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R/C Helicopter
ABSTRACT
Remote sensing is just what the expression implies: looking at an object
from the distance. Normally this is subconsciously associated with air- or
spacecraft in the classical sense. Unmanned aerial vehicles also known as
drones used for reconnaissance purposes were limited to the military due to
financial and logistical reasons. Recent developments however have given
rise to sophisticated remote controlled aerial vehicles known as quad-copters
that are able to carry sensors which have grown smaller and cheaper over the
years. Drones that used to be considered a privilege of the military have
gone mainstream and are now accessible to everybody with an abundance of
applications waiting to be implemented.” The earth will don an electronic
skin” The world with its varied systems is complex. The world has
accumulations of inhabitants and valuable infrastructure in places at risk.
The world is continuously changing. Therefore not only decision makers
need reliable information fast, which, as it happens, almost always has a
spatial context. In 1999 there was an article in Business Week titled “The
earth will don an electronic skin”1 whose author postulated that within 10
years there would be trillions of sensors equipped with a microprocessor and
radio, monitoring everything from the environment, our cities and highways
to the functions of our body and transmitting this information to the internet
in real-time. Remote sensing plays a vital role in this information gathering
as do terrestrial sensors that can corroborate the data ascertained by the
remote sensors.
Introduction
But in truth, the terms 'FP' and 'CP' are a little misleading because both
terms only refer to the collective (ie altitude) control of the helicopter.
The cyclic(directional) control method is basically the same for FP and CP
helicopters.
This cyclic control changes the pitch angle of the whole rotor disc, which is
the imaginary circle in the air drawn by the tips of the spinning blades, and
both FP and CP rc helicopters use a flybar to influence the angle of the rotor
disc.
This flybar is a short rod perpendicular to the main rotor blades. At each end
of the flybar is an airfoil paddle, and the flybar moves in direct response to
the tilting of the swash plate, controlled by the servos - one for sideways
movement and the other for fore/aft movement.
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As the flybar rotates in response to the tilting of the swash plate, so the
Angle of Attack of the paddles changes. This effects the amount of lift being
generated by them and so they rise and fall accordingly. The paddles always
work against each other ie if one rises then the other falls, and vice versa.
This in turn exaggerates the movement of the flybar, and the end result is
that the whole rotor disc tilts in response to the changes in lift being
experienced at the paddles. The helicopter becomes 'unbalanced' and so
leans to the side that is experiencing lesser lift, thus changing direction.
So, the primary difference between FP and CP helicopters is in
the collectivecontrol, and this is influenced by the lift generated by the main
blades acting together ie 'collectively'.
In an FP model the main blades are fixed to the main rotor head and cannot
be pivoted about their longitudinal axis. Altitude has to be controlled by
thespeed of the blades (ie motor speed) - faster spinning blades generate
more lift and vice versa.
But in a CP model the main blades can be pivoted about their longitudinal
axis in relation to the main rotor head, thus changing the pitch angle of them
and the associated amounts of lift. The motor can therefore be kept at a more
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constant speed, and altitude is controlled by changing the pitch angle of the
blades.
Above left, an FP rotor head compared to the more complex CP one, right
The Gyro
The mixer board unit is about the same size and appearance as a standard rc
receiver and weighs considerably less than using separate devices.
Circuit Diagram
TRANSMITTER
RECIEVER
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Component’s Description
RESISTORS: -
CAPACITORS
The fundamental relation for the capacitance between two flat plates
separated by a dielectric material is given by:-
C=0.08854KA/D
Where: -
C= capacitance in pf.
K= dielectric constant
A=Area per plate in square cm.
D=Distance between two plates in cm
TRANSISTOR:-
A transistor consists of two junctions formed by sandwiching either p-
type or n-type semiconductor between a pair of opposite types. Accordingly,
there are two types of transistors namely: -
(1) n-p-n transistor (2) p-n-p transistor
(NPN) (PNP)
An n-p-n transistor is composed of two n-type semiconductors separated by
a thin section of p type. However a p-n-p transistor is formed by two p
sections separated by a thin section of n-type.
TRANSFORMER
Definition: -
(1) Winding encircle the core in the case of core type transformer
(2) Cores encircle the windings on shell type transformer.
(b) Step up and Step down: In these Voltage transformation takes place
according to whether the
Primary is high voltage coil or a low voltage coil.
(1) Lower to higher-> Step up
(2) Higher to lower-> Step down
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DIODES
- +
It is a two terminal device consisting of a P-N junction formed either
of Ge or Si crystal. The P and N type regions are referred to as anode and
cathode respectively. Commercially available diodes usually have some
means to indicate which lead is P and which lead is N.
RELAY
BOARD TYPES
The following steps have been followed in carrying out the project.
Actual size PCB layout for the circuit shown is drawn on the copper
board. The board is then immersed in FeCl3 solution for 12 hours. In this
process only the exposed copper portion is etched out by the solution.
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Now the petrol washes out the paint and the copper layout on PCB is
rubbed with a smooth sand paper slowly and lightly such that only the oxide
layers over the Cu are removed. Now the holes are drilled at the respective
places according to component layout as shown in figure.
When designing the layout one should observe the minimum size
(component body length and weight). Before starting to design the layout we
need all the required components in hand so that an accurate assessment of
space can be made. Other space considerations might also be included from
case to case of mounted components over the printed circuit board or to
access path of present components.
The pattern prepared is glued to the copper surface of the board using
a latex type of adhesive that can be cubed after use. The pattern is laid firmly
on the copper using a very sharp knife to cut round the pattern carefully to
remove the paper corresponding to the required copper pattern areas. Then
apply the resistant solution, which can be a kind of ink solution for the
purpose of maintaining smooth clean outlines as far as possible. While the
board is drying, test all the components.
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Before going to next stage, check the whole pattern and cross check
with the circuit diagram. Check for any free metal on the copper. The
etching bath should be in a glass or enamel disc. If using crystal of ferric-
chloride these should be thoroughly dissolved in water to the proportion
suggested. There should be 0.5 lt. of water for 125 gm of crystal.
The board should not be left in the bath a moment longer than is
needed to remove just the right amount of copper. Inspite of there being a
resistive coating there is no protection against etching away through exposed
copper edges. This leads to over etching. Have running water ready so that
etched board can be removed properly and rinsed. This will halt etching
immediately.
Drilling is one of those operations that calls for great care. For most
purposes a 0.5mm drill is used. Drill all holes with this size first those that
need to be larger can be easily drilled again with the appropriate larger size.
The most popular method of holding all the items is to bring the wires
far apart after they have been inserted in the appropriate holes. This will
hold the component in position ready for soldering.
Some components will be considerably larger .So it is best to start mounting
the smallest first and progressing through to the largest. Before starting, be
certain that no further drilling is likely to be necessary because access may
be impossible later.
Next will probably be the resistor, small signal diodes or other similar
size components. Some capacitors are also very small but it would be best to
fit these afterwards. When fitting each group of components mark off each
one on the circuit as it is fitted so that if we have to leave the job we know
where to recommence.
Although transistors and integrated circuits are small items there are
good reasons for leaving the soldering of these until the last step. The main
point is that these components are very sensitive to heat and if subjected to
prolonged application of the soldering iron, they could be internally
damaged.
All the components before mounting are rubbed with sand paper so
that oxide layer is removed from the tips. Now they are mounted according
to the component layout.
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(E) SOLDERING: -
This is the operation of joining the components with PCB after this
operation the circuit will be ready to use to avoid any damage or fault during
this operation following care must be taken.
1.A longer duration contact between soldering iron bit & components lead
can exceed the temperature rating of device & cause partial or total damage
of the device. Hence before soldering we must carefully read the maximum
soldering temperature & soldering time for device.
2.The wattage of soldering iron should be selected as minimum as
permissible for that soldering place.
3.To protect the devices by leakage current of iron its bit should be earthed
properly.
4.We should select the soldering wire with proper ratio of Pb & Tn to
provide the suitable melting temperature.
5.Proper amount of good quality flux must be applied on the soldering point
to avoid dry soldering.
27
PCB Layout
TRANSMITTER
RECEIVER
RADIO GEAR
of the transmitted pulses 1 per servo position
Small fixed-pitch helicopters need a 4-channel radio
(throttle, elevator, aileron, rudder), although micro helicopters that utilize a
2-channel infrared control system also exist; while collective-pitch models
need a minimum of 5 channels with 6 being most common
(throttle, collective pitch, elevator, aileron, rudder and gyro gain). Because
of the normal interaction of the various control mechanisms, advanced
radios include adjustable mixing functions, such as throttle/collective and
throttle/rudder.
Well-known manufacturers of helicopter-specific radio controllers
include: JR, Spektrum, Futaba, Hitec, Sanwa (known as "Airtronics" in
North America), Multiplex (a division of Hitec)
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Modulation
Radios emit the FM signal in two types of modulation.
PPM is cheaper than PCM and is generally used in low-end helicopters. The
lack of a failsafe in PPM makes it more suited to small, less dangerous
models. Higher-end radios offer PCM and PPM modulation for better
compatibility with all radio receivers.
PCM
Pulse Code Modulation. A scheme in which the commanded position for
each servo is transmitted as a digitally encoded number. Manufacturers use
their own proprietary system to encode this number with various levels of
precision (i.e. variable number of bits per servo position). JR use Z-PCM (9
bits, 512 different values: 0...511) then S-PCM (10 bits, 1024 values:
0...1023). Futaba use PCM-1024 and G3 PCM (11 bits, 2048 values:
0...2047). With PCM not all positions are broadcasted at one time (each
frame) to save time. The odd numbered positions are sent as absolute in one
frame, with the even sent only as differences from their previous values. The
next frame the opposite is done. PCM includes a checksum at the end of the
frame to check the signal's validity. Hence, if there is interference and the
signal arrives distorted at the Receiver, utilizing the checksum it is able to
know if it is the original. In case it is not, a feature called Fail-Safe is
implemented to set servo positions to a predefined position, or to hold them
at the last valid position.
PPM
Pulse-position modulation. A scheme in which the commanded position for
each servo is transmitted .
31
Helicopters truly are amazing aircraft, and how helicopters fly is what makes
them such versatile machines, being perfectly suited to roles ranging from
military use to fire fighting and search and rescue.
Helicopters have been around for centuries - well, the principle anyway - but
it was Russian aircraft pioneer Igor Sikorsky who designed, built and in
1939 flew the first fully controllable single rotor / tail rotor helicopter - the
fundamental concept that would shape all future helicopters.
Above, the directions a helicopter can move in and the associated name of
control
Controlling a helicopter
Helicopters require a completely different method of control than airplanes
and are much harder to master. Flying a helicopter requires constant
concentration by the pilot, and a near-continuous flow of control corrections.
A conventional helicopter has its main rotor above the fuselage which
consists of 2 or more rotor blades extending out from a central rotor head,
or hub, assembly.
The primary component is the swash plate, located at the base of the rotor
head. This swash plate consists of one non-revolving disc and one revolving
disc mounted directly on top. The swash plate is connected to the cockpit
control sticks and can be made to tilt in any direction, according to the cyclic
stick movement made by the pilot, or moved up and down according to the
collective lever movement.
But first, to explain how the main rotor blades are moved by the pilot to
control the movement of the helicopter, we need to understand pitch...
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The basics of pitch
Each rotor blade has an airfoil profile similar to that of an airplane wing, and
as the blades rotate through the air they generate lift in exactly the same way
as an airplane wing does [read about that here]. The amount of lift generated
is determined by the pitch angle (and speed) of each rotor blade as it moves
through the air. Pitch angle is known as the Angle of Attack when the rotors
are in motion, as shown below:
Collective control
The collective control is made by moving a lever that rises up from the
cockpit floor to the left of the pilot's seat, which in turn raises or lowers the
swash plate on the main rotor shaft, without tilting it.
This lever only moves up and down and corresponds directly to the desired
movement of the helicopter; lifting the lever will result in the helicopter
rising while lowering it will cause the helicopter to sink. At the end of the
collective lever is the throttle control, explained further down the page.
As the swash plate rises or falls, so it changes the pitch of all rotor blades at
the same time and to the same degree. Because all blades are changing pitch
together, or 'collectively', the change in lift remains constant throughout
every full rotation of the blades. Therefore, there is no tendency for the
helicopter to move in any direction other than straight up or down.
The illustrations below show the effect of raising the collective control on
the swash plate and rotor blades. The connecting rods run from the swash
plate to the leading edge of the rotor blades; as the plate rises or falls, so all
blades are tilted exactly the same way and amount.
Of course, real rotor head systems are far more complicated than this picture
shows, but the basics are the same.
Cyclic control
The cyclic control is made by moving the control stick that rises up from the
cockpit floor between the pilot's knees, and can be moved in all directions
other than up and down.
Like the collective control, these cyclic stick movements correspond to the
directional movement of the helicopter; moving the cyclic stick forward
makes the helicopter fly forwards while bringing the stick back slows the
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helicopter and even makes it fly backwards. Moving the stick to the left or
right makes the helicopter roll and turn in these directions.
The cyclic control works by tilting the swash plate and increasing the pitch
angle of a rotor blade at a given point in the rotation, while decreasing the
angle when the blade has spun through 180 degrees.
As the pitch angle changes, so the lift generated by each blade changes and
as a result the helicopter becomes 'unbalanced' and so tips towards
whichever side is experiencing the lesser amount of lift.
The illustrations below show the effect of cyclic control on the swash plate
and rotor blades. As the swash plate is tilted, the opposing rods move in
opposite directions. The position of the rods - and hence the pitch of the
individual blades - is different at any given point of rotation, thus generating
different amounts of lift around the rotor disc.
To understand cyclic control another way is to picture the rotor disc, which
is the imaginary circle above the helicopter created by the spinning blades,
and to imagine a plate sat flat on top of the cyclic stick. As the stick is
leaned over in any direction, so the angle of the plate changes very slightly.
This change of angle corresponds directly to what is happening to the rotor
disc at the same time ie the side of the plate that is higher represents the side
of the rotor disc generating more lift.
Increasing the pitch angle of the tail rotor blades will increase the thrust,
which in turn will push the helicopter round in the same direction as the
main rotor blades. Decreasing the pitch angle decreases the amount of thrust
and so the natural torque takes over, letting the helicopter rotate in the
opposite direction to the main rotors.
The pilot controls the pitch angle of the tail rotor blades by two pedals at his
feet, in exactly the same way as the rudder movement is controlled in an
airplane.
NOTAR is an alternative method of yaw control on some helicopters -
instead of a tail rotor to generate thrust, compressed air is blown out of the
tail boom through moveable slots. These slots are controlled by the pilot's
pedals in the same way as a tail rotor is. To generate more thrust, the slots
are opened to let out more air, and vice versa.
NOTAR helicopters respond to yaw control in exactly the same way as tail
rotor models and have a big safety advantage - tail rotors can be very
hazardous while operating on or close to the ground and in flight a failing
tail rotor will almost always result in a crash.
Throttle control
The throttle control is a 'twist-grip' on the end of the collective lever and is
linked directly to the movement of the lever so that engine RPM is always
correct at any given collective setting. Because the cyclic and collective
pitch control determines the movement of the helicopter, the engine RPM
does not need to be adjusted like an airplane engine does. So during normal
flying, constant engine speed (RPM) is maintained and the pilot only needs
to 'fine tune' the throttle settings when necessary.
There is, however, a direct correlation between engine power and yaw
control in a helicopter - faster spinning main rotor blades generate more
torque, so greater pitch is needed in the tail rotor blades to generate more
thrust.
It's worth noting that each separate control of a helicopter is easy to
understand and operate; the difficulty comes in using all controls together,
where the co-ordination has to be perfect! Moving one control drastically
effects the other controls, and so they too have to be moved to compensate.
This continuous correction of all controls together is what makes flying a
helicopter so intense. Indeed, as a helicopter pilot once said... "You don't fly
a helicopter, you just stop it from crashing"!
35
Coaxial rc helicopters like the Blade CX2 and CX3 come RTF, or 'Ready
To Fly', and can be flown with confidence pretty much straight from the
box. They are much much easier to master than a conventional helicopter
that has a single main rotor and tail rotor, and are equally capable of holding
a steady hover - steadier, in fact. Flying them indoors is a realistic option,
because their stability makes them easy to control within confined spaces.
See the Blade CX2 and CX3 in more detail here.
Coaxial RC helicopters
A conventional helicopter has a single main rotor consisting of two or more
blades. When the rotor turns, a natural force called torque is generated. This
torque makes the helicopter fuselage turn in the opposite direction to the
spinning blades in a similar way to when you twist something up, it naturally
wants to untwist itself.
To counteract this force, a tail rotor is used to generate sideways thrust to
push against the fuselage rotation. This prevents the helicopter from
spinning wildly out of control.
The amount of thrust generated by the tail rotor can be changed, either by
altering the pitch angle of the tail rotor blades or, on smaller models, by
changing the speed of the tail rotor motor. This change in thrust controls
theyaw of the helicopter ie which direction the nose is pointing, by either
36
giving in to the natural reaction against the torque (lessening tail rotor thrust)
or by pushing the helicopter round in the same direction as the main blades
(increasing the thrust).
The illustration below shows these basic forces at work:
Because the blades are spinning against each other, each one cancels out any
torque generated by the other one. As a result, there is no tendency for the
fuselage of the helicopter to spin round one way or the other.
This is only the case, however, so long as both sets of blades are spinning at
exactly the same speed. As soon as one set changes speed relative to the
other one, then torque immediately appears.
This is exactly how yaw is controlled in coaxial rc helicopters, by making
one set of blades spin faster or slower then the other set, to purposely
generate torque which will cause the helicopter to change direction.
In most coaxial rc helicopters, the top blades are mounted on the main shaft
and the lower blades are mounted on a larger diameter hollow shaft that runs
up outside of the main one.
Twin side-by-side electric motors control one shaft each, and hence
independent rotor speed control is possible. The picture to the right shows a
typical coaxial setup for the main drive gear, with each motor cog driving
one of the main sprockets. This photo is of the Blade mCX.
Coaxial rc helicopters are, without doubt, the easiest and safest way of
getting into the hobby of flying radio control helicopters, and they're suitable
for anyone, regardless of helicopter-flying experience. They can easily be
flown indoors, but are equally suited to outdoor flying also.
The transmitter...
The tx is very 'plasticy' but it does the job, and it's fairly typical of all
transmitters sold with 4-channel RTF electric helicopters these days. You
need to purchase 8 AA size batteries to operate it - you can use good
qualitydry cells or rechargeables. I use 700mAh NiMH batteries, and there
is a charging socket in the back of the tx that accepts a standard tx charging
plug. Incidentally, the tx battery holder is removable with a 2-pin JST
connector.
The battery level indicator is in the top/center of the tx face. 10 vertical
bars increase in height from left to right and when the tx is switched on they
illuminate over a range of red (left), orange (middle) to green (right).
Obviously you want the green to be there - if they stop at orange then your
batteries are in borderline condition, and if only the red is showing then you
need to replace/fully recharge them.
You'll need to screw the antenna into the top of the tx body - a fairly
straightforward task. No need to get the pliers onto it, just screw it in as tight
as you can get it by hand.
A good route from the rx is: down the left front leg, along the left skid, up
the left rear leg and out along tail boom. Tape it in position just before the
point where the tail rotor tip is at its most forward. From here, coil it round
the tail boom back towards the canopy, run it down the right rear leg and
wind the remaining amount of antenna round the right skid.
Use tape on the tail boom and tape or small bands of heat shrink tubing
(don't heat shrink them though!) to hold the antenna in place on the skids...
Whatever you do, don't cut the antenna! This drastically reduces the radio
range of the model, with disastrous consequences. Any antenna that is left
over, just wrap around the skid as in the picture above.
Helicopter Center of Gravity (CG)...
The next very important thing to do is to check the balance of the helicopter
itself - a badly balanced heli will be at best difficult to fly, and at worst
completely uncontrollable.
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The helicopter's center of gravity (CG) is at the main rotor shaft, and its
balance is influenced by the position of the battery pack - so you'll have to
do this step with the pack in position on the heli.
Rotate the flybar so that it is perpendicular to the fuselage and lift the
helicopter off the ground, with the flybar resting on the tips of your two
index fingers, one just each side of the rotor head assembly.
Also at this point, make sure that you've got the rubber band on the cage to
prevent the two halves sliding apart.
If, at this point, the battery is as far forward as it will go and the helicopter
still hangs with its tail down, add some weight to the nose of the helicopter
canopy - small coins, fishing shots or modeling clay make good ballast.
The disadvantage with adding nose-weight is that it adds to the whole
weight of the helicopter, which reduces flight times because more power is
needed. But, a marginally shorter safe flight is better than an out-of-control
one in my opinion!
Fit heat sinks...
Finally, as an option, you might want to consider fitting heat sinks to both
motors.
On this kind of rc helicopter, the tail motors especially are prone to burning
out and heat sinks are a good way to help prolong the motor life. They clip
around the motor body and carry heat away from the motor itself - they're
not available for the Dragonfly 4 specifically but the eSky
EK10223 &EK10224 fit the Dragonfly motors, with a tiny amount of
bending.
The standard kit includes 4 skids, each one a carbon fiber leg with a plastic
ball at the end. There is also a central hub and 4 attachments that clip over
the main skids of the helicopter, at the joint of the skid and leg.
39
Being the PNP version there was a notable absence of Tx, charger and motor
battery pack - the only items to accompany the helicopter in the box were
the instruction manual and a small plastic bag of tools and accessories (allen
keys, screwdriver, zip ties...).
Initial inspection of my E-flite Blade 400 revealed a definite 'quality' feel to
it and it looked to be a very well thought out heli indeed. The positioning of
all the components was good, and access to all the crucial parts looked
relatively unimpeded. The helicopter felt solid too, certainly not a cheap n'
cheerful model that was going to fall to pieces after three flights!
Of course, being 3D capable the Blade 400 has been designed and
manufactured accordingly, hence its solid feel. It's a nice size too, a typical
'class 400' electric rc CP helicopter.
Above, a very well thought out and not overly complicated heli, I think!
Now, the fact that the E-flite Blade 400 is 3D capable doesn't mean that
mine is ever likely to see any 3D action! The fact that this is my very first
Collective Pitch rc helicopter means that mastering straightforward flight is
the number one priority, and the fact that I can do a few basic 3D maneuvers
on the simdoesn't mean that I'll ever have the nerves to try them for real!
Anyway, back to the setting up... I had chosen to go with the same receiver
for my PNP version heli that the RTF one is sold with, the Spektrum
AR6100e. Following the manual's guidelines, installation of the Rx was very
straightforward - some double-sided sticky tape and a small zip tie did the
job of holding the receiver comfortable in place on the base of the main
frame, behind the ESC.
The other crucial component not supplied with a PNP aircraft is of course a
motor battery pack, but fortunately I already had a suitable pack (2100mAH
11.1V 3S) ready for action. Although marginally larger and heavier than
therecommended E-flite pack, it fits perfectly well in place, held securely by
the velcro strip and strap.
Military service
With a unit price at least 15% less than its rivals, Dhruv has elicited interest
in many countries, mostly from Latin America, Africa, West Asia, South
East Asia and the Pacific Rim nations. Air forces from around 35 countries
have sent in their inquiries, , along with requests for demonstrations.
The first foreign orders for the Dhruv were placed by Nepal in early 2004,
for 2 Dhruvs. Another Dhruv, a civilian version, was leased to the Israeli
Defense Ministry in 2004
In June 2008, the government of Peru ordered two air ambulance Dhruvs for
use by the Peruvian health services. Peru has also shown interest in the
military version Dhruv.
HAL also secured an order from the Ecuadorian Air Force for seven Dhruvs.
HAL has gained this order amidst strong competition
from Elbit, Eurocopter and Kazan. HAL’s offer of $ 50.7 million for seven
helicopters was about 32% lower than the second lowest bid from Elbit. Five
helicopters will be delivered in February 2009, during the Aero India 2009.
The remaining two helicopters will be delivered within six months.
Ecuadorian Army and Ecuadorian Navy have also expressed unofficial
interest in purchasing the helicopter.
On August 10, 2008 HAL chairman confirmed it had finalized a deal
with Turkey to supply 3 Dhruvs for $20 million. Turkey is planning to buy
as many as 17 helicopters in medical assistance role.
India is also reportedly planning to transfer several Dhruvs to Burma. This
led to protests from Amnesty International, who pointed to the use of
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components sourced from European suppliers as a possible violation of
the EU Arms Embargo of Burma. In a letter to the President of the EU
Council of Ministers, Amnesty stated that it had evidence that India planned
to transfer two Dhruvs (with European components) to Burma. These reports
have been denied by the Indian Government .
Attack helicopter
Air ambulance
Air ambulance
Swedish Search and Rescue Dutch Search and Rescue Israeli Military Helicopter as Air Ambulance
46
Two programs were implemented in the U.S. to assess the impact of medical
helicopters on mortality and morbidity in the civilian arena. Project
CARESOM was established in Mississippi in 1969. Three helicopters were
purchased through a federal grant and located strategically in the north,
central, and southern areas of the state. Upon termination of the grant, the
program was considered a success and each of the three communities was
given the opportunity to continue the helicopter operation. Only the one
located in Hattiesburg did so, and it was therefore established as the first
civilian air medical program in the United States. The second program, the
Military Assistance to Safety and Traffic (MAST) system, was established
in Fort Sam Houston in San Antonio in 1969. This was an experiment by
the Department of Transportation to study the feasibility of using military
helicopters to augment existing civilian emergency medical services. These
programs were highly successful at establishing the need for such services.
The remaining challenge was in how such services could be operated most
cost-effectively. In many cases, as agencies, branches, and departments of
the civilian governments began to operate aircraft for other purposes, these
aircraft were frequently pressed into service to provide cost-effective air
support to the evolving Emergency Medical Services.
Government operated
Reference
REFERENCE FOR TECHNICAL INFORMATION FROM FOLLOWING BOOKS:
http://www.fairchildsemi.com/pf/1N/1N4148.html
http://www.ascom.com
http://www.metricom-corp.com/fec.html
http://www.homeplug.org/powerline/index.html
http://www.schaffner.com/index.asp?
menu=comp&scopy=compnews
48
http://www.dzu.inetg.bg/dzu/telecom.htm
http://www.electricomconsulting.co.uk/overview.html
http://www.plugtek.com/morearticles.shtml
http://www.howstuffworks.com/home-network15.htm
http://www.electricomconsulting.co.uk/overview.html
http://www.plugtek.com/morearticles.shtml
http://www.electronicprojects.com
http://home1.pacific.net.sg/~vunch/Tutorial.html
http://www.hometoys.com/htinews/aug00/articles/metricom/
mathieu.htm