- -
Hetice s = By Yb x S )
I x s

I - 33 Chatme1 section with

nhear centre S not i n the

'
t 28 4 - 7 5 4
name position, as centre of
area A
3.53 A narro\v horizontr . Btrip of section has ami 6A. The
direct stress on this strip is f = k x (y), where (y) repre-
nents the distance of the strip from the neutral axis (the
horizontal axis through the centre of area of the section),
aind k is the constant (from para 3.25).
3.54 Consider the area Byin 34b. This arca extends from a
line distant y from the neutral axis to the extremity of the
section. The total force on this area 18 given by Z k x (y) x
6A over this area or k Z (y) x SA. Now Z (y) x 6A is the
first moment of area of the area Byabout the neutral axis,
or By x yb if yb is the distance of its centrc of area from
t,hat axis.
'rhus: P = k x By x yb
But k x yb is the value of the stress tit t,he ccmtrtx of arm of
Bywhich can be called f b .
40 P = fb x By
4raxxb2
neutral
axis
35 Elevation of beam
deaoribed in para 3.55 (see
also 34)
3.57 By the formula above, the value of the longitudinal
shear stress in the beam can be determined. That this stress
cxists can be demonstrated by using two planks to span a
wide gap. If the two planks are simply placed one on the
other, they sag when the load is applied: each sliding on the
other. If the two planks are nailed together this slip cannot.
occur and the load-carrying capacity of the pair & greatly
increased 36.

i- -t
C

36 Two planks spanning a

34 Diagram to illuetrate
shear theory as developed i~
34b para 3.52 et seq
wide gap; a before
application of point load,
b after application of point
Load with no jixing between
and c effect of nailing planks
together

,
Technical study Analysis 1 para 3.58 to 3.64 38

3.58 However, there is also vertical shear stress on the face 3.60 The value of this is obviously greatest when y = 0
of the section. If this is shown on a figure similar to that in (that is a t the neutral axis) and then:
35 it becomes a shown in 37. From the argument in para 3
s = - x -
s
3.65, these two shear stresses are equal in value. The formula 2 bd
above, therefore, is also used to find the vertical shear or the maximum shear stress in a rectangular section is 14
stress a t a point on the section, as demonstrated in the times the average shear stress, 39.
following example. 3.61 Fig 39 shows the approximate distribution of stress on
the rectangular section in graph form. It will be seen that

tbrl d,
-
when y = that is, on the edge of the section, the stress is
2
zero, a might be expected.

- neutral -
7-
i
rectonqular
section

39 Shear stress i n a
37 Diagram to illustrate rectangular section
I .
effect of vertical shear on
beam shown in 35 Shear on an I-section
3.62 The distribution of shear across an I-section is shown
Example in 40. It can be seen that the distribution is almost even on
Using the section shown in 28, find the shcar stress a t the the web, and that the influence of the flanges is negligible.
join between parts I and 11, when the shear force on the The shcar stress on the web of the scction in thc cxample in
section is 20 kN. (All dimensions in mm). para 3.58 can thercfore be calculatccl as:
By = area of part I = 2.125 x 103 20 000
= 4 N/mm2
yb = centre of area of part I from neutral axis = 154.5 250 x 20
I, = 127.1 x l o o (from table I )
x
S,
= brcadth of section at point of ca1c;ilation = 20
= shear on section = 20 x 103
so that: --I
I -section

S=
2125 X 154-5
127.1 x 20
S= 2.58 N/mni2.
x 10-6 x 20 x 103

Shear on a rectangular section

3.59 Consider a rectangular section depth d and breadth b
-2
40 Shear stress on an
rmax--opproxavero e
shear rtrerr
web alone
$
carrier r k a r

(see 38). I-section

By = (i - y) x b Stress relationships
3.63 Stresses do not exist in isolation. Each form of stress
is interdependent on other forms of stress.

Poisson’s ratio
3.64 A block of hard rubber if squeezed together will result
in a barrel-shape 41. Similarly, a rubber band when stretched
gets thinner. This type of phenomenon happens with all
materials: if the strain in the x direction is e, and the
3 strain in the Y direction e,
2b x d b xd3
- = U (sigma, or Poisson’s ratio)
0,
e*
As Hooko’s Law also applies it is obvious that, in a similar
way
- -- a
fx

fY

P-
i
---
---
, I
deformor ion

I
- P

- _ _ _ e -

41 Effeot of squeezing a

+- b-t aection (.wepara 3.59) block of rubber

39 Technical study Analysis1 para 3.65 to 3.71

Shear balance they are drawn on, say, an elevation of the member, they
3.65 I n 42a is shown a small block of material taken from form stress trajectorics.
the middle of a structural member, length a, breadth b,
and thickness c. On onc end there is a shear stress 8 , or a
force s x bc. If resolved vertically, another shear stress s on
the other end of the block will prevent vertical movement
of the block 42b, but this will produce a couple of value
s x abc. To balance this couple, shear forces s' a t the top
and base of the block are introduced, producing a couple
in the other direction s' x abc, 4 2 ~Hence
. s = s'; a vertical
shear stress will thus always induce a corresponding 44 Tension failure due to equal value across a 45'
shear force. Shear stress plane

-
horizontal shear stress of equal magnitudc.
pmdwea direct stress of

_
A
.-
:. .A

42 Shear balance: a shear

stress on one end; b vertical
and opposite force on other
end prevents vertical 45 Shear failure due to
movement but creates a direct force. Converse of 44
couple; c wuple balanced by
couple in horizontal Stress trajectories
direction s' 3.70 Stress trajectories in the side elevation of a cantilevur
b are shown in 46. The full lines indicate the directions of
Direct stress induced by shear principal tensile stresses, the dotted lines the directions of
3.66 Diagram 43 can be used to discover how shear strcss principal compressive stresses. These linos cross, as des-
produces direct stress. It is a triangular slice of the block cribed, a t right-angles. The stress magnitudes along these
shown in 42. The length of the hypotenuse is 1. Assume an lines do not necessarily stay constant.
induced direct stress of f and shear stress of s on this
hypotenuse. By resolution in the direction o f f f x lb =
s' x lb x cos 4 x sin 4 .+ s' x lb x sin $I x cos 4
:. f = 8' sin 24 r-
and resolving in the direction of s: I
s x lb = s' x lb x sin2 4 - s' x lb x cosp 4 I
I
:. s = €3' cos 24 I
3.67 The interesting result of this exercise becomes evident -+
I
when 4 = 45" because then s = 0 and f = s', that is, a I
shear stress produces a direct stress of equal value across a I
plane at 45" to the shear plane. This, of course, is common I
knowledge 44.
3.68 The converse is also true: a direct stress induces a
L-
FI 'compression 46 Stress trajectories in a
cantilever
shear stress in R plane a t 45" t,o ita plane 45.
Photo -elasticity
3.71 The directions of principal stresses can also be investi-
gated by means of the curious phenomenon known as
photo-elasticity. This results from the fact that whenever
polarised light passes through certain plastic-basod
materials, the planes of polarisation are rotated. The
amount of rotation has been found to vary with the condi-
tions of stress within the plastic material, so that a model
of a structure made of this plastic will show a pattern under
polarised light when subjected to forces simulating the
43 Diagram to show how loading on the structure 47. A similar offoct is seen when
shear stress produces direct looking a t a toughened glass car windscreen throiigh
stress (see para 3.66) polarised sunglasses.

Principal stresses I ! 47 Photo-elastic

I
3.69 I n para 3.67 it \vas soen that the plane when 4 = 45" pallerns i n a beaiic.
had no shear stress across it. By the theorem in para 3.65 it iVote the region OJ
follows that the plane at right-angles to this plane would pure bending in the
T
also be a plane of zero shear. The direct stresses across these middle, the shear near
planes are known a8 principal stresses, and one of these will I a the ends, and the
be a maximum direct stress, the other a minimum. The stress wncentrationv
directions of these stresses arc called principal axes, and if tcndersthe j o w loads
f---- -- -'
 Technical study Analysis 2 para 1.01 t o 1-08 40

Technical study
Analysis 2 Section 2 Structural analysis

This i s the second of two technical studies by D ~ V I Da D m n

Structural types which together give a brief mathematical and desoriptive
background to the later sections of the handbook. This study
deals with beams and struts and varioua types of surface and
skeletal structures

1 Beams
1.01 Beams are either statically determinate or statically
indeterminate. For statically determinate beams bending
iiioments and shears can be determined using statics only.
This type of beam is considered first; statically indeter- simply supported beam/'
minate beams are dealt with in para 1.24.
1.02 Statically determinate beams are either simply sup-
ported or cantilever.
2a
Simply supported beams
1.03 A simply supported beam is shown in 1a. It is assumed
1 2OkN

that the support at each end is a perfect hinge, and that one
end is also frec to move horizontally. The same beam, con-
A c
ventionally drawn, is shown in 1b. These perfect conditions -+m
,-
are never achieved, but assumptions are necessary to pro- 2c
duce a workable theory.

I lood uniformly distributed olonq

lenqth of beam I
I
BMD

I I

lb
1 Simply supported beam: a support at each end assumed to
be perfect hinge, right end can, move horizontally;
b conventional way of showincl beam a with uniformly
distributed ( u n )load
1.04 The beam has a span L measured between centres of
supports, and has one or more loads on it. I n theory, loads
are of three types:
1 point loads (P)
2 uniformly distributed loads (W or w )
3 non-uniformly distributed loads
1.05 Point loads are assumed to set at a point, but i l l
practice thcy always spread a short distance. An example
8 of a point load is tt column resting on a beam 2a. This is
represented conventionally in 2b.
1.06 !l!he forces i n 2b at A and C are reactions, and are
usually shown R, and R,. Taking moments about A for the
system :
20 000 x :3 - It, x G = 0 (must have zero resultant, to
maintain equilibrium)
~ :. It, = 10 000 N or lOkN
2b
2a Simply supported beam with point load in centre of span:
b diagrammatic representation of beam with reactions at
A and C and load of 20 kN.at B , bending moment diagram
( B M D ) and shear force diagram (SFD) shown below;
c dimensions used in calculating bending moment under
point load
1.07 Now imagine that the beam is cut immediately to the
right of B, where the load is applied. The forces on the half
of the beam between this cut and C are:
reaction R, = 10 kN
shear force at R = S,
bonding moment at B = M,
1.08 These forces on the part of thc beam betwcen the cut
and C must be in equilibrium:
:. 8, - It, = 0 by vertical resolution (2b)
and M, - R, x 3 = 0 by momcnts about B (2c).
ThusS, - 10 = 0
.'. S, = 10 kN
and M, - 10 x 3 = 0
:. M, = 30 lcNm
41 Technical study Analysis 2 para 1.09 t o 1.19

1.09 The bending moment and shear force diagrams (BMD I.SkN/m
and SFD) for the beam can then be drawn (2b).
B
1.10 The beam shown in 3 haa a uniformly +stributed load
of 1 - 5 kN/m over a span of 10 m. Using the same analysis as
before, or simply-bysymmetry:

R, = R, =
1;s- x io
=7.5kN
II-- Iom
3b

2 I
1.11 Bending moment Mb a t the centre of the span is found
in the same way:
Mb - +
R, x 6 1 . 5 x 5 x 2 . 5 = 0 (3b)
(The effective resultant of the unifoim load over half the
span acts at the centre of gravity of the half-load, ie the
quarter-span point, or 2 . 5 m from C)
-
:. Mb = 3 7 . 5 1 8 . 7 5 = 1 8 . 7 5 kNm
1.12 Shear force at the centre is Sb = R,
s b = 7 . 6 - 7 . 6 = 0.
-
1 e 5 x 5 = 0 or
I-
The BM and SE diagrams are shown in 3a.
1.13 These examples give an indication of methods for
solving problems from first principles. Normally formulae
obtained from tables are used (see Information sheet
4”
WL wL2
ANALYSIS 1)and 2 and 3 would be solved using
4
-
and -
8 ‘ jSFD
3a
respectively, where W or w = load and L = span.
3a Simply supported beam with uni,formly distributed (WD)
load, showing bending moment and shear force diagram;
Cantilevers b dimensions used i n calculating maximum bending moment
1.14 The cantilever beam (in 4) and the loads on it are at centre of span
supported at the left-hand end A, where there is a reaction
R, and an end fixity moment M,. End A is often described
aa erboaatre or built-in.
1.15 It is very simple to calculate R, and M, by statics.
I n the example in 4:
Vertical resolution
R, - 4 x 3 - 10 = 0
.*. R, = 22 kN 4a
Moments about A OkN
M, - 4 x 3 x 1.5 -
10 X 3 = 0
:. M, = 48kNm
Deflection of beams
1.16 As well aa calculating stresses in structural material, it
may be necessary to predict how much a structure will move.
Then the movement of individual members is assessed;
each component can move in three ways:
1 It can lengthen or shorten. This is strain due to direct
stress and is readily calculated:
I
movement = length x strain
= length x stress/E (Young’s modulus)
2 It can bend. The longitudinal axis can move at right-
angles to itself.
3 It can twist. A simple calculation if torsion on the member
is known.
1.17 Bending deflection is most difficult to calculate,
mainly because the bending stresses are usually not constant
along the length of the member and the theory requires the
use of calculus. [But for simple problems there are two
I- -4-

1-
I
I
lOkN

theorems that avoid higher mat,hematics; their proofs,

however, will have to be taken on trust.
4b SFD
THEOREM 1
1.18 The change the slope of ~tbeam over H. given lciigth
iii
M
is q u a l to the area of the -diagram which equals
E1
Bending moment
011 t,h>it,length 5a.
-4
YouI>g’s modulus x moment of inertia 4c
4a Cantilever beam with UD load plus point load at the end;
THEOREM d b bending moment and shear force diagvaws; c dimensions
1.19 In 5b the vortical (listmice y of -4bclow t,lic twtrgent t i t w e d i?c calczdatiiig ~ D l nand SED
Technical study Analysis 2 para 1.I9 to 1.25 42

-span or part of span. Encastr6 beams*

1.24 The simplest form of statically indeterminate structure
is the beam built-in (encastre')a t both supports 7. A statically
doterminate beam can have two simple supports, or one
built-in support. With one built-in support and one simple
dope, support the beam has one degree of redundancy, because
i dope if the bending moment on the enmtre support were
removed, the beam would be statically determinate.
Tho doubly built-in beam has two degrees of redundancy.
L
-i 1.
1

5a

t-
I ,.beam os deflected
1
; centre of area

I B
c -
A
centre of area
I
f.

BMD
PL3
6 Dejledion in o oantilever, y a is equal to -
3EI
(ie the first

5b .I x' 4. i moment of areu of the

M
- diagram about A )
EI
5 Change of slope and deflection: a illustrates theorem 1 and
shows either complete span or part span where change of
M
slope = area of - diagram; b illustrates theorem 2 and shows
El
M 7a
only part of a span where y = area of - diagram x x'
El
M
B is equal to the first moment of area of the - diagram on
E1
AB about A. 7b
I I

1.20 I n most cases, the material (and therefore E ) and thc

section of the member (and so I) is constant over the length
of the member. Thereforc it is only necessary to consider
M
the moment variation when using these theorems. The -
E1
diagram becomes the &I or bending moment diagram, the
E1 factor being used when the slope or deflection has to be 7a Beam built in (encastre) at both supports; b moment
calculated. diagram deacribed in para 1.25. M , = free support moment,
1.21 To show how these theorems are used, consider the w L2
cantilever in 6. The M (bending moment) diagram is a M , = end fixity moment = -
12
PLS 2 1.25 The bcnding moment on a statically indeterminate
triangle of area -, its centre of area - L from the free end
2 3 beam has two components:
A. The beam is horizontal a t B, so that the tangent at B is 1 the free support moment M, that would occur on the
also horizontal. Thus the deflcction of A (y.) is equal to the equivalent statically determinate beam
M 2 the end-fixed moment M,, which has a straight-lino
first moment of area of the - diagram about A:
distribution along the beam. This is limited by values of
E1
PL2 2 PLS the moments a t each end.
yn=- x-L=- From thcorem 1, since there is no change of slope along this
2EI 3 3EI
M
1.22 In practice, cantilevers are often placed at the ends of betun (it is zcro a t each enoastre end), the area of tho -
ET.
continuous beam runs. Then the beam is not horizontal at B
and the deflection of A will be greater by the slope at B diagram must be zero.
(which must be calculated) x length L. The area of the free support bcnding moment diagram is
1.23 The deflections of beams are not usually calculated equal and opposite in sign ( +
- ) to the area of thc cnd-
from first principles, becausc there are tables covering fixity moment diagram.
common loadings. The .real use of slope and deflection
calculations is in the design of structures that are not
statically determinate. *Hem eMaslrd i i i e m s beams rigidly tlxetl nt both ends and not memly built.
into brlckwnrk
 43 Technical study .Analysis 2 para 1.25 to 1.33

Because t.his beam is xymmetrical; the Inoineiits at each end 2 x 5.5 7.56
are equal, and the area of the end-fixity mointwt diagram
... K., = -- -
2 5.5
is MF L. = 5.5 - 1 - 3 7 = 4 . 1 3 kN
'rhus: Moments about B
L wL2
MFL = - M,L (The I L ~ C Rof (I parabola, i n this case MsL, is RAxL-MF-- =o
3 2
t\\o-t,hirds of its enclosing rectangle) .'. RA= 5 . 5 -t 1 . 3 7 = 6 . 8 7 kN
2 wL2 wL2 Check by vertical resolution
... M, = 3 x 8 = -- - 12 4.13 +
6.87 - 2 x 5 . 5 = 0
1.29 Calculation of the maximum positive moment in the
Example: complete analysis of a propped cantilever span of the beam is easier becauso the maximum positive
1.26 The beam is shown in 8. moment occurs at the point of zero shear. (Proof of this
involves calculus and is outside the scope of these notes.)
1.27 First find the value of MF 1.30 Assume that the point of zero shear is x metres from
The t,angent at A is horizontal. Hrcansc 13 is propped there 13 towards A. Resolving vertically on XB:
M w x x - R , - S x = 0 (Where S, = the shear force at X)
is no deflection there and so the first moment of t,he -
E1 R,
But S, = 0 as X is the point of zero shear, so that x = -
diagram about B must be zero. W
L 2 2 wL2 L 4.13
..' MF 1 -
2
x -L =- x -x L x -
3 3 8 2
--
2
= 2.065m

where 'Caking moments at B for XB:

L wx2
M, v, - IS the area of the triangle formed bet\vecn R A and M, - - - - 0 (Where M x = the bending moment at X )
2 2
R , (shown dotted on the BMD in 8) 2 x 2.06P
2 ... Mx = = 4 - 2 6 kNm (approx)
2
-L its the distance of its centre of gravity from
3
It , 1.31 Now calculate the maximum stresses in the boam.
2 wL2 Assume a beam section of 250 x 75 mm rectangular.
3L Y- x L is two-thirds of the enclosing rectangle of Area of the section is 250 x 75 = 18 750 mm2
8
The second moment of area I about the neutral axis is
the parabola, which equals the area of the parabola bd3 7 5 - X 5203
L -= = 98 x 10' mm4.
- is t.he distance of its centre of gravity from It,. 12 12
2 From the general equations of bending developed earlier*
wL2 2 x 5-52 M f
:. M, =-
8
= = 7 . 5 6 kNm - = -(where f = stress, and y = distance of extreme
8 I Y
fibres from neutral axis)
M
:. f = -yI
The maximum value of M is MF, and the maximum value of
y is at the top and bottom of the section.
I n terms of the units by which these values have so far been
M (in kNm)
measured, f = x y (in mm)
1 (in mm4)
To make them comparable, M must be multiplied by
1000 (or 103), so that all lengths are in mm, and by a further
1000 (a total of 10e) to reduce kN to N, rn the h a 1 answer
is bctter expressed in that form. (Conversion to like units is
used throughout this section.)
7 . 5 6 x 10'

I BMD rnox BM
I I
:. f,,, = 98 x 10' x 125 = 9.64N/mm2
1.32 The maximum shear force is R A = 6 . 8 7 kN (see 8).
The maximum shear stress on a rectangular section is 1 . 5
t-. times the average stress?
5 87
I RA
t-- .*. Smax = x 1.5
area (b x d)
6.87 x 103
j SFD
8 Propped cantilever used i n analysis described i n paras
I :. s,,, =
18 750
x 1 . 5 = 0.55N/mm2
1.33 The calculntion of maximum dcflcction under load
1.26 to 1.33. Maximum BM occurs at point of zero shear
WL'
could be very difficult, but the formula
185 E1
-
is available
1.28 The vertical reactions RAand R e a t each end of the
beam are calculated by taking moments about each end in from tablcs and the deflection under load can be computed
turn. provided the Young's modulus (E)for the materiF1 is known.
Moments about A
wL2
RE x L MF -- + 2
-= 0 (Must have zero resultant to
maintain equilibrium) *see technicnl study ANALYSIS 1 para 3.30
'see technical study ANALYSIS 1 para 3.60
Technical study Analysis 2 para 2.m to 2.11 44

2 Struts This is a rather curious result: either

5 PL2
y = 0 and - x -can have any value,
2.01 A strut is any structural member that is subjected to 48 E1
mainly compressive forces. Often the word is reserved for 5 PL2
non-vertical members; vertical struts are described as or - x - = 1 and y can have any value.
48 E1
column stanchions or piers, the use depending to some Thus there will be no appreciable bending of the strut until
extent on the material (stanchions are mainly iron and 48 E1
steel, and piers brickwork or masonry). P, the compression on the strut, approaches - bLa *
Then
2.02 The theory of struts involves the concept of unstable
the deflection of the centre of the strut increases rapidly, and
equilibrium. A system of forces in unstable equilibrium is
48
shown in 9; this complies with all the requirements for the strut buckles. (- = 9 . 6 . A rigorous analysis gives a
equilibrium, but the smallest change in any of the forces 5
would destroy the system. Systems in unstable equilibrium coefficient of approximately 9.87).
must be avoided in structural work! 2.05 When designing struts it is therefore important not to
exceed the P calculated above. This load is called the E d e r
5\N 5kN load. Normally a load factor of at least two is used so that
for safety a working load of half the Euler load should not
I AQ AQ
be exceeded. Thus in theorem 2, a figure of half - or -
A" A"

5 5x2
is used.
2.06 If the compressive stress is f, then P = f, x A so t h t
48 I
f, max = - X E X -
5 x 2 AL2
I
lOkN
now - = r2 (r is the radius of gyration of the section)
A
9 Unstable equilibrium, any change would destroy system -
2.03 Each end of the structural member in 10a is a pin-joint
:.
L
f, max = 4 . 8 E
(r)P
that can only move in the direction of the length of the -
r
is called the slenderness ratw of the member.
member. As long as the member is perfectly straight, the
2.07 For many materials, values of fc max are tabulated

magnitude: A( 'z).
only stress in the member will be pure compression, of
If the member were slightlybowed
against values of the slenderness ratio so that calculation
is easier. Of course, the maximum stress must not exceed
the safe compressive stress of the material of the member
whatever the value of the slenderness ratio.
2.08 The theory of struts is not confined to members in
pure compression. The compression flanges of members
under bending can also be unstable, and the magnitudes of
the compressive stresses on such mem6ers are limited by
the theory. Here instability depends on a number of
factors, and tables are used to determine the safe com-
pressive stresses.
C
I Bending and compression
2.09 Columns in building frames, which are struts, are
commonly subjected to both compressive and bending
stresses (produced by eccentricities of loading on to the
columns). It is therefore important to understand the
lob
I BMD I theory of combined bending and compression.
10 Preswre on a strut: a pin-jointed member with applied 2.10 The rectangular section ( l l a ) 460 x 260 mm under a
pressures resulting i n pure compression; b strut dejlected by load of 300 kN and subject to a moment of 4 kNm can be
pressures. Maximum BM at centre &? P y treated in two ways:
2.04 A rigorous analysis of the deflection requires calculus METHOD 1
but the approximate method used here gives a similar 2.11 First calculate the stress due to pure compressive
answer. If the deflection of the strut is parabolic the moment loading
diagram follows the same parabola. The moment at any P 300 x 103
point x is Py. From theorem 2, para 1.19, the deflection of B f a = - = = 2 67 N/mm2(P is multiplied by 1 0 3
A 450 X 250
above the tangent at C (the centre of the member) is equal to translate IrN to N)
M Then work out the tensile and compressive stresses due to
to the first moment of the - diagram on CB about B. bending-
E1
M bd3 d
'-1
-
f, = f - y where I =
12
-and y =
2
-
5 4 x 106
(note -L is distance from B of centre of gravity of that :. f, = f1 -- X 225 = 0.47 NJ-9
16
section of the parabola) 250 x -
4503
12
NOW Mc = P x y The maximum compressive stress is therefore 2 67 - + -
0 47
5 PL2 = 3.14 N/mm2 and the stress on the opposite edge of the
so that y = - x - x y
48 E1 section is 2.67 - 0.47 = 2 . 2 N/mm*. (Seel l b ) .
f ,-
 45 Technical study Analysis 2 para 2.12 t o 2.17

METHOD 2
2.12 Convert the compression force and moment into an
eccentric force. If e is the eccentricity:
M 4 x 103
e = - = - - - 13-3mm
P 300

2.1 3 The distribution of stresses on the rectangular section

of the column is shown in 12a. The area of this diagram
equals the compressive force 300 kN, and the centre of area
coincides with the point of action of the,force. Thus the
stresses on each edge of the section can be found.
This method is important because it covers the behaviour I

a
of the structure under changing conditions.
2.14 If the load is increased without changing its eccentricity
I
12b, the stresses would all increase in proportion to the
increase in load without changing their distribution. position of
centre of
2.15 If the eccentricity of a constant load were to increase area of stress
block is under
13, then the stress on the left-hand edge of the section I load
would decrease 13a, and the stress on the right-hand edge
increase. When the stress on the left-hand edge becomes
zero 13b, the stress diagram becomes a triangle, its centre
of area one-third of the base length from the right-hand
edge, or one-sixth of the base length from the centre-axis.
This middle third zone of the column is extremely important
-if the load does not leave this zone, there is no tension on
the section, if the load 1s outside the middle third, there is at same eccentricity
tension on part of the section 1 3 ~ This
. is not always very b
significant, but some materials have very small tensile 12 Rectangular section as 11 but with load and moment
strength, and then there is a fundamental change in the sombined to form eccentric load (method 2, see para 2.12):
behaviour of the section. This will be described in the later a distribution of stresses; b effect of i n ~ r ~ i load
n g but not
sections on structural materials. changing eccentricity
216 It is possible for the load to have so great an eccentricity
as to lie outside the section. Then bending is more significant
than compression, and the member should be treated aa a
beam.
04kNrn
300kN

- I- - 4 5 0 - - 4
cross section
a
I

0.47,
C I
13 Effect on beam (shown i n 11) of increasing eccentricity:
a stress on left-hand edge decreases until it reaches b, a
trkngle where load f a h within middle third, andjinally
-t c when tension i s produced because load l k outside middle
-1-- third
22 0 Ties
-t-
I 2.17 Members subject mainly to tension are fairly easy
b 1 to analyse, but if the member also bends the treatment is
similar to that for combined bending and compression. As
l l a Rectangular section under load with a moment on the there is no case of instability, tension members can be
section (method 1, see para 2.11); b (top)stress due to very slender; wire or thin strip is often used.
wmpression loading, (middle)stress due to bending, rhe area of a tension member in the stress calculations is
i (below) wmbined stress :he minimum section. Often this coincides with a hole in

f---l
 Technical study Analysis 2 para 2.17 to 3.08 46

the member 14. For a threaded bolt the minimum section

occurs at the root of the thread.

3 Types of structure
3.01 Having looked a t stresses in structural materials and
the design of structural members methods of analysing
structural systems can now be examined.
3.02 These systems are classified:
1 Skeletal structures: Pin-jointed (eg roof-truss 15a) Rigid-
jointed (eg Vierendeel frame 15b)
2 Surface structures (eg shell roof 15d)
3.03 There are also systems which combine elements of each
type-thus a continuous beam system is partly rigid-
jointed and partly pin-jointed (at the supports) 15e.
3.04 Mathematical analysis of structures is a 'kind of
model-making; the structural systems' analysed are model
1
systems .
3.05 Real structures are, of course, three-dimensional, but
for simplicity they are usually split into a number of planar Y
systems. The building frame in 15f is an example of such 1
treatment. I

3.06 Surface structures are often analysed as if they were e

skeletal structures. The multi-storey flat slab system in 15g
is analysed as two separate but interlocking rigid-jointed
skeletal systems.
3.0'1 Rigid-jointed skeletal structures are often analysed as
if they were pin-jointed. A typical example is the common
roof truss 15c where the rafters are large continuous
members.
3.08 The successful solution of a structural problem depends
on the correct choice of model system. There is a particular
method of analysis for each model.

T1 - I

L
o
I

'm~nimm iect:on
14 Tension member-
i n calculations
tie; minimum section area is usea
6
c

a
1

b frame5 4 fromes
like thir like this

g
15 Types of structure: a pin-jointed roof truss (skeleton
structure); b rigid-jointed Vierendeel frame (skeleton
structure); c common roof truss (rigid-jointedskeletal
structure often analysed as though pin-jointed); d Shell roof
(surface structure); e contiicuous beam (combined skeletal and
C
surface); C building frame (analysed as series of planar
systems); g multi-storey flat slab system (surface structure
15 analysed as thcmgh skeletal)
 47
4 Isostatic truss
4.01 I n an isostatic or statically determinate truss all forces
can be determined without consideration of the size or
material of the member. It is the archetype of the pin-
jointed skeletal system.
4.02 The members of this truss are all straight, joints are all
pinned, and all loads and reactions act at the joints. Thus
there can be no bending moments in any of the members.
4.03 Forces on the members are purely axial, and can be
found by resolution a t each joint in turn.
Alternatively the method of section can be used-the truss
is assumed to be cut in two and the forces on each part can
be resolved, so that the internal forces in the cut members
are established.
4.04 For most cases the quickest and easiest way is a
graphical method using the polygon of forces+-Bow’s
notations. (See 16.)
4.05 A letter is given to each of the spaces enclosed by the
members and applied forces, 16a.
3kN
I
I A I be beyond normal hand-methods. I n practice the usual
4.5kN 4.5kN
a frames, are both dangerous and costly when applied to
/Ib
b position. The beams can be designed using results from this
16 aaphioa. method of determining forces i n a roof trwrs:
a truas with spaces lettered to identqy forces and members;
b Bow’s notation ( a special form of the polygon of forces)
which, (f drawn a !. scale, will enable force% i n members to be
measure& directly (see para 4.04 to 4.10). Direction awows
on triangle abc relate to directions of forces around left-hand
support i n a. These directions indicate whether the member
ie i n tension (tie) or compression (strut)
4.06 The Bow’s notation diagram 16b is built up starting
from the left-hand support. The reaction of 4.5 kN is an
upward force dividing space A from space B, going round the
joint in a clockwise direction. Therefore, draw ab vertically
upwards of length proportional to 4 . 5 kN. Continuing
round the joint clockwise, the rafter dividing B from C is
reached. The force in this member is compressive, acting
down the slope towards the joint. Line bc can be drawn
parallel to this force in the same direction, although the
position of c is still unknown. The next member at this
J
joint is the tie CA-its tensile force acting away from the
joint. Drawing ca parallel to this tie establishes the position
of c and hence the lengths of bc and ca. The magnitudes of
*see technical study ANALYSISi para 2.11
Technical study A116lySi6 2 psra 4.01 to 7.04
the forces in BC and CA can therefore be established by
measuring lines bc and ca respectively.
4.07 The joint in the middle of the rafter is considered next
md the procedure is repeated working.clockwisearound the
joint. cb is already drawn, so this acts as the base for this
joint. The magnitude of the load BD is 3 kN, so the position
of d can be established. de and ec are drawn parallel to the
lines of members DE and EC to establish point e.
4.08 Each joint is treated in this way to complete 16b.
Notice that c and j turn out to be the same point in t h e
liagram. The line bd-dh-hk is the same line in reverse as
ka-ab, and represents the external loads on the truss.
4.09 The real truss differs considerably from the model.
For example, the compression in rafter BC is found to be
9 kN. The load from the roof is not applied at the joint, but
rtt a number of points along the rafter, and the bending
moment due to these loads must be found. The combined
bending and axial stresses must also be examined to ensure
that they are less than the permitted maxima.
0.10 Thus analysis of the model system is not the end of the
calculation, but only one of the stages.
5 Space frames
5.01 To a certain extent the popularity of the space frame is
due to the advent of the computer. Nearly all space frames
ttre rigid-jointed, and the analysis of axial, shear, bending
and torsion forces in the members and on the joints would
assumptions for pin-joints, which are so useful in plane
three-dimensional problems.
5.02 Most space frames are designed by specialist COIU3UltantE
or contractors who have access to the complicated computer
programs required.
6 Rigid-jointed frames
6.01 The analysis of a large multi-storey building frame
with rigid joints (17a) is also a job for the computer. But
there is a subdivision process that allows manual methods
to be used.
6.02 First, the beams at each floor level are analysed as
continuous beams supported on pin joints a t each column
analysis 17b.
6.03 Next, the bending moments imposed on the external
columns are estimated using empirical formulae. This
information and the axial loads (estimated from the loads of
the building fabric and superimposed loading 1 7 ~ )are
needed when designing the columns.
6.04 Finally, the wind moments in the columns can be
calculated by one of a number of semi-empirical methods.
This checks that the allowable increase in stress for forces
induced by wind is not exceeded 17d.
7 Continuous beams
7.01 The most common problem in statically indeterminate
structures is the continuous beam. This is a combination of
a rigid and a pin-jointed skeletal system.
7.02 Various ihethods exist for solving the problem-the
theorem of three moments, virtual work, influence co-
efficients, and so on-these can be referred to in standard
textbooks. There are also tables that solve the problem for
various span ratios and loading conditions.
7.03 The method recommended for analysing continuous
beams is the Hardy-Cross or moment distribution method.
7.04 Assume that all the support joints in a run of con-
Technical study Analysis 2 para 7.04 t o 7.10 48

a I

b I

X C
18a Continmm beam with encastre ends showing loading;
b beam when joints are unlocked; C final &-of -balance
moment at emh joint is quite small (see paras 7.04 to 7.07)

with fixed ends 19a by rotating it through an angle 4. A

moment M, is induced a t the right-hand end (see the
M
moment diagram 19b). From para 1.18 the area of the
E1
-
diagram is equal to the change in the slope of the beam ie
4 x (MA f
4= E1
7.09 Also, from para 1.19 the vertical distance of A below
the tangent a t B is equal to the first moment of area of the
M
- diagram about A
E1
C (MA f 2MB) x La
4= BE1
hence M e = - #MA
substituting this in the equation above
L
d=MA X -
4EI
4EI
or MA = - L XtP
4EI
7.10 The quantity - is the stiffness of the beam. Stiffness
L

at
17th Typical multi-storey frame with rigid joints; b beam-to-
b '-
MA

19a Beam with fixed ends, with moment applied to left-hand

end; b moment diagram
column junction at Y ; C beam analysis of typical beam X ;
d typical empirical wind analysis of frame in 17a
kEI
tinuous beams 18a, are locked so that the ends of each span Table I Beam stiffnnesses.h'tiffnws = -L
are horizontal and encastre.
7.05 The end moments in each span are calculated. Continuous both ends
7.06 Then each joint is unlocked, allowed to take up its free stiffness factor k = 4
carry-over 4
position, and locked again. Each time that a joint is un- ~~

locked, the clockwise and anticlockwise moments from the Continuous one end
end moments of the adjacent beams are balanced out 18b. stiffness factor k = 3
carry-over 0
7.07 There is also a carry-over of moment from the unlocked
joint to the locked joints on either side. This must be Symmetrical
calculated and allowed for. As a result, each time a joint is stiffness factor k = 2
carry-over 0
unlocked, the previously balanced neighbouring joint has
some out-of-balance moment reimposed on it. Thus the
distribution method consists of several repetitions or
iterations of the locking and unlocking, until the resjdual
I Anti-symmetrical
out-of-balance moment at each joint is very small 1 8 ~ . stiffness factor k = 6
q ni n, carry-over 0
Theory of moment distribution method
7.08 Apply a moment MA to the left-hand end of the beam
49 Technical study Analysis 2 para 7.10 to 7.21

is defined as the moment required to achieve unit rotation. PL 30 x 5

Table 1 gives the values of stiffness for a few useful beam
MF = -8
=
8
-
- 19kNm
conditions. Total = 71 kNm
7.11 Now M , = - #MA, that is, the carry-over moment is a t C, in span BC, the same as at B by symmetry = 71 kNm
half the magnitude of the applied moment. The negative a t C and D in span CD
sign indicates that a hogging applied moment produces a wLa 25 x 62
sagging carry-over (see 21). This is not the usual sign MF -- - = - = 75 kNm
12 12
convention, and it will be seen later that the carry-over has at D in span DE
the same sign as the applied moment. wLa 25 x 6a
MF = - 8
=
8
-= 112kNm
Continuous beam calculation
7.12 A continuous beam system is shown in 20.
Sign oonventwn
7.13 The stiflness ratios for each pair of spans is calculated
7.1 6 When putting values into the moment distribution
using
table, the correct sign has to be applied to each end-fiuity
kEI
Stiffness = - moment. Considering the moment acting on the end of the
L span, clockwise moments are positive, anti-clockwise
Any quantity (E in this example) that is common to all moments are negative 20b.
spans can be ignored because it cancels out in the ratios.
Table 111 ilrloment distribution table
Table 11 Stiffness ratios for the beam in 20 A B C D E
0.35 10.65 0.59 10.41 0.57 10.43
Span k I L Stiffness
each x E x 10'
B C D
-1-153
-
- 71
-
i-71
+ 2 + 2
-75 +75
+
-112

XI2:
29 53
AB 3 600 x loo 7000 256 0.35
+ 1 =-26 +10
BC 4 600 x 10' 5000 480 0.65 0.59 - 1

CD 4 500 x 10e 6000 333 0.41 0.57 + 4

583 - 1 - 3 - 2 - 1
DE 3 500 x 10' 6000 250 0.43
+123 -123 + 56 -56 +97 - 97 1
central point load
30kN uniform1 distributed
I /load 2lkN/m

' ~
beams of same material, E is constant
6 0 0 0 ~ 6 0 0 0 ~

a
+M moment -ve moment

7 T
)
b
20a Beam loading for example described i n paras 7.12 to
7.28; b sign oonvention for moment distribution
Free span bending moments
7.20 Before the bending moment diagram can be drawn, it
7.14 The calculation in the second half of table 11 can be
is necessary to calculate the free span bending moments:
conaidered in the form:
in AB
Stiffness of AB = 256
wL2
Stiffness of BC = 480 Ms = -
8
(from table I) = 153 kNm
256
Therefore, stiffness ratio of AB = = 0.35 in BC, from distributed load
256 + 480
wL2 25 x 5 2
the stiffness ratio of BC = -
480 M, =
8
- =
8
-
= 78 kNm
736
from point load
= 0.65
PL 30 x 5
7.15 Next calculate the end-fixity moments for each span, M, =
4
-= -=
4
38
assuming that it is encastre a t the supports. The end
supports are assumed pinned, both in the calqulation of Total = 116 kNm
end-fixity moments, and also, as above, in the calculation in CD and DE
of span stiffness. wL2
Ms = - = 112 kNm
At B, for span AB 8
wL2 25 x 7 2
MF = - (From table I) =
8 8
-= 153 kNm Bending moment diagram
7.21 For the bending moment diagram 21, the normal
at B, in span BC, for uniformly distributed loading bending moment sign convention is used-a sagging
wLa 25 x moment is positive, and a hogging moment negative 22.
M F = - =-- - 5 2 kNm
12 12 I n practice, most midspan moments are positive, and
and for point load support moments are negative.
r
Technical study Analysis 2 para 7.22 t o 8.02 50

A 8 C D E 28kN/m 28kNlm

28kNlm
-123

21 Bending moment diagram for beam ahown in 20 b

25a Symmetrical loading ayatem; b anti-symmetrical loading

+ve moment condition -ve moment condition
Table IV Swan atiffnesa-tvmmetrioal
"" w e Y

Span k E I L Stiffness Ratios

--_ -4'
ABbCD 3 - - 0'75}om o.23
0.77

22 Normal e n convention. Bending moment diagrams are 0c 2 - - 9 0.22

generally drawn to reflect the &fleot& profile of the beam,
k with poaative BM below the line and negative BM above 7.26 End fixity moment:
the line WLZ 28 x .4z
At B in span AB M, =
8
=
8
-
= 56 kNm -
Calculations of shears and reactions
7.22 Calculation of shears and reactions Consider span AB,
and take moments for it about B: (see 23)

+13 I -13

Table v Span stiffness- anti-wmmetrical caae

I
Span k E I L Stlffness Ratios
-7-------*7 000
ABbCD 3 - - 0'75}~.42 0.53
o.47
23 Calculation of ahew and reaction of apan A B
BC 6 - - 9 0.67

7.27 End-fixity moment as before = 56 kNm

A B C
0 . 5 3 1 0.47
123
= 25 x 7 x 0 . 5 - -7
= 88 18 = 7 0 k N - + 2 6 I -26
7.23 Similarly, taking moments about A
7.28 Reverting to 'normal' sign convention, and combining
SBA = 4wL + MB
the load cases to give the loading in figures:
MB = ( - 1 3 ) +
(-26) = -39kNm
123
. = 2 5 x 7 ~ 0 . 5 + - Mc = ( - 1 3 ) +
( + 2 6 ) = +13kNm
7
= 88 18 +
= 106kN 8 Portal frames
And for span BC, moments about C

SBC = +wL + 8P + MB - MC 8.01 The continuous beam type of structure may be con-
sidered as a one-dimensional structure, although the loads
123-56 and reactions on it are in a second dimension. But as soon
= + 30 x 0 . 5 + -
25 x 5 x 0 . 5
5 as the structure becomes two-dimensional, as in the portal
- 62 + 15 + 13 = 9OkN frame, the problem is immediately more complex. There a r e
RB = S B A+ SBc = 106 + 90 = 196 kN various methods for dealing with two- and three-dimen-
By this method, all the shears and reactions on the beam sional skeletal frames:
can be found. 1 Moment distribution (as in the previous section)
2 Influence coefficients
Method used for a-symmetrical arrangement of beams 3 Slope-deflection
7.24 I n many cases the structure is symmetrical, but the 4 Kleinlogels tables
loads upon it are not. A typical example is shown in 24. 5 Package computer programs
7.25 Any system of loads can be built up of a gombination The last two are not strictly methods of analysis but the
results of other methods, and can be used to solve a limited

/F, ,
of symmetrical and anti-symmetrical systems. This arrange-
ment is split as shown in 25. number of problems.
8.02 Kleinlogels books of formulae and tables for con-
tinuous beams and various portal and multibay frames can

', be useful, but can involve a lot of work, so engineers tend to

A D
-,-4ooo-1---9
I 000- - 4 4 ooo-l-
24 Structure i s symmetrical but loada are not
use package computer programs. These are available
through computer bureaux but the engineer who frequently
meets this problem will find a computer terminal installed in
his own office, giving access to such programs, will save him
much time and effort. If neither of these methods is
available one of the first three procedures is used.
7

I
 51 Technical study Analysis 2 para 8.03 to 8.08

8.03 Moment distribution is an iterative method. In some Table VI Moment distribution

cases the number of iterations can be excessive and in A B C D
extreme cases the method fails to reach a balanced solution.
0.67 0.33 0.38 0.62
A separate distribution is needed for almost every type of
loading but no simultaneous equations are generated and
-60 + 60
+ 20
- +40 +20 -22.8 -37.2 - 18.6
calculations do not have to be taken to many decimal places. -11..$ +10
8.04 The influence coeficients method is very much more -
+ 3.8 + 7 . & + 3.0 - 3.8 - 6.2 - 3.1
powerful, and can be used on virtually any two- or three- - 1.9 + 1.9
dimensional skeletal structure. Once the flexibility matrix
+ 0.6
- + 1 . 3 + 0.6 - 0.7 - 1.2 - 0.6
- 0.4 + 0.3
has been found and inverted, the result may be used to + 0.2 + 0.3 + 0.1 - 0.1 - 0.2 - 0.1
calculate any number of loading cases without too much
extra work. However, it is not always possible to invert the
i-24.6 +49.2 -49.2 +44.8 -44.8 - 22.4
flexibility matrix by hand. Usually the results depend on
small differences in large quantities, and so sufficient 8.08 These results, table VI, are used to draw the bending
decimal places to ensure a high level of accuracy are needed. moment diagram 29 (B and C are assumed fixed in space;
8.05 Slope-deflection is useful for small structures, but like a force H, is needed to achieve this). Divide the structure
injZuence coeficients it generally leads to simultaneous into its component members 30. For BC, taking moments
equations. about, C:
8.06 To demonstrate the analysis of a statically indeter- V, x 6 - 120 x 3 +
4 9 . 2 - 44.8
minate frame structure, and give some idea of the work :. V, = 60-73 kN and V, = 59.27
involved in quite simple cases, shortened versions of the For CD, moments about D:
analysis of the fixed-foot portal frame 26 by both the +
Hc x 5 = 44.8 2 2 . 4
moment distribution method and the influence coeficients .'. Hc = 13.45 = H,
method are given below. This example is deliberately non- For AB, moments about A:
symmetrical. If either the portal or the load on it are not (HE + Hc) x 5 = 4 9 . 2 +
24.6
symmetrical the frame sways 27 and the direction of sway .: HE= 1 . 3 1 and HA = 14.76
is not always obvious. Particularly in the moment distribu-
tion method, it is important to consider sway.

Moment distribution method

8.07 The frame is first translated into a continuous beam 28.
The stiffness of each arm (method para 7.14) and the end-
fixity moments in BC (method para 7.16) are determined.

A 246 224 D

29 Bending moment diagram for portal frame

-.
I
I20

26 Portal frame example which is analysed by moment HA HD

distribution and by influence coeficients methods

44.0
n
'\ I '\ I Hc IVD

27 Non-symmetrioal portal frame sways

1,
U
VD

22.4

10 Bending moment diagram divided into component

28 Portal translated into wntinuoua beam nembers
-\
 Technical study Analysis 2 para 8.09 t o 8.19 52

8.09 The force at B to maintain the frame in its original nfluence coefficients method
position is 1 * 31 kN to the left and the imposed load at this 1.15 This method produces a series of simultaneous equa-
point is 35 kN to the right. Thus the force applied a t this ions which, for. anything other than an extremely simple
&ed point is 33 69 kN. If all the other loads on the frame tructure, have to be solved on a computer. The theory
are now removed, and the restraints a t B and C released, Behind the method is not really necessary for its under-
the frame will sway to the right a distance d. The rigidity, tanding, and is beyond the scope of these notes.
in the rotational sense, of the joints at B and C is main- 1.16 The equation controlling the method is written:
tained when the restraints on the frame are released. C = -G-lxU
8.10 Both ends of the member in 31 are encastre; B has C, G and U are not single numbers, but represent arrays of
been deflected through a vertical distance d. From Theorem lumbers called matrices. (A brief outline of the theory of
M natrices is given in a footnote after 10.)
1 (para 1.18) the area of the - diagram is zero, therefore i.17 X is a column matrix (or vector) representing the
E1
MA = - Mg. wtraints; G is the flexibility matrix for the structure, and
From Theorem 2 (para 1.19): CT is the particular solution for the given imposed loading.
2 5.18 The portal frame in 26 is statically indeterminate in
+
E1 d = 3L x ( M A Mg) x - L
3
- Mg x L x &L ,he third degree because it has three redundant restraints.
MAL% rhe first operation is to make the frame statically deter-
5- ninate by reducing the restraints by three. Methods for
6
ioing this are illustrated in 33 but for this example the way
ihown in 34 is used. The resulting structure is called the
eeleased structure.
8.11 These results are used in a second moment distribu- 5.19 I n 34 a hinge is introduced at A , and a hinge and t%
tion to find the end-fixity moments. d is unknown and thus moller support a t D. The removed restraints are moments at
can be given any value at this stage, so put 6EI d = 1.
The results of this distribution are shown in 32. But the
moments at the feet of the portal legs are no longer half Fable VII Graphical repreeentution of releasee
the moments a t the heads because of the sway of the frame. Sign Name Transmits
8.12 As before, the external forces on the frame are found cut nothing
by statics:
V, = - VA = 1.84 x lO-'kN
rollers moment
H D = 2.7 x lO-'kN
axial force
HA = 3 . 1 x 10-6kN
H, = 6 8 x 1 0 - 6 k N
hinge axial force
8.13 This establishes t,hat a horizontal force of 5 . 8 x 10-6 __o_ shear
kN at B produces a sway of 1/6E m and moments as shown
in 32. -
--
-
sleeve moment
shear

31 Diagram showing bending moment of encastre member

(see 7a)

r-
33 Various forms of released structures. Graphical

a
conventions for these frame8 are illustrated i n table VIII

32 Second moment distribution diagram

8.14 If these moments are multiplied by

33.69
the
A t&+ L aa
5.8 x 10-6'
result will be the moments produced by the applied horizon-
tal force corrected by the sway due to the non-symmetry
'
of the frame. Table IX allows comparison of the values of the 34 Forms of released structure and restraints chosen for
unknowns obtained by various methods. use in the example

I
53 Technical study Analysis 2 para 8.19 to 8.25

A and D, and a horizontal reaction at D. These are repre

sented by x,, x, and x,, and since the frame is now staticallj
determinate it is quite simple to draw the bending momenl
diagrams for x1 = 1, x, = 1, x, = 1 and for the imposec
loads on the frame 35. The diagrams are always drawn or
the tension side of the member.
8.20 Then integrate together (co-integrate) each pair o
diagrams to obtain the influence coefficients that make UE
the flexibility matrix. For co-integration, consider thc
member AB in 35a and b. If the volume of the solid producec
between a horizontally and b vertically is calculated, anc
divided by the value of E1 for the member, the result is thc G;-1 = 0.089 - 0.336 0.318
co-integral of the member for these two restraints (see 36) - 0.336 1.889 - 1.095
If the moments are on the same side of the member, the 0.318 - 1.095 1.677
co-integral will be positive; on opposite sides, negative
Table VIII lists values for most cases found in practice, anc
using these considerably simplifies calculations.

Table VIII Moment diagram co-integration giving values for

most cases normally found, see 36

I A B AxB

parabolic

rn
2/iMmL

‘IiMmL

L
‘12 rn, m2L

‘15 rn,mlL

‘/b(
‘la rn, rnlL
C x,=l

l------ . 20wm
C -
35kN

I7 5

A D A
!bO 60t 29.17f
d e
35 Bending moment diagrams: a for restraint 1 (x, = 1);
b restraint 2 (x, = 1); c restraint 3 (2, = 1); d uniformly
Zistributed load; and e horizontal load
“I

/?
8.21 Consider restraints 1 and 2 (35a and b):
* x 5 x l x 5 i x 5 x l x 6
g1, = E x 5 -+ E x 3
= + 7 . 5 (if thi
constant divisor E is omitted). To obtain the principa
diagonal of the matrix, each diagram is co-integrated wit1
itself. It is only necessary to calculate the values on onc A
side of the diagonal, as obviously g,, = g13. 36 Ilhatratwn of oo-integration on the member A B

.d
--
 Technical study Analysis 2 para 8.26 to 9-01 54

8.26 Once the particular solution has been calculated the 3 Surface structures
equation can be written as follows:

1 1- 1
x1 = 0.089 - 0.336 0.318 x 1767 :ellular structures
- 0.336 1.889 - 1.095 264 1.01 There are two distinct types of surface structures;
0-318 - 1.095 16771 1181 :ellular structures, composed of flat slabs arranged in a
The signs of the particular solution have been reversed to Box-like fashion, and curved surfaces, shells, domes etc 38.
conform with the negative sign of the controlling equation >ellularstructures are essentially stable, provided that the
in para 8.16. It is now a simple matter to calculate the oints between slabs have been designed and constructed
values of the restraints. For example: o prevent them coming apart, otherwise the structure is
X S = 0.318 X 1767 - 1.095 x 264 - 1.677 x 118 = 75 ikc a house of cards and may collapse, as did Ronan Point.
similarly x1 = 31 and x2 = 34.
8.27 These values may be used to find the values of the
moments a t any point by using 35. For example, to find M,,
add together the values for each restraint and the particular
solution. The restraints are no longer unity, but have the
values computed above: so the diagrams are multiplied
accordingly:
M, = 31 x 5 (restraint 1) +
34 x 1 (restraint 2)
+
75 x 0 (restraint 3) +
0 (UDL) - 175 (hori-
zontal load)
= 14 kNm
8.28 Similarly for the vertical reaction a t D:
1
V, = 31 x 0 (restraint 1) - 34 x :(restraint 2)
6
1
- 75 x ; (restraint 3) 60 (UDL) + 29-17
6
+
(horizontal load)
= 71 kN
8.29 The quantities found by this method are shown in
table IX, where they can be compared with the values found
by moment distribution. The final column gives the results
obtained using a package computer program.

load

w
34 , A 75 D,
49 71

37 Resuk? of the influence weflcients m3thod of analysis

of the portal example

Table IX Results of portal frame analysis

Moment distribution Influence1 Computer
- coefficients
Vertical Sway Total
lmd5

-24.6 +57.0 +32.4 + 34 +37.1

+49.2 -33.2 +16.0 +14 +13.4
+44.8 +30.9 +75.7 . +SO +68.2
-22.4 -47.7 -70.1 -75 -73.1

+60.73 -10.7 +50.0 + 49 +49.2

+59.27 +10.7 +70.0 + 71 +70.8
+14.76 -18.0 - 3.2 - 4 - 4.7
+13.45 +15.7 +29.3 +31 , +30.3
B Surface structures: a cellular structure; b, c shell
kuctures, cylindrical and two-curved
55 Technical study Analysis 2 para 9.02 to 9.09

9.02 One form of cellular structure is load-bearing brick
construction which will be discussed in more detail in
section 8, MASONRY. Analysis generally involves computing
the loading on each vertical panel due to dead and live
loads, and assessing the wind loads by semi-empirical
methods. The dead and live loads carried by each panel can
usually be estimated from the plan of the building. Wind
stresses are found by considering the building as a vertically
mounted cantilever beam. From the plan of a typical floor,
the panels form a complex 'section' of the beam. The
neutral axis and section modulus can be found using the
method described earlier. These values can then be used
to find the maximum stresses in the panels due to wind.
9.03 Analysis of cellular building for wind loading:
wind tensions. But for brickwork or concrete, the compres-
sive stresses (the maximum wind compression plus the dead
and live load stresses) must be within the carrying capability
of the material.
Curved surface structures
9.06 There are many books on curved surjace structures and
it is only possible to outline the subject here. (The reader
is referred to the bibliography.) Before considering the
strength of curved surfaces, it is necessary to consider their
geometric properties.
9.07 Any surface may be considered as a series of lines. A
line that is not straight is said to have curvature. For the
general non-straight line the curvature varies at each point
on the line 39. For the circular line only the curvature is
constant, and is the reciprocal of the radius of the circle:

curvature = -
R
1

heiqht.12 storeys at 2.6m

=31.2m

,4 = 4 x 9 x 0.225 = 8 . 1 m2 I
2
I = - x g3 x 0.225 = 109 m4
3
I 39 Varying radius o j curvature jw non-circular line
109
Z = - = 24.1 n13
4.5 9.08 For a small element of curved surface 40 sections can
Loadings: by taken in the X and Y directions and each of these will
Dead weight on all floors and roof = 2 . 5 kN/m2 be lines with curvatures 1/R, and 1/R, respectively. These
Live load on all floors and roof = 2 kN/m2 curvatures define the surface at any point.
Weight of wall = 4 . 5 kN/m2 9.09 The line ABC in 41 is half a circle with radius R . If
Cantilever moment under wind loading this line is moved so that point A travels along the straight
WL line &M, i t will generate a surface-a half-cylinder. Many
=- = 1 x 9 x 31*22x 0.5 = 4380 kN/m
2 surfaces can be produced by moving one line along another,
M 4380 30 that it remains parallel to itself: these are called surfaces
:. wind stress = & -= f - = & 182 N/m2
Z 24.1 g j translation 42.
or f 0.18 N/mm2
Total dead weight of building = 12 x 2.5 x 92 (floors) +
4 x 4.5 x 9 x 31.2 (walls) = 7484 kN.
Liveloadon building = 12 x 2 x ga = 1944 kN.
7484
:. Dead load stress = - = 920 of kN/m2 or 0.92 N/mm2
8.1
1944
Live load stress = - = 240 kN/ma or 0.24 N / m s
8.1
Maximum compressive stress
= dead load stress + +
live load stress wind stress
+
= 0-92 0.24 + 0 . 1 8 = 1 . 3 4 N/mm2
Minimum compressive stress
= dead load str?ss - wind stress
= 0 . 9 2 - 0 . 1 8 = 0.74N/mm2
9.04 The stresses due to dead load at the same points must
be added to the wind stresses. In loadbearing brickwork, a
tension cannot be allowed: thus the deadload stress must
exceed the tension stress from wind by a reasonable safety
margin.
9.05 In precast concrete panel construction, vertical tie
rods can be inserted in joints between the panels to carry 10 Curvature of a surface
Technical study Analysis 2 para 9.10 to 9.13
9.10 However, the moving line does not always have to be
kept parallel to itself. The ends may follow two different
curves to produce conoidal surfaces 43. If one end is station-
ary while the other describes a circle, the resulting surface
is one of revolution 44.
9.11 Having considered the geometry of the surfaces, their
use in structures must now be considered: .The three basic
types are thick shells, thin shells and membranes.
41 Generation of surface by moving one line ( A B C )along
another ( L M )
42 Surfaces of translation: a elliptical paraboloid;
b hyperbolic paraboloid. Linea at 45' to these curves are
straight, and so the surfaces can be constructed from
straight members
56
43
43 Conoidal surfaces
a b
44 Surfaces of revolution
Thick shells
9.12 A small element of a thick shell, with the main forces
in each face, is shown in 45. These forces shown are called
stress resultants; they are the forces per unit length of
surface arc. To obtain the stress divide by the thickness t of
the shell.
8.13 On each cut face of the shell there are five stress
resultants:
I? is the direct stress resultant a t the neutral axis of the
section
3 is the tangential component
N is the normal component of the shear stress resultant.
But the direct stress is not constant over the section of the
ihell, therefore :
U is the bending moment stress resultant of the direct
itresses on the section
H is the stress resultant of the variation of shear stress
tcross the section; this is a torsional moment.
t'hese stresses are produced by the applied forces P,, P,
Lnd P,. The displacement8 of the element in the x, y and z
lirections can be indicated U, v and w respectively. The
inalysis of these stress resultants requires advanced
,echniaues.
z direction
y direction xdireciion
5 Element of thick shell
57 Technical study Analysis 2 para 9.14 t o 9.22

23.6 x 15,
:. Moment at centre of span =
8
= 664 kNm

A = xrt = 3.142 x rt

Z, = 0.83 tr2
Z, = 0.47 tr2
664
:. fc = = 1185 lN/mz = 1.19 N / m 2
0.83 x 0.075 x 32
664
:. ft = = 2093 kN/m2 = 2.09 N / m 2
0.47 x 0.075 X 32

,z direction
y direction x direction

L L

b
47a, b Shell examples
Folded plate
9.21 A siinilnr forin is tho folded plate. ‘l’liis intiy ailso l)c
consitl(:rccl (is n lwain i t i t h e loiigitiidirinl dirrctiori; I I ~ O I T -
over triitisvcrsc strcsscs rnay bo cstimtitc:tl hy coiisiclcriitg
thc striictitrc a s ii riiti o f continitoris bmms, t h r folds nctiiig
lis thc: siipports. So t h a t this cnri npply t o thn c n d plates,
tho froc cdgcs htivc: to bc stiffcrictl in soinc WHY.
9.22 Exainplc: of foldcd platc shdl 48a. Londiiig (i kN/in2 oii
plan.
Longitudinal beiiding: -
 .-

Technical study Analysis 2 para 9.22 to 9.23 58

wLa 6 x 8 x 20' The section is not symmetrical about the vertical axis
M=-= = 2,400 kNm through centre of area. The vertical load is resolved into
8 8
Equivalent section 48b: components parallel to the principal axes. and the stresses
bd2 0.46 x 3*46a are found.
z=-= 6 6
= 0.92 m3 Span = 12 m free supports.
2400 Snow load 0.75 kN/m2 on plan.
-
:. fb, = fbC= 0.92 = 2.60 N/mm* A = 385 x 103mm?
Transverse bending 48~:
I,, = 15-8 x 109mm4
I,, = 348 x 10s mm4
Maximum negative moment (at B and D)
= 3 x 4p x 0.107 = 5.15 kNm
Maximum positive moment (in spans AB and DE)
= 3 x 42 x 0.077 = 3.70kNm -
1 x 0.1'
Z per 1 m width = -= 0.00167 m3
6 ,

1480 Y
a I 1

I
I60

1220

11.1
w- 6 ~ 0 ~ 63kN/m
0~-

48 Folded plate example: a diagram; b equivalent section;

c tratiaoerse bending

i0 Northlight shell example: a diagram; b lengths; c forces

Loading:
49 Northlight shells i n series
rota1 dead weight of shell = 25 x 385 x 103 x 10-6
Northlight shell = 9.G kN/m run
9.23 A third example is the northlight shell, where the rota1 snow load = 0.75 x 2 - 0 = 1 . 5
transverse action is discontinuous. 49 shows a run of such Total = 11.1 kN/m
shells, stabilised with struts at intervals, with gables t o Resolve this vertical load into components across x and y
ensure maintenance of the profile. I n the analysis of such
a system, the shells can be considered to span as beams.
bxes o f shell: 5012
Each component = 11-1 cos 45' = 7.85 kN/m.
f.
I
-
I
 . I .
, ..
.a.. , I "
,
. i

.- -. , . . _.

59 Technical study Analysis 2 para 9.23 to 9.31

7.85 >: 122 itistwicl of l)c.itig s i i p l ) o r t c ~ l I)y iiiiissivc: I ) t v i t i r s f J r i i t C I L I I

:. Bending momcnt i n each direction =
8 cxrry thcr tliritsts w i t 1 t c ! i i s i o t i s p r i ) d i i c d t)y tlirc!ct strcwc:s,
tlic shc4l c!tlgcrs ( : u t i IN:ctirricvt t)y slc:titlc.r I m i t t i s whic:ti Iiiivc-
= 141 k N m c~ttlyto ttikc t h e shcnw, provided t h u t thcscr berains arc. ILL
Maximum compression in shcll at 13:
4.5' to t h c axes of tho shcll 51b. Those bcains will also bo
15.8 x 109 striiight, iw clcscribccl i t i 42.
zxx = = 4.8 x 107-3
330
141 X 106 Hemispherical dome
*'* fbc = 4.8 x 107 = 2.94 N / m 2 9.27 For t h c c u p of A herrtaspherical dome 52 the cotnpt~(*s-
xi vcr t nct n brurrc sticss t u w i l tut I t i t i I nc:ritliortal direct i c ) t I
Maximum compression at c: nrourid t h c bnsc is T1. I f the u n i t weight of t h c matcriul of
15.8 x 109 t h e dornc is w, by rwolving in t h e vcrticul direction:
zxx = = 9.9 x 10' w x 2nlt ( I - cos Q) = T, siti Q x 2nlt sin Q
160
wR
348 x 109 '1' 1 --
zYY = 1480
= 23.5 x 107 1 + cos Q
9.28 l'rom the oqtlutiort iri puriigrirph 9.15
141 x 106 141 x 108 Tl
- w cos Q = - + 1-' 2
f b ~ = 23.5 x 107 9.9 x 107
e**
16 IC
= 0.60 - 1.42 = -0.82 N/mmz (tension)
Maximum tension at A:
1 + cos Q
wlioro T, is t h c hoop strosa.
15-8 x 108
zxx = = 44 x 106 crown
360
348 X 1g8
ZYY = = 29 x 107
1200
141 x 106 141 x 106
:. fit =
44 x 106 + 29 x 107
= 3.20 + 0.49 = 3.69 N / m 2
I f this stress is assumed constant over whole of beam:
tension force = 3.69 x 250 x 300 N = 277 kN. W i t h a steel
stress of 200 N/mm2 t h e required arc&i n the bcam
277 x 103
-
200
= 1385 nun2
Hyperbolic paraboloid
9.24 Consider t h e speciul ctiso of i i hyperbolic: paraholuid i t )
which parabolas I and 2 i i i 42 tiro idotitical h i t itivcrtoci to
cnch othcr. B y syinrnctry it can bc scoti t h u t whcti IL vcwtical
load w is applicd, tho strcss i t i ouch dircctioti is c:clittiI in
tnagnitudo brit oppositc: in sigil. :In 51a t h c tliotIibrt1tio i t 1
tho x direction is actirig AS i i t i urch, t i t i d i r i thc: y tlircction 9.29 Kxutnplc: firid tho strcrsscs in IL Iictnisphcricnl tl(~tiio
lis t i ctrblt:.
spunnirig 20 In; iniitcrinl thicknoss 7.5 tntn, loatlitig 2 . 4
kN/t n2.
A t t h c c r o w ~ i += 0,so thtit'l', = T 2 = Awl6 = 1 2 . 4 X 10
= 12 kN/rtl
thc: corrcwpotitlirig cotnprcssivc: strossos i i r t r
I2 000
= 0 - 1 6 N-/tiitn2
1000 x 75
At tho spritigitig, thc tncriditltinl strc:ss will bo
!l', = w l t = 24 kN/trl
atid strcss 0 -42 N/miri' coinprossivc.
l'ho hoop stress will bo
= - wlt, so the stress will bo 0 . 3 2 N/tntn2 tcnsilc.
9.30 This hoop stross tnay ciiiiso the cttgc: of t h e dotnc:'to
b sprcid, thits riltoritig the gcotnctry of the stritctrirc. I f this is
pivvciitccl with U ring bcirtn, rioti-tiicttlt)i.IiI)ostrcssos \rill t)c
9.25 I~'rotiit h c ocliicitioii in paru !I. 15; iit thc: s i ~ t l t l l ( ! 1)oirit ititliicctl in t h e shcll ricar the bcatn. Stccl rc:itiforcctric:tit r i t i i
of the! shcll: low stress is iisctl to iivoid tlicsc rioti-tti(:ttil)riiti(: strtrsscbs triltl
q' - ?' 2'1' cxcossivc sprorulittg of t h c cclgc.
\v = 1c- =+ :. "
I = w 1c. a 9.31 I f thc: inuxitniitn strc:ss of 200 N/ttiin2 is iisc:cl, iircroiisc:
9.26 :If the shc:ll is shullow, 16 tloc:s tiot, vitiy gt'(vitly ovot' i t s in circittrifcroticc is
sitrfacc, and i t ciiti h: showti tliiit tlio s t t ~ c wrc:siiltiitits i t 1
cticli diroctioti rctnairi cotistiitit. Also thwo is t i o t t i ( : t n t ) t . t i t i o
sl~t:rit~ i t i t h c x i i t i d y ctircrctiotis. 1 t litis I N ( ~ I I foiiii(1 cwrlic:t. = 60 iiiin, which will ctiiiso thc (liiiitictor to itictwisc t)Jf
1,hit.t ~ I I L I I C : ~tit. 4.5" to thc: x r i t i c l y iixos ltii,vi: shc:tit. stivss (i0
r~~sitlti~tits of 4 w 16, bitt tio tlitcct strc:ssc:s. 'l'liis trioiitis t h t
- = 1!)111111.
n
I I
Technical study Analysis 2 para 10.01 t o 10.07 60

Technical study
Analysis 2 Section 2 structural analysis

I ) A V I I ) AI)LICI~’S analysis o j structural types

Structural types (part 2) concludes with a section on tension structures. It k
followed hy art appendix to the iuhole .section o j the hndbook

10 Tension structures 10.04 ‘PhC I.CSllltS for IllUllbC!~Sof l<JatlSC C ~ l l U l l yspilCCd along
thc cablo 55 can bc, dctcriniiicd by II similar method:
Cable structures L = 1(1 kr2) +
10.01 Thc two main typcs of tcnsion structures aro cab10 niirnber of l<~ads = 1 2 3 4 5 G infinite
striicturcs ttnd mcrnbrtriie structurcs. ‘l‘ho simplcst form of k = 2 3 2.5 2.8 2 . 6 2 . 7 2.67
cnblc structurc IS the vertical tic, fixed at thc top with nloacl 10.05 Now, consider the samc system 54b by vertical
on the bottom. The cxtcrnal wall and the outcr cdgcs of thc rcsolrition at tho point of suspension of thc loud:
floor slnhs are carricd on vertical tics susporidcd from 2T sin t$ = P
itirissivc roof-levc.1 cantilavcrs that arc ctwricd by thc: contra1 thc tcnsion in thc cablc is rcsolvctl into horizont,ul and
service corc. Tho cxtcrnal wnll can bc vcry slcndcr in vertical components H and V:
coitipririson with moro normal comprcssion clcmcrrts and H = T COS t$
tho oiily support at ground level is that for thc ccntrd corc.
Thc analysis of such IL frtimc i s vcry simple and riccd not be --
2 tan t$
P
but tan t$ =
I
-
211

considcrcd further.
PI
10.02 Cables can bo usod to span largo horizontal disttrricos, ... H. = -
41 I
making thc bcst iisc of weight. Howcvcr, tlic cablc must bc
rcliribly anchored rind thc system oftcn rcciuircs considcrablc PI
now - is tho midpoiiit moincnt (M,) prodiiccd iti a sirnply
coinprcssion clemcnts. 4
10.03 Tho cablc i n 54a has longth L and ncgligiblo sclf- sripportod beam of spiiti I under point load P. It can be
wcight. Thc horizoritrrl distancc bctwccn thc arichoragcs showii that for other loiuliiig conditions
IS I, I I I I ~ thc sag is h undcr thc singlc, central l o r r d 1’. From
I’yt,li+igoix.s’thcorcin:
H = -MS
h
I2 Thus, a cablo undcr virtually uniforln vortical loai for
- -- -12 + h2 horizontal iricromoiits will take rip tx piwabolic form nrd
4 4
w I2
:. L = ld(1 + 4); H = -
8h
h If the cnblo is hcnvy, howvc!r, i t has (I iciiiform vcrtical load
put r = - (r = 8ag ratio) for iricrctnarits along the curve of the cable and not for
I
L = Id(1 4r2) + horizoiital iricrcrnents. T h e shapc is thon a catenary.
if r is small; that is, thc sag is small compnrcd to thc spar1
1 -1- 412 is approxirnutcly = ( 1 +
2r2)2
+
:. 1, = I (1 21.2)

P P P
55 Cable loaded with uariow equally spaced loads

10.06 Obviously, a cablc with a ririmbcr of equal loads on it,

P changcs its profile according to the changes in these loads.
a
Thus, it would not be suitable to support a roof under II
single cable as i n 56 because if the wind blew or the AllOW
drifted in an wlcvcn fashion, thc roof would change its shape
violently and suddenly.
10.07 There are threc mcthods of overcoming this :
1 Incrcase thc dcad wcight of the suspcnded loads. Despitc
obvious disadvantagcs this makes thc cffcct of incidental
loadings less significant
2 Stay each load with sccondtrry cablcs. Theso carry tho
54a Simple centrally loaded rxzble; b forces incidental loads and so maintain thc main system’s btwic
 Technical study Analysis 2 para 10.07 t o 10.09

56 Unatabilised cable structure

shape. It is not always possible to do this. Also the method

is somewhat clumsy
3 Use a multiple cable system in which the supplementary
cables have the effect of introducingprestress intomaincable.
Various system shapes are produced by this method 57.
10.08 Analysis of such systems introduces the secondary /
effects of the strain of the cables under load. The natural
frequency of the structure as a whole and the natural
frequency of each part of the structure is important; if

\
b

C / I

58 Five types of tension membrane including a hyperbolic

paraboloid

natural frequencies approach the wind gusting frequency of

about three seconds, then the roof, or part of it, may suffer
e from unpleasant or dangerous vibration.
57 Stabilised cable systems: a stabilisation cable above
suapenawn cable; b stabilkatwn cable under suspem'on Tension membranes
cable; c stabilisatwn cable partly below mapension cable; 10.09 It wa.4 said earlier that the true membrane can only
d bicycle wheel form; e arch system with cable net sustain tensile forces. When dealing with thin shells, these
1
 Technical study Analysis 2 p a r a 10.08 t o A p p e n d i x 1 62

were considered capable of taking a certain amount of oom.
pression. Thin shells, however, can be placed wholly in
tension by praatressing. 58 shows a hyperbolic paraboloid
of this type, rn well as other shapes which can also ba used
in a similar fashion.
terms usecl in thc text of this section of the haiadbook.
Reference is to the paragraph in which they first appear.
Propwties of sections (table of shapes referred to in technical
study ANALYSIS 1 para 3.38) IS not now Appendlx 1 , but
forms information sheet ANALYSIS 2.

11 Bibliography
Symbol or Oescriptien Techniati stuw
1 BOMMER, c.
and SYMONDS, D. A. Skeletal structures:
M. term Analpia 1 Arutysis 2
matrix methods of linear structural analysis using influence para Para
A . area of section through structural
coefficients. London, 1968, Crosby Lockwood and Son member 3.13
L(2-1 (K)1 O / P b breadth of a section through structural
2 COWAN, 1%. J. Architectural structures: an introduction to member 3.59
structural mechanics. New York, 2nd edition, 1976, Elsevier
[(2-) (K)] $14 00 BY area of part of a section of a structural
member above a line distance y above
3 ENCIEL, 1%.Structural systems. London, 1968, Iliffe Books the neutral axis 3.54
LP-1 (K)1 O/P beam structural member under mainly
4 JENKINS, R. S. Theory and design of cylindrical shell bending stresses 1.01
structures. London, 1947, pblislicd privately by the Ove
Aritp group of structural engineers, may be in short supply. BOW'S a method of finding forces in members
notation of an isostatic truss 4.04
[(2-) (K)1
5 LISBORG, N . Principles of structural design. London, 1961, cantilever a beam supported wholely at one end 1.1 4
Batsford [(2-) (K)] o/p
carry-over the moment produced at the other end
6 SALVADORI, M. and LEVY, M. Structural design in archi- of a beam by balancing the moments
tcctilrc. Englewoocl Cliff, NJ, 1967, Prentice-Hall [(2-) at the near end in moment distribution
method 7.1 1
(K)] $13.95
7 SIIANLEY, F. IL. Strength of materials. New York, 1957, centre of point on a section where G about any
McGraw Hill [Yy (K)] o/p area axis through that point is always zero 3.16
8 Steel Designers' Manual. London, Crosby Lockwood [(2-) centre of point in a body through which its
Yh2] Pourth edition (metric) 1972 $11.00; (paperback $7.00) oravity weight always acts 2.1 9

co- a method of calculating influence

Footnote: matrix algebra integration coefficients 8.20

'1.01 The following is a very short exposition of basic matrix algebra, and should component portion of force acting in another
be just enough to understand the working of the portal frame example using the direction 2.04
influence coefficients method (para 8.16 of technical study ANALYSIS 2).
1.02 Consider the set of simultaneous equations: continuous beam supported in more than t w o
a,x +b , y + cI z = uI beam places 7.01
a,x+ b , y + c , z = u ,
a,x+ b , y + c , z = u , couple a pair of equal and opposite forces
wherex,yandzareunknown quantities,and a,. a,. b,.c,. u,etcarecoefficients producing a constant pure moment in
whose values are known. (They are ordinary numbers-6, 1 .43. or -17.9). a plane 2.09

p:::::-J [n] ];E[

1.03 The set of equations can be written:
d depth of section of a structural member 3.59
a, b, c s =
deflection displacement of a point on a structural
and this can be represented : member produced by loading 1.16
A x X = U
1.04 Here A. X and U are not numbers: they are matrices composed of arrays of dome a type of membrane structure 9.27
numbersarranged in a particular way. These matrix quantities obey many of the
rules of ordinary arithmetric, and CO i t is possible to write 9 eccentricity of load on a column 2.1 2
X-A-IxU
A - * (the reciprocal of A) can be calculated; but i f it is large, say bigger than extension
three elements square, a computer is needed to do the calculation. 3 strain of a structural member=-
length 3'41
1.05 The items within the matrix are known as elements. These elements are
arranged in columns and rows and are usually written g m mwhere, m is the number stress
of the row, and n the number of the column occupied by the element. Thus, the E Youngs' modulus = -
strain
3.42
matrix above would be written:
g,,g,rg,r ?lasticlimit the point on a stress-strain curve
B S I Btr Sr. beyond which strain increases
g,, 8 3 1 93, non-linearly with stress 3.44
1.06 If g.. is always equal to grim, then the matrix is symmetrical-this is
relatively common. The diagonal with elements g., is called the principal tncastr.6 of the end of a beam, built-in, fixed i n
diagonal. a horizontal position 1.24
1.07 To multiply two matrices together, multiply thefirst element of r o w one in
matrix A by the first element of column one in B. the second element i n row one !nd-fixity in moment distribution method,
i n A by the second element i n column one in B, and so on along r o w one in A and noments moments at the ends of spans,
down column one i n B. Then add all these quantities together to obtain thefirst assuming them encastr.6 7.1 5
element on r o w one, column one in the resulting matrix.
1.08 For example i f C = A x B jquilibriant force applied to a system of forces not

andc,. -
cII = a,, x b,,
a,,x b,.
+
+
a,, x b?,
a.,x
+
+
a,, x b,,
b Z n a.,x
+ ...
b,.
Note that A x B does not necessarily equal B x A.
+
. .
.....
in equilibrium, to cause it to be in
equilibrium 2.12

1.09 For a fullertreatment the reader is referred to Bommer and Symonds (see !quilibrium a state in which a body remains at
bibliography), or. to Matrix methods of structural analysis by P. K. Liveslek rest, or moving at constant velocity 2.10
(Pergamon Press). The method of influence coefficients was developed at
Imperial College by J. C. de C. Henderson and his colleagues. h l e r load maximum load that can be carried on a
strut before i t fails by buckling 2.05

Appendix 1 : Index direct stress. compression or tension 3.06

a direct stress due to force at centre of

This appendix lists and tlc4incs tlic c*sscritialsyrnbols and area 3.23
 --
. . T
63 Technical study Analysis 2 Appendix 1

f bx direct stress due to bending about the prismatic one with cross-section constant
X axis 3.23 member along its length 3.03

direct stress due to bending about the I 2.06

f by
Y axis 3.23 r radius of gyration = 1/ -
A

first moment R radius of curvature 3.46

of area G 3.1 5
R reaction force 2.1 2
force undefineable phenomenon known
mainly by its effects 2.01 isostatic version of staticElly
released
structure indeterminate frame produced by
free span on a beam in a statically indeterminate releasing restraints 8.18
bending structure; moment that would occur
moment if the beam were simply supported 7.20 summing the components of forces in a 2.04,
resolution
specified direction 2.1 1
g,, etc influence co-efficients 8.1 5,
restraint a redundant force, making a structure
G first moment of area about a given statically indeterminate 8.18
axis 3.1 5
resultant a single force with the same effect as
Gx first moment of area about the X axis: a system of forces 2.03
= s u m o f y x SA 3.1 5
rotation motion in a circular mode 2.1 4
G flexibility matrix in the method of
influence coefficients 8.17 S shear stress 3.06

Hardy-Cross alternative name for moment S shear force 3.48

method distribution method 7.03
second moment of inertia of a section 3.28
I second moment of area of a section moment of
about a given axis, sometimes called area
the moment of inertia 3.28
section the shape produced i n cutting through
Ix second moment about the X axis a member 3.03
= sum of y' x 8 A 3.28
shear centre the Foint through which a shear force
IXY product of inertia = sum of x x y x SA 3.29 produces no torsion 3.50

influence method of analysis for two- slenderness L

coeffiqients dimensional continuous structure 8.1 5
ratio
of a strut =
r
- 2.06

isostatic one in which all the forces may be

structure determined solely by using the laws stiffness of a beam or column = -
kEI
L
of statics 4.01
(k is a constant depending on the type of
3.25 beam) 7.1 1
j. k constants used in theory of bending

length of a structural membei stress See f

L
between nodes 1.03
stress a line showing the direction of a
trajectory principle stress 3.70
M moments of various kinds; a moment
is thb product of a force
extension
magnitude and the distance of its line train e=- 3.41
of action from point i n question 2.07. 'length

Mx bending moment about the X axis 3.22 tructure something that changes the magnitude,
direction or position of natural forces 3.02
member a constituent of a structure 3.03
trut a structural member under mainly
membrane a shell so thin as to have no flexural compressive stress 2.01
rigidity 9.1 4
Drsion a moment in the plane of a section.
middle third a zone in which a reaction falls if there producing twisting on the member 3.49
is no tensile stress on a given area 2.23 2.1 5
J in the method of influence coefficients.
moment an iterative method of analysis for the particular solution for the loading 8.17
distribution two-dimensional continuous structure 8.07
v uniformly distributed load on a beam
moment of second moment of area of a Section 3.28 per unit length 1.13
inertia
v weight of a body, or a point load
Nb hoop force in a dome 9.29
in method of influence coefficients.
neutral axis axis through centre of area of section 3.47 the column matrix of restraints 8.1 6

node a point i n a structure at which the :axis generally a horizontal axis in the plane
longitudinal axes of two or more of section of the member 2.04
members meet 3.03
' axis generally a vertical axis in the plane of
P a force or point load 2.04 section of the member 2.04

photo- a phenomenon that renders the stress : axis generally a horizontal axis in the plane
elasticity in a particular material visible 3.71 of elevation of the member 2.1 3

plastic constantly increasing deformation 'oung's stress

E=- 3.42
deformation under an unchanging stress 3.43 nodulus strain

7,. Poisson's ratio ratio between perpendicular X the section modulus about the X
( U sigma) deformations due to uniaxial stress 3.64 Ix
axis =- 3.33
principal direct stresses in planes with zero ymax
stresses shear stresses 3.69
 Information sheet Analysis 1
64

Information sheet
Analysis 1
Section 2 Structural analysis

Standard beam This sheet tabulates formulae and values of momenb ( M ) ,

conditions reactions ( R ) ,shear force (S)and deflection (6)i n beams for a
nuTber .of common loading and support conditions. It covers
cantilevers, free support beams, fixed-end beams, and
propped cantilevers

1 Cantilevers 2 Free support beams

Wa3
,a, = 6, = -x
8EI

(1 +E) ,,a, at cnntrn =

5
-
384
WL3
-
+ i)
.x
E1
M,,, = w (a
L,; s,, = It, = w
,,a, = 6,
- -W (Sa3
-
18n2 b +
b
+
24E1
12ab2 3b3) +
I 'I
x = 1% + ItL x -
W

M, = P, M,,, = PR
11, = -
L 2 (- + .)
w I)
s, = It, = P
l'R3
6, = -
3 E1 if 1% = c
Pe3
,,a, = 6, = -
3EI
x

(1 + ):

WL3
Smnx = -
GOEI
If 4 = GOo M = 0.0725 wL3
R = 0.217 wL2
!
65 Information sheet Analysis 1

M,
M,,,,
s,
= "(I
3
= 0.128WL
= 0.5774L
- e) L ', L/4
P
M

"
P
N
P
P

1 L14 1 L/4 I, L/4 1,

e " 1
R
M,,,,, = M, =

M M = Mp =
PL
-
2
3PL
-
8
W
ItL = -3 R,=R -
U--
2
3P

2w
= -
19 PL3
It, 6max = -
3 384EI
0.01304WL3
6 , , , = 6x2 =
151 PI PI PI 5PL
x2 = 0.5193L Mmax = -
12
PL
PL L M M = MP ---
1 4
4
L P
R, = It, = -
2 53 PL3
PL3 6max = -
1296EI
Smax =48~1

I I R, = R R = 2P
41 PL3
ab
6max =
768EI
-
lP M,,,= P 7- = M,

'I 'I ,6 always occurs within

0.0774L of the centre'of the I

beam. when a > b

When b 2 a
6 centre =
PL3
48EI
-
X

C3; - 4(;)3]
L ' L . R
This value is always within whenM, = M,,
2.5 per cent of the maxi- ML2
6, = --
mum value. 8EI
3E12);(
6 , = PL3 (1 - 2);
WL
M, =
2
-
(m4 - 2m3 + m)
Pa(b 2c) + 5WL
MM= 2L Mmax =
32
-
L Pc (b 2a) + W
M, =
2L RL = RR =
2
-
R, =
P (b 2c) + L
6.1 WL3
6max = -
L 384 E1
R,
P (b 2 4
=
+
L

R, = R, = w (N + ')
I I
6max = -
648EI wL3N
6 =- x
' 24EI
(1 - 6n2 - 3n3)
wL4
6max =
384EI
-(5 - 24n2).

N
n = -
L
Information sheet Analysis 1 66

w
J/* &IL = - --
I2L'b
;..

' p ' c
MR
e3 (.I -3C)-C3

W
12L2b
x
(4L-3c)
1

r+
w/unit lenqth
11, = -
wN2
-
2
c
i~

I)
d3(4L- 3d) - a3 (4L - :$(I)

+ b = rl
+
c =0
1
HL =
\v(N L)L + \\,hen I' = I'cn~tloll if the
2L bcmi \vci'c simply suppor-
w ( L i- N ) (1. - N ) ted,

+ M L L- M,
1c, =
2L 12, =
wL3N
- (3n3 4nZ - 1) +
+ M R -I > ML
6, =
24EI it, = r,

24EI
-
6, = wL4 [m4 - 21n3 when a = c,
- W
(1 - n2) + in ( 1 - 2112)
I
xn =
wL3N
6 Q -- - -
24EI

-
X

L
N
(2112 - 1)
~~

!p p;ab:y:

R
M,=M
5WL
MM=-
WL
- - =-
9WL
-
R - - -
WL
10

I1 = -
L
32 10 160

1 . 3 WL3
6max =-
384 E1

ML=M,= - AS
-
L
M I I) where A, is the area of the
3 Fixed-end beams 1 free bending moment dia-
centre of area of gram
half fixed end BMD W
11, = M, = -
WL
- R L = R, = -
2
12
WL A ~ -
x A,x,
- =
M, =
W
24 - xt -i
centre of area of
6max
2EI

RL = R, =
2
- half free end BMD

points of contraflexuro
0.21L from each end
WL3
6max =
384EI
-
P
Wa
, - -12L
-x R, = R, = -2
PL3
L R (3L -2a)
Wa
6max = -
192EI
M, = --
4
+ ML
W
R L = RR= -
2
Wa2
a,,, =--
48E:I (L - a)
67 Information sheet Analysis 1

It, = R R = 21’
PL3
L a , = --
96x1

Pa3bi
SH = -
3EIIA3
2paeb3
Smax =
3EI (3L - 28)’
La
atx = -
- 2a
3L
4 Propped cantilevers WL
M, = - -
8

RI+!‘ M=Oatx,=&
RL = #W
It, = RR = P
XI=
X 1tR = #w
PL3 if m = 3 - x1
Smax = -
l92EI
a = - WL3
48EI
(m - 3m3 + 2m4)
WL 3
ama, = -
185EI

at xl = 0.5785

Wb
MM = -8 (6b1 - b13 - 4)
2 - blz
M = 0 where xl = -
b,= b 6 - bl’
L

XI’ xL
W
RR = -(b13 - 6b1
8
+ 8)
ifx < a
WbL
3P a=-----48EI X
ItL = = 7
L
[(b12-6) x13-(3b12-6)x12]
4 1 PIA:’ if x . 2 a
6,, = -
5184EL
- WL4
48EI
[ 2p4-p3b, (b13-6bl + 8)
+ pb1’ (3b12-8b1+ 611
where p = 1 - x1
 i

Information sheet Analysis 1 68

any symmetrical load W If As = area of free bending

moment diagram
3A s
R ML=-
21

R,=-P
11 w ML
RL=-+y-
16 2
5
R,=-P
16
centre of gravity
7PL3 of 5 ' 6, at X where area Q =
6, =
768EI
- area R
p13 area S x X x d
,,6, = 0.00932 - sm,, =
E1 E1
at x = 0.553L

Pb
ill, = - - (1 - b,')
2
L
b, 0.577)
=
Pb
MH = - ( 2 - 3b1 b1')
2
+
(maximum 0.174PL if
b, = 0.366)
Pa2
RR = 3 L2 (bi f 2)
Pa3b2
a m = -- x (4L
12EI L3
- a)

+ I
2
M, = - P L
9
4
RL = - P
3
2
R, = - P
3
p13
,,6, = 0.0152 -
E1
a t x = 0.577L

1DPL
ML=- -
48
21PL
M, = -
96
53PL
MP =-
288

54P
R, = -
48
p13
,
6 = 0.0169-
E1
at x = 0577L
 69 Information sheet Analysis 2

Information sheet
Analysis 2
Section 2 Structural analysis

This information sheet lists 26 geometrical sections and

Properties of gives formulae for obtaining their area, distance of extreme
sections fibre from neutral axis, moment of inertia, modulus, and
radius of gyration.

Modulus Radius of gyration

Distance (y,) of Moment of inertia
Section shape extremity of section
from neutral axis
about neutral axis
x i.: (I,) z<= (i)
x- f
?
!
I
J -x -ae -n3U
h
-d2 1
-bd3 -61 b d2
12

-a2 -
-
a1(
12
n2* H1( - n,'
6 AI

b,dI3 - b,d,: b, dI3 - b, d,3

e
12 ti d,

X- -x
a
- = 0.707 R -
fl4

1"
d?

bd b3dJ
x
d b 2 + dz 0 (b? 4- d
')

b sin 4 +d COR 6
2

It

a-
4;
2
-58 n3
4 8
-d - ( 4 4 3 -5) d4 - ( 4 4 2 - 5) dS dd1.057 = 1.027 d

2 3 3 bd d' cas' 4 + b' sin' 4

= 0.8758 d4 = 1.7616 dS (
% dcoa ) + bsin 4
Information sheet Analysis 70

Distance (yl) of Moment of inertia Modulus

Section shape extremity of section
from neutral axis
about neutral axis
x >: (I,)
2, = (k)
b .d3
36

Cl
-
nd*
= 0.0491 d'
-
64 4

.-.ex - --0.212 d
2 d.
3- 192 (a n - 4)
= 0.024 (13
12 n
= 0.132 (1

-
b (1:
W
= 0.04!11 b Li:'
nbd
- -' - 0.0989 b c1? -d4
64 33

-
1
12
(b d3 - bld13)

-2
tl

d
2
-191 (I, tl:' - l>,d,x)

3 (bd l~,d,)

-Cl
2

t-n -2
d b, d3 + 1) dI3
Gd

+ b dI3 +
b, d3
(i (I J bd13 L,d3
12 (bd, -t- b,d)
I
1 AJ Handbook of ' '
Building Structure
edited by Alian Hodgkinson
In its first edition, this Handbook became a standard
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Guide to the Building Regulations
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