Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
FORMATION
Structure
1.1 Introduction
Objectives
1.8 Sunlmary
1.9 Key Words
1.10 Answers to SAQs
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Soil is a complex dynamic system. It is difficult to give a unique definition of soil as its
observation is ~ub~jective in nature. Joffe (1949) defined soil as a natural body of mineral
and organic constituents, differentiated into horizons of variable depth that differs in
material below in morphology, physical make up, chemical properties, compsition and
biological characteristics. However, soil for the purpose of agriculture is defined as a
dynamic natural body formed due to pedogenic processes during and after weathering of
rocks possessing chemical, physical, mineral and biological properties and acting as a
medium for plant growth.
Soils are formed as a result of weathering of rocks and minerals by physical and chemical
processes. Before the processes of soil formation start, the parent material may be
transported through the action of air, water, ice and gravity and deposited to produce soil.
Coupled with weathering. climate (precipitation, temperature), organism (flora and fauna)
and relief (elevation, slope) act slowly over time (age) on parent material to form the soil.
The soil forming factors act sufficiently for long periods of time (20-50 years) at lower
depths and cause the development of soil morphology representing the succession of soil
horizons called soil profile. The soil, thus, in effect is a dynamic system.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
define soil,
state soil as a medium for plant growth,
describe the composition and phases of the soil,
list the processes involving the genesis of soil.
Physical Properties of Soils explain the activities behind soil formation,
explain the role of rocks and minerals in soil,
characterise soil profile, and
identify rnicromorphologic feature of soil.
-
Approximate composition of these in a typical top soil can be represented in Figure 1.1.
-
Soil
-
I I I
So11d Phase Wquid Phase Gas Phase
x Volume (50) (25) (25)
I
~nor'ganic ~ r ~ a n i c Water Salts Soil Air
x Volume (40) (10)
X Weight (85) (5) Cations Aniom 2RH % lOOX
Material
I
Residual
(Sedentary!
Gravity
Ice
Step 2
Product of
2, .isintegration + [g2]
H20 Decomposition
Soluble constituents (aq) + Secondary minerals
i) ~ a * , ~ g * , ~ a ' , '
HCOT, SOT -, C1-
K i) Clay minerals
ii) Hydrous oxides of
Fe, A1 and Si
ii) Si(OH)4 iii) Carbonates
iv) Sulphates
[Ice
Ice
IMeltwater 1 Till, Moraine
Loess (Silt).
Dunes (Sand)
} I
I I I
. geothite and hematite which commonly occurs as coating on the surface of soil particles of
all sizes but in particular the clay particles. Gibbsite is found in highly weathered soil in the
tropics or semi-tropics. In some of these soils gibbsite and hydrous iron oxides are the most
abundant consituents. Weathering is sufficiently intense to remove, by leaching, practically
all elements except ferric iron and aluminum, which form highly-insoluble oxides or
hydrous oxides and are, therefore, very immobile.
'
In the past, these soils were called
laterites but are known today as oxidols.
Besides being a possible source of plant nutrient, these iron minerals provide an indicator of
leaching and of the drainage status of a soil. In soils called spodosols (formerly podzols) a
white, bleached layer occurs near the surface from which all the hydrous iron oxides have
been removed. Drainage status of a soil may also be indicated by the hydrous iron oxides.
Well-drained soils have sufficient oxygen present to maintain iron in a ferric state, which
results in bright-red, brown and orange colours. If water fills the pore space in soil, reducing
the oxygen supply for extended periods of time during the year, some ferric iron is reduced
to ferrous iron and gray colour becomes mixed which is called motting. Degree of
development of motting can be used as a measure of the drainage status.
Carbonate group
Calcium carbonate remains in a soil in arid or sem-iarid areas. Lesser the rainfall,
carbonates are found closer to the surface. Calcite is hard, cemented layer in a soil, resulting
from the accumulation of carbonates. When rainfall exceeds about 640 mm, per year, as in
humid areas, carbonates are completely leached out of a soil. Limestone-derived soils form
insoluble residue (mostly silicates) gets accumulated as the carbonates are leached away.
Sulphate I
Gypsum is found only in some arid area soils. It is by far the most water-soluble and
therefore, the mostreadily leached. In soil, it is found below calcite which is less soluble
and hence less mobile. Small quantities are used as sources of the plant nutrients, e.g.,
calcium and sulphur. It can be used to amends the highly alkaline soils in arid areas that
contain excessive sodium (sodic soils) and as a result, are unsuitable for agricultural
purposes. Large application of gypsum result in replacement of sodium by calcium,
reducing alkalinity. The physical condition of the soil is also greatly improved.
Apatite - Rock Phosphate
Small amounts of apatite are found in the silt and sand even in highly weathered soil. The
insolubility of apatite, under most soil conditions, prevents it from supplying adequate
amounts of Phosphate for plant growth. Ground rock phosphate if used as a fertilizer, must
be very finely ground and be applied at much higher rates than manufactured phosphate
fertilizers.
1.6.5 Igneous Rocks
Approximately 95% of the 10 mile thick crust at the surface is igneous in origin. This rock
forms by the cooling of a molten magma, which results in formation of a hard mass of
interlocking crystals. Thus igneous rocks are often referred to as crystalline or hard rock.
Occurrence of fossils is precluded because of the high temperatures involved. Igneous rocks
are classified on the basis of two properties, texture and mineral composition. Texture,
which refers to size of mineral grains, IS determined by the rate of cooling of the magma.
Rapid cooling such as would occur at the earth's surfact; with lava (extruded magma)
results in fine textures with grains too small to be seen with the unaided eye. Slow cooling
as happens when magma is enclosed within the crust, forms crystals sufficiently coarse to
be seen and identified with the naked eye. Minera!~in igneous rock are divided into
essential minerals which are present in large amounts and determine the rock type and
varietal and accessory minerals which nay be present and occur in smaller anlounts.
Essential nunerals are a combinatin of one or more of the primary minerals. Quartz, feldspar
and ferromagnesians, amphibole and pyroxene.
Two igneous rocks, granite and basalt are the most abundant types within the crust and our
attention will therefore be devoted to these.
Physical Properties of Soils Granite
This is a coarse-grained rock which is granular or crystalline in appearance. Orthoclase and
quartz comprise about 90% of the rock, giving it a white to pink colour. The black speckeled
appearance is due to the occurrence of biotite and or amphibole which make up most of the
remaining 10%. It is major rock type underlying the continents.
Basalt
Basalt is a fine-grained dark-coloured rock which underlines the ocean basin. Most lava
eruptions result in formation of basalt. Pyroxene and calcium-rich plagioclase in about equal
proportions, comprising approximately 95% of rock. A minor amount of olivine or
amphibole may be contained. A coarse-grained equivalent of basalt is called gabbro.
Diabase is a smaller rock intermediate in grain size between basalt and gabbro.
SAQ 3
Which rock type is known as hard rock '' Nnrllc two varelies.
I Basalt
Sandstone Quartzite
I
Shale , Slate
I
I Limestone 1 Marble I
Gneiss
Gneiss is a crystalline rock with a banded appearance. Light-coloured minerals, feldspar,
quartz, and mica roughly alternate with bands of dark, fenomagnesian minerals.
Schist
Schist is a finely-foliated or laminated rock composed principally of micas and or chlorite,
together with some quartz and ferromagnesian minerals.
Slate
This is a very finely textured rock with minerals tocr small to be seen. It characteristically
splits into relatively thin smooth sheets. Mica, chlorite and quartz are the principal mineral
in slate.
Quartzite
It is non-foliated rock, composed almost wholely of quartz grains cemented together by
silica cement. This resultsin a very tough hard rock. It is distinguished from sandstone by
fracture surface passing through, rather than around quartz grains.
Marble
Marble is a non-foliated crystalline rock, composed of calcite or dolomite. Individual grains
may range in size from very fine to grains sufficiently coarse to manifest the typical
rhombohedra1 cleavage of carbonates.
- -- - --
' \
\
\
t
Solum
Po!ypedon
roil)
(ind~v~dual
Consistency Ca++
Clay lense Mg++
Roots ~ a +
Crotorians K+
Pores Total soluble salts
Water holding capacity Cation exchange capacity
Mottlings Anion exchange capacity
Concretions Organic carbon
Artefacts Primary and jecondary minerals
External characters
Form Drainage condition
Linearity Ground water level
Sloped
Erosion
You will study these characters in details in subsequent units.
1.7.2 Soil Horizons
Soil horizons tell much about the history of soil formation; of the several horizons, the
master horizons are the results of the fundamental soil-forming processes viz. accumulation
of humus (humification), leaching of organic matter and salts (eluviation) and deposition of Soil :~ t Composition
s
and Formation
clays (illuviation). These are designated by capital letters 0, A, E, B, and C. 0 represents
organic horizon whereas A, E, B, and C represent mineral horizons.
In case of sedimentary soils these horizons overlie the bedrock whereas the alluvium it has
above the parent meterial.
The master horizons may not be uniform through the depth in the characteristics by which
they have been designated and may be subdivided to indicate the deviations. The
sub-divisions are indicated by placing arabic numbers after capital letter such as 01,0 2 , A1,
B 1 ,B2 etc. A secondary arabic number is used to indicate further sub-divisions viz. O11, 0 1 2 ,
All, B11, etc.
In addition to the above designations the following symbols are also used to indicate
accumulation of other specific features of the horizons. The symbols used are
Cs = accuinulation of calcium sulphate.
b = bumed soil horizon.
Ca = accunulation of calcium carbonate.
Cu = accumulation of concretion or hard non-concreting nodules enriched in
sesquioxides with or without phosphorus.
f = frozen soil.
g = gleying.
h = illuvial humus.
ir = illuvial iron.
m = strong cementation, induration.
p = ploughing or other disturbance.
Su = accumulation of soluble salts more soluble than calcium sulphate.
Se = accumulation by siliceous material soluble in alkali.
t = illuvial clay.
x = fragipan character (high bulk density).
1.8 SUMMARY
In this unit you studied process by which soil is formed and the morphology it bears. Soil is
a natural medium of plant growth. It is formed from the disintegration and decomposition of
rocks and minerals. Such material when tran~portedand deposited, form the morphology of
soil.
Physical Properties of Soils Soil is composed of disintegrated and decomposed rocks and minerals. Thus, the mineral
nutrients present in them are also found in the soil.
Soil are formed involving specific processes viz. calcification, gypsification,
decalicification, silication, pddzolification, laterisation, salinisation desalinisation,
alkalisation, dealkalisation, gleyation, pedoturbation and argillation.
During the process of formation soil may be at initial stage, juvenile stage, virile stage,
senile stage or final stage. Pedologically these may be called young or mature soils.
Soil formed on its maturity develop soil horizons based on colour differentiation. Various
physio-chemical and biological features of these soils are studied to describe the soil profile.
Miaomorphologic features of soil are studied to examine origin of parent meterial,
exogenic processes and land use management.