The Cosmology of Ikhwān al-Ṣafā', Miskawayh and al-Iṣfahānī

Author(s): YASIEN MOHAMED

Source: Islamic Studies, Vol. 39, No. 4, Special Issue: Islam and Science (Winter 2000), pp. 657-
679
Published by: Islamic Research Institute, International Islamic University, Islamabad
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Islamic Studies 39:4 (2000) pp. 657-679

The Cosmology of Ikhwan al-Safa', Miskawayh and

al-Isfahânï

YASIEN MOHAMED

Introduction and Background

This article deals with the cosmology of the Ikhwän al-Safä'1, Miskawayh and
al-Isfahäni.2 Special attention will be given to the concept of 'man as a small
world' or as a microcosm of the universe. We will explain this concept and
trace its influence first in relation to the emanationist theory of the cosmos as
conceived by Ikhwän al-Safä'and Miskawayh, and then within the context of a
creationist view of the universe as expounded by al-Isfahânï

Jachimowicz argues that Islamic cosmology has its roots within the

Qur'än, which provides the Islamic metaphysical basis for the integration of
Greek cosmological doctrines. In this sense, Islamic cosmology is a
combination of the Greek heritage and Islamic revelation. There are two

Qur'änic metaphysical principles that lay the basis for the Islamic perception
of cosmology. One is the principle of tawhïd, which is that God is the One
Creator of the heavens and the earth, and the other is the high status that God
accords to man in the cosmos.3

1
The Brethren of Purity wrote fifty-one treatises in the 4th/10th century known as the Rasâ'il

(Epistles) of the Brethren of Purity. The authors are not known, but they were of Shi'i

inspiration and were probably based in Basrah. The Epistles had a wide influence on later
Muslim intellectual figures,including Ahmad ibn Muhammad Miskawayh (d. 421/1030), al
Righib al-Isfahânï(d. 502/1108) and Muhammad al-Ghazzâlï (d. 505/1111).
2
Al-Râghib al-Isfahânï is an Islamic ethical philosopher who died around the middle of the
eleventh century. He wrote an ethical work called al-Dhari'ah ilä Makärim al-Sharî'ah (The
Means to the Noble Qualities of the Law), which had a great influence on the ethics of al
Ghazzali. For his theory of creation we refer in this article mainly to his Tafsïl al-Nash'atayn wa
Tahsïl al-Sa'ädatayn. For more detail on his life and works, see, Yasien Mohamed, "The Ethical

Philosophy of al-Râghib al-Isfahânï",in Journal of Islamic Studies,6: 1 (1995), 51-75. For some
information on the impact of his cosmological ideas on al-Ghazzâlï, see, Yasien Mohamed,

"Knowledge and Purification of the Soul: An Annotated Translation with Introduction of

Isfahânî's Kitäb al-Dhari'a ilâ Makärim Sharï'a, (58-76; 89-92ψ in Journal of Islamic Studies,9: 1
(1998), 1-34.
3
Jachimowicz, "Islamic Cosmology", in Carmen Blacker and Michael Loewe eds., Ancient

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 YASIEN MOHAMED
658

The idea of a Creator of the universe was not alien to the pre-Islamic
Arabs, but it had little influence on their notion of human destiny. The

Qur'än, which
recognizes that God is the source of all things in the creation,
changed their view of God's relation to human destiny. According to Qur'än
God is the Creator of man and man is His creature. 'That is Allah, your Lord;
there is no god but He, Creator of all things' (6: 102).4 In contrast to this
Qur'änic idea of creation was the emanationist concept of creation, which
emerged later due to foreign influences. The Ikhwän exemplified this
emanationist view of creation.

IKHWÄN AL-SAFÀ'

In this section we will deal first with the cosmology of Ikhwän al-Safä' and

secondly with their view of man as a microcosm of the universe.

The Cosmology of Ikhwan al-Safa'

Islamic cosmology, as exemplified by Ikhwan al-Safä', is based on a

Neoplatonic system of emanation, which is based on four central concepts,

those of the One, the Spirit, the Soul and the material world. In this
Neoplatonic system, the human species occupies a position at the top of the
terrestrial realm, as it is the culminating point of the cosmos. The more basic

aspects of the terrestrial realm precede man: minerals yield to plants, which
support animals, until the crowning purpose of this realm, man, is achieved,
within whom both the spiritual and the physical dimensions of the cosmos are
contained as the 'small world' (al- 'àlam al-saghïr), expressing in microcosm the
entire cosmos. Man was deemed as such because all the dimensions of the
cosmos are within him. Furthermore, keeping in with Neoplatonic thought,
when the human soul is liberated from materiality, it is able to return to God,
the Creator of both, human soul and the cosmos. This concept of man as
microcosm is integral to the cosmology of Ikhwan al-Safä. We will return to
this idea in the second part of this section.

Cosmologies (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1975), 143-145. The high status given to man
in the Qur'än can be ascertained by the dialogue between God and the angels Adam.
concerning
See, Qur'än, 2: 29-33.
4
All translations are taken from Majid The Qur'ân: A Modern Version
Fakhry, English (Reading,
UK: Garnet, 1996). For some other verses to God as Creator of planets,
relating mountains,
trees, herbs, animals, angels, etc., see, 13: 3; 14: 15; 24: 44-45. Also see, Toshihiko Izutsu, God
and Man in the Koran (New York: Books for Libraries, 1980).

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THE COSMOLOGY OF IKHWÄN AL-SAFA', MISKAWAYH AND AL-ISFAHANI
659

The Rasati
{Epistles) of Ikhwän al-Safä' had a wide influence on later
Muslim philosophers because of their simple exposition of the sciences and
their integration of philosophy with religion. They combined Neoplatonic
philosophy, Aristotelian thought and Islamic doctrine.5 The Epistles explain
the origin of the world in terms of Neoplatonic emanation. They view the
universe as a unified whole, with its parts held together by the analogies that
exist between them.6 These connections are expounded in terms of numerical

symbolism. The forms of the material world correspond with the forms of the

spiritual world; the difference is that the former perish while the latter abide.
By observing nature, one can discern the power, skill and wisdom of its
Maker. Through numbers, Ikhwän al-Safâ' relate multiplicity to unity and
bring to light the harmony that pervades the universe. This harmony also
indicates the unity of the Maker.7
Like
Plato, who inherited the idea that the reality of things in the
physical world is geometric in form from the Pythagoreans8, the Ikhwän also

posit the presupposition that the essence of natural objects is supremely

intelligible, as distinct from those aspects of physical reality that are sensible
insofar as they can only be perceived by the physical senses. The world of
nature, therefore, will possess for Ikhwän al-Safä' certain formal elements
which are intelligible. Since these elements are immanent in nature, they are
real, and so those aspects that reflect their reality will also be real. The
immanent God of Ikhwän al-Safä' is meant to bridge the gap between God and
the creation, and between God and man. Their emanationist cosmology
embraces a Neoplatonic conception of a detached God, not a God that has a
direct relation to man.
Man in this scheme is merely a part of the cosmos. And it is the physical
dimension of himself and the cosmos which he must transcend before he can
become close to God, and participate in His divine qualities.

5
Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Philosophy and Cosmology", in The Cambridge History of Iran
(Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress, 1975), 4: 428f.
6
Richard Lewis Nettleship, Lectures on the Republic of Plato (Philadelphia, PA: R. West, 1967),
226ff. According to Plato, everything in the universe and in man's life is an organised whole, 'a
little world'. The entire world would be the whole of the many little organic parts of it. This
idea is worked out in the Timaeus with reference to the universe, but it is applicable to society
and human life. Morality is related to knowledge. We understand things only in relation to the

good of them. The supreme good, the end to which all things converge, that gives light to the
intelligible universe, is expressed in Plato's sun metaphor. Since everything in the world reflects
the good, for man to attain the good he would have to live in this light.
7
Seyyed Hossein Nasr, An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines (Cambridge: Harvard

UniversityPress, 1964), 44ff.

8
Phillip Sherrard, Human Image: World Image: The Death and Resurrection of Sacred Cosmology
(Cambridge: 1992), llf.

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 YASIEN MOHAMED
660

theory of Ikhwän al-Safä' the creation begins with the

In the emanationist
Creator, through the multiple states of Being, and ends with the
descends
terrestrial creatures whose final link is man. It follows this sequence: Creator,

Intellect, Soul, Matter, Nature, Body, the Sphere, the Elements, and the Beings
of this world.9 God first created the Intellect, which contains the forms of all

things. From the Intellect originates the Universal Soul (al-nafs al-kulliyyab),
and from the latter proceeds Matter. Man is the last in the 'Chain of Being' as
he has been created from both the terrestrial elements and the celestial
elements.10 The universe, although resembling God, is nevertheless distinct
from Him.
The emanationist theory of Ikhwän al-Safä' differs from that of Plotinus:
first, because of its Neopythagorean tendencies where the "emanation of all

things from God was compared to the emanation of all numbers from one";
and secondly, because "the processes of emanation and creation were the result
of the Creator's choice and deliberate action".11
The techniques of numerical symbolism and analogy form the basic style
of the Ikhwän to illuminate both the reality and beauty of the relation
between the microcosm and the macrocosm and the hierarchy of being.12

Nearly every chapter of the Epistles refers to the analogy between man and the
universe. To mention some examples, the relation between the Universal Soul
and the universe is compared to the relation between the human soul and the
human body. Also, the death of the universe is compared with the death of a
human Reverse analogies are also present, whereby man is compared
being.
with aspects of the earth and heaven, not only for vividness, but also to
demonstrate the cosmic qualities of man. In this sense, man is a microcosm of
the world; he is a 'small world'.13 Nasr states:

9
S.H. Nasr, Islamic Cosmological Doctrines, 51f. The Creator is one and simple; the intellect is
innate and acquired; the soul has three species: vegetative, animal and rational; the beings of the
world are the mineral, plant and animal kingdoms; cf. Omar A. Farukh, "Ikhwän al-Safa", in

M.M. Sharif, ed., History of Muslim Philosophy (Wiesbaden, Germany: Otto Harrassowitz, 1963),
1: 294ff., where the concept of emanation is explained as a compromise between the strict

religious notion of creation and the Aristotelian view of the eternity of the world.
10
S.H. Nasr, Islamic Cosmological Doctrines, 52.
11
Ibid., 55f; cf. I. R. Netton, Muslim Neoplatonists (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1982),
34f.
12
Apparently, early Greek thinkers conceived of the universe as one living being in which the

phenomena and powers are correlated and governed hierarchically by a single general law.
Democritus of Abdera (d. 370 BC) developed from that concept the theory of Macrocosm and
Microcosm which treated man as a reduced model of the universe, and the universe as the

enlarged copy of man. His theory was accepted by Ikhwän al-Safä'. Cf. Omer Α. Farukh,
"Ikhwän al-Safä" in History of Muslim Philosoplry, 297.
13
S.H. Nasr, Islamic Cosmological Doctrines, 67f

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THE COSMOLOGY OF IKHWÄN AL-SAFA', MISKAWAYH AND AL-ISFAHÄNI
661

The cosmological chain, starting from Unity, which symbolizes the Creator, up
to the number 9, which is the domain of the three kingdoms, already contains

the basis of the chain of being. The chain of being essentially means that all
beings in the Universe exist in a continuous hierarchy, which is ontological as

well as cosmological. A particular entity has a position in the great chain of being
depending upon the degree to which it participates in Being and Intelligence; or
one might say, depending upon the degree to which it possesses the perfections
and virtues which in the absolute sense belongs only to Pure Being, or God, who
is transcendent with respect to the chain.14

The unity and complexity of his soul and body respectively make him 'the
antipode of God'. By virtue of this position, man is the central link in the great
chain; below him stands the animal kingdom, and above, the world of the angels,
and he is connected to one domain as to the other.15

Thus, by God through emanation.

the universe is created God, Who is
Unique, without any anthropomorphic element associated with Him, creates
the Intellect, which is the first to emanate from Him. This universal Intellect
comes directly from God, without any intermediary. God gave it the office of
re-emanation from which emanates the universal Soul and the first matter.
The rest of creation emerges from this universal Soul , which receives energy
from the Intellect. The hierarchy of being descends from the highest heaven
nearest to the divine, down to the four elements, which are furthest from the
divine.The elements are then mixed in various proportions by the universal
Soul to form the three kingdoms of mineral, plant and animal. Man, who is
made up of various elements from angel to matter, is the last in the process,
but not the furtherst removed from the Divine. This process of effusion,

therefore, terminates
with man. However, it does not suggest man's

inferiority, but defines the sequence of emanation, which specifies that man
had to come after the creation of matter in order that he be composed of both
the angelic and material elements of the universe. Furthermore, it suggests the

special position of man within the emanationist hierarchy, where he stands

midway between the animal and angelic kingdom.16 The process of evolution
or spiritual return to God requires of man to transcend his terrestrial nature
and rise to his more substantial celestial nature.
This spiritual ascent to God requires the perfection of the various levels in
the chain of being. Each of these levels has an ontological status. In the

kingdoms of minerals, plants and animals, good and evil souls are combined:
for instance, a plant with a good quality will transmit it to the animal who eats

14
Ibid., 68f.
15
Ibid., 69.
16
Ibid., 69; Omer A. Farrukh, "Ikhwän al-Safä"in HistoryofMuslimPhilosophy,295ff.

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 YASIEN MOHAMED
662

it, and this good flesh in the animal is eaten by man, whose soul in turn is
affected by it. The perfect man completes the chain of being, as it is he who
will return to his origin. Plants, animals and other beings have been created to
serve the final purpose of man, which is his reunion with God. Then only is
the purpose of the whole creation realized.17

Man as Microcosm

What is meant
by the concept that man is a microcosm of the cosmos? It

suggests that man is a microcosmic form of the whole universe. That is, both
his spiritual and physical dimensions correspond to the physical and spiritual
nature of the universe. Thus, Ikhwän al-Safä' refer to man as a 'small world' (al
'älam al-saghïr).
As has been mentioned, man stands midway between the animal and

angel in the Neoplatonic scheme of emanation. His angehe or spiritual aspect

is mixed up with his animal or physical aspect. The latter element makes man
an imperfect creature. But even this imperfect aspect emanates from the One,
albeit a lower form of existence. It therefore reflects the One imperfectly. It is

by virtue of man's spiritual aspect that he is able to transcend the lower levels
of his microcosmic reality and evolve spiritually towards the One. So when
the human soul is liberated from materiality, it is able to return to God. This
does not mean that materiality is wholly evil in the view of Ikhwän al-Safä'. It
is indeed imperfect, but is nevertheless a poor reflection of the Divine. Human

passion, therefore, which is akin to matter in its inherent imperfection, is not

to be obliterated, but to be disciplined and directed to higher ends. And the
universe is not to be scorned, but to be respected as sacred, as it also reflects
the Divine, albeit in an imperfect form. The devaluation of the cosmos

corresponds with its desacralization, which involves divesting it of its spiritual

elements. The concept of man as a microcosm of the universe, in the view of
Ikhwän al-Safä', therefore, teaches
man to adopt a respectful attitude to the

totality of man's being, both his material and spiritual aspects. And by doing
so, he will also cultivate a respectful attitude to the whole cosmos, to both its
physical and metaphysical dimensions. The concept of man as a 'small world',
then, has become integral to Ikhwän's cosmological doctrine. In describing
how various parts of man correspond to various parts of the universe, Ikhwän
al-Safä' demonstrated the connectedness between
They state man and nature.
that man cannot study the entire universe, for it is too large, but if all its
elements are contained within man, he need only look to himself, and he will
know the universe in all its dimensions.18 By man coming to realize himself as

17
S.H. Nasr, Islamic Cosmologici Doctrines, 69ff.
18
Ibid. 98.

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THE COSMOLOGY OF IKHWÄN AL-SAFÄ', MISKAWAYH AND AL-ISFAHANi

a small world, he will not only know the world, but also God. The whole
universe has been created to serve man's innate urge to return to the Creator,
which means that he should develop a positive and respectful attitude to all

aspects of the universe.

Ikhwän al-Safä' are very precise and detailed about the resemblance
between man and various parts of the universe. His body is a prototype of the

physical world (including planets, minerals, plants and animals) and his soul is
a prototype of the spiritual world (including angels, jinns and demons).19

Know, when the ancient sages looked at this physical world with their eyes, and
witnessed its phenomena with their senses, and contemplate upon its conditions

with their intellects, and examine the conduct of the (unique) individualities from
the general (species) with their insight, and learn from the arts of its particulars
by their reflection, they will not find any part of it more complete in frame, or
perfect in form, or more analogous to anything else, than man. Since man is

altogether a combination of a physical body and a spiritual soul, they found in

the constitution of his bodily frame prototypes of all the existents in the physical
world ... [of its spheres, planets, elements, minerals, plants and animals]. They
also found the prototype of spiritual creation of its angels, jinns, man and devils,
and the souls of the rest of animals, and the powers of creation act freely in the

world; they are analogous to the human soul and its powers act freely upon the

body. When these matters of the picture of man became clear to them, they
named him a small world (al-alam al-saghir).20

Further, they say that the nine substances of the human body (e.g.

marrow) are analogous to the nine concentric spheres of the heavens. The
twelve signs of the zodiac are analogous to the twelve orifices of the body (e.g.
ears, eyes). The seven planets, each with a soul and a body and operating on
individual souls or bodies respectively, correspond to the seven bodily powers
in man (e.g. attraction, digestion) and the seven spiritual powers (e.g. the five
senses, speech and reason). The moon and sun correspond to speech and
reason, and as the moon derives its light from the sun, so speech derives its

powers from reason. Ikhwän al-Safä' develop the analogy between the four
elements and the organs of the body: the head corresponds to fire, the breath
to air, the belly to water and the lower abdomen to earth. From these four
elements emerge vapours responsible for wind, cloud, rain, minerals, plants
and animals.21

19
Ikhwän al-Safä', Rasä'il Ikwän al-Safä' (Cairo: Matba'ah al-'Arabiyyah, 1928), 334f., where

maη, the small world (al-'älam al-saghiï) has a dual nature of body and soul, the body is

analogous to the city and the soul to the king. Cf. Majid Fakhry, Ethical Theories in Islam

(Leiden: Brill, 1994), 96-98.

20Ikhwän
al-Safä',Rasä'il Ikhwän al-Safä', 456, 14-15, 457, 1-13.
21
Ibid., 464ff;cf. Majid Fakhry, Ethical Theoriesin Islam, 97.

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 YASIEN MOHAMED
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Following these descriptions, Ikhwan al-Safa' draw analogies between

man's body and the physical world:

The frame of his body can be compared to the earth: the bones to mountains, the

marrow to minerals, the belly to the sea, the intestines to the rivers, the veins to

the streams, the flesh to the earth and the hair to plants, the skin where hair
grows is like good land, and where no hair grows is like bad land. Man's front
corresponds to the east, his back to the west, his right side to the south and his
left side to the north. His breathing is like the wind, his speech like thunder, his
voice like the bolt of lightning, his laughter like daylight, and his weeping like
rain, his despair and grief, like the darkness of night, his sleep is like death; the
days of his childhood are like the days of spring, the days of his youth are like
the days of summer, his middle-age is like the days of autumn , and his old-age is
like the days of winter, and the movements and acts are like the movements of

the planets and their turning. Birth and man's appearance are like the rising, his
death and disappearance are like the descending.22

Thus, the Ikhwän refer to the world as the 'big man' (al-insän al-kabïr), since
its parts correspond, at a macrocosmic level, with the parts of the small man
{al-insän al-saghïr). The authors cite many other analogies to illustrate the

similarity between man and the world. The interconnections between the
universal bodies (simple and complex) and particular bodies in the world are
also compared with the government of a city state.
This is in keeping with the d'ominant trend of Platonic philosophy,
especially in the Timaeus, where the relationship between man and God is not
a personal one, but man is viewed as a part of a cosmos and God is seen as a
cosmic God. Man'suniqueness as distinguished from the animal is that he can
participate in the city state of which he is a citizen. But there is a greater whole
of which man is an integral part: that greater whole is God, without whom
man's very existence would not be possible. Note the passage below, in which
the Ikhwän compare the universal soul with the government of the city:

The forces of the Universal Soul from the firstto the last pervade (the world) like
the government of a city which has walls and in the interior of which there are
stopping stations and inns, and city-quarters, where there are lanes and streets

and bazaars, and in the midst of which there are habitations and dwellings, in
which there are houses and storehouses, in which there are goods, and
instruments, and household wares, and vessels, and tools, and utensils. One single
king rules over all this, and in this city he has troops and subjects, ra'iyyab, and
serfs ... and servants and followers. His decision is valid among his followers and
the chiefs of his army and the noble people of the city and the inhabitants of his

22
Ikhwan al-Safa', Rasa'il Ikhwan al-Safa', 466, 16-21; 467, 1-4.

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THE COSMOLOGY OF IKHWAN AL-SAFÄ', MISKAWAYH AND AL-ISFAHANi
665

city-state, balad, and the decision of their followers is valid among all those who
are below them, down to the last of them.23

quotations give us a sense of the way the Ikhwän saw man as a

The above
microcosm of the universe. Such perceptions of man, which are central to
their theory of emanation, emphasise man's affinity with and proper relation
to the cosmic world. Furthermore, it serves to make man realize his need to
liberate himself from matter and become a true microcosm. By so doing, he
will realise his true essence, return to God, and complete the chain of being.

Man's true soul will achieve

perfection as part of the cosmos, which is
gradually unfolding according to a Neoplatonic scheme of creation. Within
this scheme, man seeks to return to his ontological point of origin, God. This
is man's spiritual ascent towards perfection. His original descent from divine
perfection, which involves a certain level of terrestrial imperfection, is the
providential fate of all things. This descent to imperfection is irreversible for
all creatures, but not for man. Man has been endowed with reason, which
enables him to rectify his imperfection, and to aid his soul's ascent to the One.
This process does not merely involve a rational apprehension of cosmological
realities, but it requires the knowledge and practice of the good. Man's rational
faculty enables him to transcend matter; not the body, which is inferior.
Through reason, then, man's soul becomes transformed into a superior

ontological entity.

Thus, the body and soul are aspects of the human microcosm, and refer to
the terrestrial and celestial dimensions of the cosmos respectively. The rational

aspect of this human anthropology makes it possible to apprehend the meeting

point between the Neoplatonic geography of the cosmos and the moral

anthropology of the human microcosm.

The Ikhwän influenced later Arabic writers in three respects: first, with
reference to their cosmic and immanent view of God; secondly, with respect
to their theory of emanation and the order in which the cosmic elements have
come into being; and thirdly, with regard to their view of man as a microcosm
of the universe. In the next section we turn to the cosmological views of

Miskawayh, who adopted the emanationist theory of creation from the

Ikhwän.

23
Ikhwän al-Safä', Rasai Ikhwän al-Safa', 3: 215, 222f./ trans., Dieterici, cited in Widengren,
"Macrocosmos-Microcosmos: Speculation in the Rasä'il Ikhwän al-Safä' and some Hurüfi

Texts", in Archiviodi FilosofiaPadova, 48 (1980), 299. According to Widengren,this passage was

'undoubtedly inspired by Stoic popular philosophy' and the social structure is depicted as
feudalistic.

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 YASIEN MOHAMED
666

II

MISKAWAYH

Ahmad ibn MuhammadMiskawayh adopted from the Ikhwän their concept

of man as a microcosm and their emanationist theory of the universe.
Although the two concepts are related, we will first describe his concept of the
universe and then his view of man as the microcosm of the universe.

The Cosmology of Miskawayh

Miskawayh's concept of the universe is set forth in his al-Fawz al-Asghar.

According to Badawl, it is similar to al-Fârâbï's Ära' ahi al-madinah al-Fädilah

(Opinions of the People of the Virtuous City) in its attempt to reconcile

Aristototelian and Neoplatonic elements. Miskawayh's work deals with three
main themes: the existence of God, the soul and prophecy. Neoplatonism is

clearly evident in his conception of the cosmos,

and in chapter 5 he explicitly

acknowledges his indebtedness Porphyry. to

In chapter 9 he reveals

Neoplatonic tendencies in his opinion that the first existent to emanate from
God is the Intellect. Miskawayh adopted Neoplatonic ideas from the Ikhwän,

particularly with respect to the evolution of being from mineral through

vegetable and animal to human, and finally to prophets, who are the highest
level of being and who complete the cycle of evolution.24

According to Miskawayh, the universe consists of two different worlds,

the celestial and the terrestrial. The former is the world of the stars and the
heavens, and the latter, the world of matter and motion. The celestial world
emanates from God, while the terrestrial world evolves towards Him. The
universe and all that it contains is the creation of God, including the Intellect
and the Soul . The first existent to emanate from God is the First Intellect

(which is the same as the active intellect). From the First Intellect proceeds a
series of emanations to the last stage of primordial elements, from which
ensues the beginning of the process of evolution towards God.25 The First
Intellect is perfect and immutable, as it comes from the Real Outpourer (Mufìd,
Haqìqt) who is also perfect and immutable. It is perfect in relation to inferior

beings and imperfect in relation to God. From the First Intellect emanates the
celestial Soul, inferior to the Intellect but superior to the natural bodies. From
the celestial Soul
emanate the spheres. They are imperfect in relation to the
celestial
Soul, but perfect in relation to the human bodies, which are weak, as
they are the last in the chain of creation. Its circular motion assures its

24
'Abd al-Rahman Badawi, "Miskawayh", in M.M. Sharif, ed., A History of Muslim Philosophy,
469-479.
25
Bakhtyar Husain Siddique, "Metaphysics of ibn Miskawayh", in Iqbal, 10 (1961), 37f.

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THE COSMOLOGY OF IKHWAN AL-SAFA', MISKAWAYH AND AL-ISFAHANÏ
66 7

perpetual life given by God. God is the source and the cause of this emanation;
without Him, nothing will exist.
There are four stages of development from the mineral, the vegetable, the
animal, and finally to the human. The coral, the date-palm and the ape mark
the transition from the mineral to vegetable, from vegetable to animal, and
from the animal to the human level. The prophet completes the cycle of the
chain of being by absorbing the celestial Soul within him.26 This acts as an
immanent principle, and although its activity in the world is spontaneous, it
involves a fall from the perfect activity of the universal Intellect. The objects
of the sensible world
have form and matter, matter being only the receptacle
for the forms, which emanate from the celestial Soul, as indeed the whole
world does. The form flows from the celestial Soul, as the whole world is its
creation. obstructs the progress of the Soul, causing imperfection and
Matter
evil. Individualsouls enter the body from outside, and return to their source

upon death.27 Every being unites in itself all the antecedent forms of evolution
in outline; man as microcosm unites in himself all the forms of mineral, plant
and animal life. The child's growth is determined firstly by nature, that is,
his/her powers of appetite, anger and sensation; and secondly, he/she is guided

by reason. Evolution is the struggle between soul and matter, with the former
gradually predominating; the soul comes to realize its own end and destiny,
and reason finally triumphs over matter. Every being must realize its own
distinctive form. By so doing, it realizes the purpose of its own creation.
The last stage in the series of emanations from the primordial One also
marks the beginning of the process of evolutionary return to the primal One

through the various stages of corporeality and spirit. Abdul Hamid states that
this notion of a return to One God is a Qur'änic idea, which holds that
everything proceeds from God and returns to Him.28 In surveying the soul's
journey through the various stages of being, the biological "evolution" of man
also comes into focus. Miskawayh declares that all existence is one whole of
which the parts are intimately connected. The whole (of existence) is made of
two worlds, the higher of which penetrates and permeates the lower, which is
known as the world of becoming. The spirit evolves from the humblest stage
of existence, the mineral, through the plant and the animal, to the stage of
man and beyond, where man attains his perfection, as in the case of the
Prophet, who represents the last stage of human perfection. Man too, evolves

26
'Abd al-Rahmän Badawï, "Miskawayh" in History of Muslim Philosophy, 47 If; M. Abdul Haq
Ansari, "Miskawayh's Conception of God" in his The Ethical Philosophy of Miskawayh (Aligarh:
Aligarh Muslim University,1984), 134f.
27
Ibid., 55ff.
28
Kawaja Abdul Hamid, Ibn Maskawaih: A Study of His al-Fawz al-Asghar [sic] (Lahore: Shaikh
Muhammad Ashraf, 1946), 114ff.

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 YASIEN MOHAMED
668

beyond matter and becomes less corporeal and more spiritual, relative to the
emanation of the rational soul. In this sense, the animal is superior to the

plant, man is superior to the animal, and the prophet is superior to man.
There is an intimate connection
any two unequal between
grades of
being: the one stage paves the way for the next. The highest grade of plant, the
date-palm, is almost animal-like, and the lowest animal, e.g. the snail, is almost
plant-like. Likewise, the highest animal, the ape, is almost man-like, and the
lowest type of man is almost animal-like. As some of the characteristics of
animals (e.g. movement) were created before the animal stage, so some of the
characteristics of man (e.g. intelligence) appeared in a rudimentary form in
higher animals before the stage of man was reached. There is an evolution of
the spirit as it liberates itself in stages from the prison of matter. The

philosopher purges his soul from the impurities of matter through rigorous
physical, moral and intellectual discipline; but the prophet receives Divine
truths through inspiration.29

Clearly, then, Miskawayh adopted the Neoplatonic view of creation.

Creation emanates from God through a series of intermediaries starting from
the First Intellect and ending with man, the highest in the chain of being. It is
man's challenge to transcend his corporeality and become godlike in order to
return to the source of his being, God. This is man's process of becoming.
Ansari states that there is a lack of clarity regarding Miskawayh's view on
the relation between God and the Intellect. For Plotinus, the Intellect is the
mind of The One, but it is above thought. It always contemplates its source
and is therefore near God, and it manifests itself in the creation of the Soul.
However, Plotinus does not clarify how the Soul proceeds from the Intellect.
The relation of the individual soul to the Universal Soul is similarly not
clarified or even discussed.30
Although Miskawayh accepts the Neoplatonic
hierarchy, as a religious thinker he holds that creation comes from nothing.
However, the obscurity in his theory regarding the relation between God, the
Intellect and the Soul makes it difficult to discern where he departs from the

Neoplatonic view of the cosmos.

The Ikhwân held the view that it was the spiritual urge that was the

guiding force for evolutionary movement towards God, but Miskawayh took
this further by finding in it the basis for his theory of ethics. Thus, for

Miskawayh, the scale of spiritual evolution corresponds with the scale of

human virtue: the higher the level of virtue, the higher is man in the scale of
evolution towards God. The level of human virtue in turn corresponds to the
extent to which man perfects his rational faculty. It is this perfection of man's

29
Ibid., 114-124.
30
M. Abdul Haq Ansari, "Miskawayh's Conception of God" in his The Ethical Philosophy of
Miskawayh,134 ff.

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THE COSMOLOGY OF IKHWAN AL-SAFÄ', MISKAWAYH AND AL-ISFAHANi
669

rational soul that enables him to act out his role as the vicegerent of God.
Nevertheless, Miskawayh shares with the Ikhwân the evolutionary view that

every being participates in pure existence in accordance with its potential,

from the lowest level of potential in minerals, plants and animals, to the

highest level of potential in humans. All beings therefore share, in varying

degrees, in the perfection of God.31
Man's distinctive form is his reason. It is that which distinguishes him
from the rest of creation. However, man can only realize his reason through
the discipline of his desire, anger and senses. Other means helpful to this end
are also valued as good.32 We note therefore that Miskawayh adopted from the
Ikhwân the emanationist theory of the cosmos and a positive attitude to
human passion, which
merely requires discipline for it to play a positive role
in man's ultimate pursuit of the good.

Man as Microcosm

The concept of man as a microcosm is not new in the Ikhwân and Miskawayh;
it has its roots in Neoplatonic sources,33 but can be traced back to an ancient
Indo-Iranian concept.34 Miskawayh adopted this idea from the Ikhwân, but he
was less concerned about giving detailed analogies between the various aspects
of man and the various aspects of the cosmos.
Man as a microcosm, with all the various aspects of his body and soul,
resembles various
parts of the cosmos. He has to transcend the lower forms of
his nature to progress in his spiritual evolution towards God. In chapters 2 and
3 of the al-Fawz al-Asghar, Miskawayh views man as a microcosm of the world,
and states that man has parallels with the four elements in the world:

Man is a small world ('älam saghïr) and his faculties are inter-connected. He has
parallels to all that is in the big world {'älam kablr): to the four elements in the
inhabited and uninhabited worlds; on land, sea and mountain; and to inanimate

31
B.H. Siddique, 'Metaphysics of Ibn Miskawayh', in 37-43.
32
Ahmad ibn Muhammad Miskawayh, al-Fawz al-Asghar (Tunis: 1987), 61-110; cf. Khawja
Abdul Hamid, Ibn Maskawaih: A Study of his al-Fawz al-Asghar; M. Abdul Haq Ansari,
"Miskawayh's conception of God", in TheEthical PhilosophyofMiskawayh,58ff.
33
Jachimowicz, 'Islamic Cosmology', in Ancient Cosmologies, 146.
34
Widengren argues that the doctrine of correspondence between man as a small world and the
world as a big man goes back to an ancient Indo-Iranian concept. This correspondence also has
an astrological orientation in that every part of the human body is under the protection of one
or two zodiac signs; furthermore, the development of the human embryo in every stage is under
the protection of a planet. See, G. Widengren, "Macrocosmos-Microcosmos Speculation in the
Rasä'il Ikhwän al-Safâ' and some Hurùfï Texts" in Archivio di Filosofia Padova, 305. These

speculations are apparently integrated into the Neoplatonic structure of the Ikhwân al-Safâ'.

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 VASIÉN MOHAMED
670

objects, plants and animals, as though he were an abridgement and composition

of all that is in it. Some parallels are apparent and some are hidden and obscure.35

Note
that Miskawayh does not describe which specific elements within
the human microcosm correspond with the four elements in the cosmos.

Miskawayh was more concerned with the essential notion of man as "a small
world" that reflects the whole universe. Furthermore, he was concerned with
how man's realization of himself as a small world leads to his ultimate

happiness. Miskawayh was very much concerned here with the notion of
microcosm as a means to explain his ethical theory. Following the

Neoplatonic fashion, Miskawayh states that man's cognitive perfection is

explained in terms of contact (ittisäl) with the intelligible world. When this
contact happens, man becomes a microcosm of the world:

You become a world apart, and you deserve to be called a small world

(microcosm), because the forms of all existing entities would have become
realized within you, so that you would have become in a sense identical with

them. By your actions you will have arranged them in order in the measure of

your capacity, and you will thus become, with respect to them, a deputy of thy

Lord, the Creator of all things ... you will then constitute a complete world ...
your perfection will have made you ready to receive the divine emanation
forever and always you will have come so close to God that no veil should then

separate you from Him. ... This is the highest rank and extreme happiness. Were
it not possible for the individual person to achieve this rank in himself ... he

would have been in the same condition as the individuals of the other animals or
as the individual plants .... It would have been impossible for him to achieve
eternal existence and everlasting bliss by coming close to God.36

As a true microcosm, then, man will attain ultimate happiness, but he must
first perfect himself morally, and must therefore rise above sensory pleasures.

By so doing, he joins the higher spiritual realm (al-mala' al-a'lâ), and receives
the illumination of the divine light. He partakes of divine perfection,

becoming godlike. Miskawayh concludes that this happiness accords with the
love of God, which only the truly virtuous and happy man can attain.37 Man
will then transcend his mortal self and live a divine life.38 This conception of
man as a microcosm of the whole universe is most concisely expressed by
Miskawayh, who states:

35
Ahmad ibn Muhammad Miskawayh, al-Fawz al-Asghar, 118, 8-12.
36Ahmad ibn Muhammad
Miskawayh, Tahdhïbal-Akhläq,ed., C. Zurayk (Beirut: al-Jämi'ahal
Amrikiyyah, 1966), 41, 11-23, 42, 1-4; trans., Constantine K. Zurayk, The Refinement of
Character (Beirut: The American University, 1968), 37f.
37Ahmad ibn Muhammad
Miskawayh, Tahdhïbal-Akhläq, 120-122.
38
Ibid., 152; Majid Fakhry,Ethical Theoriesin Islam, 12.

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THE COSMOLOGY OF IKHWÄN AL-SAFÄ', MISKAWAYH AND AL-ISFAHÄNI
671

... when man attains perfection, he performs his distinctive activity upon

understanding all existents {'ùlama Ί-mawjüdät kullaha). Such a man becomes a

mirror picture of the world and deserves to be called microcosm (al-'älam al

saghïr). The forms of all existents will become present in him, and he will become
identical to them. He will then become a vicegerent of God.39

is potentially a microcosm,
Man but by his reason he is able to reach a
level where he realises this potential, becoming a true microcosm. This is not

merely a process of rationality and apprehension of reality, but it involves a

knowledge of the good, and a purification of the soul through the pursuance
of good. So when man fully realizes his potential to be a microcosm, he
becomes identical with nature, becomes godlike, and attains supreme
happiness.
The concept of man as the microcosm of the world is also identical to
that of the Ikhwän, but Miskawayh does not follow the style of Ikhwän,
which is to provide detailed descriptions of the affinity between man and
nature. Like the Ikhwän, Miskawayh propounds a theory of evolution that has
four stages: from the mineral, to the plant, to the animal and finally to man.
For man to fully realize the microcosm within himself, he has to become
identical to the whole of creation, to the angels. Without
from the minerals
this similarity and connection with nature, man cannot become godlike, nor
can he attain supreme happiness. Herein lies the link between man as a
microcosm and his spiritual evolution. He has to fully realize his microcosmic
state to become harmonious with the rest of the creation; his sense of
connectedness with nature will enable him to reach the end of his spiritual
evolution and attain complete happiness.
Thus, the Ikhwän and Miskawayh have at least four points in common:
the concept of the emanation of creation from God, the concept of spiritual
evolution towardsthe concept of man as the microcosm of the universe,
God,
and the notion that the soul returns to its Creator and attains happiness with
its increasing purification from the impurity of matter and worldly pleasures.

AL-RÄGHIB AL-ISFAHÄN!

The Cosmology of al-Isfahânï

Husayn ibn Muhammad Al-Räghib al-Isfahäni incoporated some aspects of

Miskawayh's cosmology, but under the influence of the Qur'än he developed

39
Ahmad ibn Muhammad Miskawayh, Tahdhib al-Akhlaq, 41, 4-20.

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 VASIÉN MOHAMED
672

a concept of God that is more transcendent and more personal. His creationist
view of the cosmos enables man to have a direct relationship with God, as
there are no intermediaries between man and God.

The Creation of Man and the Cosmos

Al-Isfahânï departs from the emanationist view of the world as conceived by

Ikhwän al-Safâ' and Miskawayh. God to him is not immanent in the

Neoplatonic sense, He is a transcendant God and a personal God to which

man can turn directly for guidance. Although God is transcendent, the
creation is not detached from Him, but it is a Divine expression, with all its
natural, human and supernatural forms. These forms are differentiated in time
and space, and are not part of the process of emanation.
Al-Isfahânï views God as the Creator of the universe in four respects.
First, He created the heavens and the
of nothing, earth
with no out
intermediaries; secondly, angels helped Him perfect what is imperfect; thirdly,
by using natural elements such as fire, He was able to effect certain functions;
and fourthly, He created man's faculty for the cultivation of crafts and manual

occupations. Through it, man can act as a vicegerent of God to cultivate the
earth and build a civilization.40
Al-Isfahânï contends that the Creator
is omnipresent. Although there is
no reason for His
presence, he is the reason
for all that is present. Creation
comprises two categories: the higher beings that have intellect and the lower
beings that have instinct. The higher beings were created first, starting with
the Universal Intellect. From
this Universal Intellect originated the human
intellect.41 Then God
brought into existence the four inorganic elements (fire,
water, air and earth), the organic elements, and animals. He made everything
in pairs. By Friday evening God had shaped the human form from clay.
God states that Adam was made human through seven grades: he was

[first] created from dust,42 then from clay43 ( a combination of dust and water);
then from mud moulded into shape (which is clay altered slightly by air); then
from sticky clay (suggesting the clay's readiness to receive form); then from

sounding clay (indicating dryness and the emission of sound); and then from
mud moulded into shape (indicating a kind of pottery made with fire from
which emerged man's satanic power). Thus God said: "He created man from
hard clay, like bricks. And He created the jinn from tongues of fire" (Qur'än
55: 14-15). Satan's essence is a flame without a body. God then perfected man,

40
Al-Räghib al-Isfahäni, Tafsll al-Nash'atayn wa Tabsïl al-Sa'ädatayn, ed., 'Abd al-Majxd Najjar
(Beirut: Dar al-Gharb al-Islämi,1988), 105ff.
41
Al-Räghib al-Isfahäni, Tafsïl al-Nash'atayn wa Tahsïl al-Sa'ädatayn, 69.
42
Al-Qur'än 3: 59, 18: 37, 30: 20, 35: 11,10: 67.
43
Al-Qur'än 6: 2, 7: 12, 23: 12, 3: 27, 37: 11, 17: 61.

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THE COSMOLOGY OF IKHWÄN AL-SAFÄ', MISKAWAYH AND AL-ISFAHANÎ
673

blowing His spirit into him: 'When your Lord said to the angels: "I am going
to create a mortal out of clay, when I have fashioned him and breathed into
him of My Spirit, fall prostrate before him'" (Qur'ân 38: 71-72). These,
according to the Qur'ân, are the seven stages of development from conception
to the emergence of the human soul. The latter is perfected through

knowledge and good manners, as God states: "And He taught Adam all the
names" (Qur'än 2: 31).44
Man too has been created in seven stages: "We have created man from an
extract of clay; then We placed him as a sperm in a secure place; then we
created out of the sperm a clot; then made from the clot a lump of flesh, then
made the lump of flesh into bones, and then covered the bones with flesh;
then fashioned him into another creation" (Qur'ân 23: 12-14). The expression
"another creation" suggests that God has created a special being with the
faculties of intellect, thought and speech.45
From the foregoing discussion, we notethat Isfahan! has a Qur'änic

perspective on the creation Through a of Adam.

process of seven stages before
birth, the material and spiritual elements of a human being are shaped. Al
Isfahânï agrees with the Neoplatonic view of man as the last in the order of

creation, but disagrees with its contention that the order of creation was an
emanation from the First Intellect. As mentioned above, al-Isfahânï holds that
creation came directly from God without any intermediaries. Thus, al-Isfahânï
also differs from Ikhwân al-Safâ' and Miskawayh in this respect.

Man's "Evolution" and his Distinguishing Feature

From the above we note that al-Isfahânï expounds on the sequence of the

creation, and of particular importance is that man was made of both the
material elements of the creation and the celestial elements. He however, did
not follow the emanationist scheme of creation. The notion that man comes
from God, and he must return to Him
is taken from the Qur'än. Man's ascent
to God through a process of spiritual evolution, therefore, is accepted in
principle by al-Isfahânï. But, like man's creation, his spiritual evolution also
does not follow the Neoplatonic hierachical scheme as we show in the

following paragraphs.
Man begins as a "dead substance", then evolves into a plant, then into an
animal and then to the human level. By using his rational faculty, man, despite
his dependence on nature, liberates himself from attachments to matter and

44
Al-Räghib al-Isfahäni, Tafsïlal-Nash'atayn wa Tahsïlal-Sa'ädatayn, 73f.
45
Ibid., 74. The editor of tili s text suggests that al-Isfahânï's identification of thought with
'another creation' would make sense of the verse refers to seven stages of development after

birth. Thus, if al-Isfahänl had to identify thought as a potentiality within the foetus it might
have made more sense.

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 Y ASIEN MOHAMED
674

sensory pleasures.46 Al-Isfahânï, therefore, agrees with the Neoplatonic view of

the affinity between man and nature, the role of the intellect in liberating man
from dependence on the senses, and its guidance in his spiritual ascent to God.
However, al-Isfahânï does not conceive of this spiritual ascent within the
"chain of being" of the emanationist process of evolution. There seems to be in
al-Isfahânï's view no idea of direct participation of each level of being in the
creation of a higher level than itself, Unking ultimately to God. In this respect
he differs from Ikhwän al-Safä' and Miskawayh.
Like Ikhwän al-Safä' and Miskawayh, holds that man and nature are

similar, and there is a

corresponding relation between man's spiritual
development and the various dimensions of the cosmos. There is, in fact, an
interdépendance of the spiritual and material elements of the world. The

higher beings are dependent on the lower elements: for example, man needs
animals and animals need plants. Man is the highest creation, and the intellect
is the highest element within man. All other beings serve man, and all other
elements (including animals, plants, etc.) serve the intellect. Therefore, it is
said that the whole world is made to serve man and, while he is on earth, man

requires the material elements to serve him, as his body is required to serve his
soul. The concept of microcosm illustrates the link between man and nature,
the dependence of the higher beings on the lower beings and the process of

spiritual evolution of the lower beings towards the higher beings. The notions
of microcosm and evolution are taken from Ikhwän al-Safä' and Miskawayh,
but al-Isfahânï weaves it into another theoretical framework, namely, that of
creation proceeding from God without the intermediaries of emanation.

Man as a Microcosm47

Al-Isfahânï adopted the notion of the microcosm from Miskawayh, but his
illustrations that compare man with nature are not from Miskawayh. No such

analogies are to be found in Miskawayh. In this section we shall limit our

discussion to al-Isfahânï's concept of man as a microcosm.
The following passage shows how al-Isfahânï adopted the concept of man
as a microcosm and placed it within a different context; that is, he believed
that man as a microcosm of the larger world is endowed with an affinity to

44
For a further confirmation of man's connectedness and dépendance on nature see the

Translation below al-Isfahânï regards desire as essential for worship. We note that he accepts the

notion of microcosm, indicating his connection and dependence on nature.

47
On al-Isfahânï's concept of microcosm and its comparison with Miskawayh and Ikhwän al

Safâ', see, Yasien Mohamed, "Knowledge and Purification of the Soul: An Annotated

Translation with Introduction of Isfahäni's Kitäb al-Dhafi'a ilâ Makârim al-Sharï'a (58-76;
1-34.
89-92JT,

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 THE COSMOLOGY OF IKHWAN AL-SAFA', MISKAWAYH AND AL-ISFAHANÏ
675

nature and to the cosmos. understandingAn of this affinity leads to an

understanding of man, of nature, and ultimately of God.

The sages said: God created man into a sensory, intelligent constitution

conforming to the pattern of this world. He brought him into being resembling
everything in the world; thus, it is said, he is "a small world", a microcosm of the
big world. That is so, to guide man to the knowledge of the world, for, and
through them, he is led to the knowledge of their Creator. The divine purpose of
man's knowledge of God is to know the world, that it is created, and therefore
must have a creator unlike it. God the most High is above them all.48

This is the cosmological way of knowing God. It is a logical way based on the
observation of nature. It is the way of reason. The wisdom of being a
microcosm is to know the world: for to know the world is to know God.

Knowledge of God can also be achieved through the knowledge of the soul,
which leads to knowledge of the world, which in turn leads to a knowledge of
God.
Thus
the purpose of creating man as a microcosm is confirmed in al

Tafsìl, where he states, "The human soul combines the existents of the world
... whoever knows the existents knows his soul". Furthermore (commenting
on Chapter 30, verse 8), he states that "if men had to reflect upon their souls
they would know the realities of the existents of creation, both transitory and

permanent".49 Therefore, with knowledge of his soul (rüh), man will have

knowledge of the spiritual world and its permanence (baqä'uhü); and with

knowledge of his body, man will have knowledge of the physical world and its
transience.50 As in Ikhwän al-Safâ' and Miskawayh, there is clearly an affinity
between man and nature. As a microcosm, both man's soul and body
correspond to the spiritual and bodily aspects of the universe.
Whereas in al-DharVah, al-Isfahanï introduces the notion of microcosm in
the context of the way to knowledge of God, it is in al-Tafsïl that he really

expands on this concept in a manner resembling the Rasä'il. Man as a

microcosm is a small model of the big world, which is the whole of creation.
That is, he shares similar qualities with the rest of the world. Both his body

48
Al-Râghib al-Isfahânî, al-Dharï'ah ilä Makàrim al-SharVah (Cairo: Dar al-Sahwah, 1985), 76, 9
13; 202. Al-Isfahânï states: "God created a small world for every person, both of his body and
his soul, and He brought into being in man, an example of every existent in the big world"

(ibid.).
49
Al-Râghib al-Isfahâni, Tafsïl al-Nash'atayn wa Tahsïl al-Sa'âdatayn, 62; cf. al-Isfahânï, al
Dbarï'ah ilä Makârim al-SharVah, 202.
50
Ibid., 76. 9-10. "He is a small world, a microcosm of the big world": al-insanu. huwa 'àlamun

sagbïrun wa mukhtasarun li'l 'alami Ί-kabïr. Cf. al-Isfahânï, Tafsïl al-Nask'atayn wa Tabsïl al

Sa'âdatayn, 76, 8-9, where al-Isfahânï also uses the term mukhtasar. Miskawayh uses the term
'âlam saghïr.

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 YASIEN MOHAMED
676

and soul can be likened to the larger world. His physical qualities resemble
some plants and minerals and his moral qualities resemble some animals.

However, it is significant that, unlike Ikhwän al-Safâ', al-Isfahânï cites many

verses from the Qur'än to give the concept an Islamic orientation. Thus, he
states that man is a composition of the elements of the world; God created
him after the existence of these things: "Who fashioned well everything He
created, and originated the creation of man from clay" (Qur'än 32: 7). God has
combined within man the simple elements of the world as well as the complex
elements, its spiritual
aspect and earthly things. Therefore it is said, man is a
microcosm (mukhtasar) of the world. This may be compared to an abridged
version of a book: the words are fewer, but the meaning is the same. Man is
made out of the best of the earth. He is like butter in buttermilk, and oil in
sesame seed oil. There
is nothing in the world that does not resemble him.
Thus, he is like the elements in respect of his heat, cold, moisture and aridness,
like minerals in respect of what the body is, like plants in respect of what he
eats and looks after, like animals in respect of what he senses, imagines and

experiences: like the lion in respect of his annoyance and anger, like Satan in

respect of his capacity for error, and like the angels in his knowledge of God,

worship and vicegerency. He is also like the Preserved Τ ablet on which God
has crystallized all wisdom, and like the pen where God has confirmed with
His speech the form of things in the hearts of people, as the pen confirms the
wisdom of the Preserved Tablet.51 Thus, man and the world resemble each
other, as it is said, "Man is a small world,
and the world is a big man". Thus
man, the small
world, theresembles
big world, including, minerals, plants,
animals, angels, Satan, and the Preserved Τ ablet of God.
The following passage describing man as a microcosm reveals that he is
also a receptacle for all the good and bad qualities of the world. Distinctive
features of all aspects of creation are to be found within man, who can take on
these various forms in different degrees and times. Isfahânï explains that at
times man can be like a praiseworthy or a blameworthy animal, sometimes
like an angel, at other times like a devil. "The potentials united within man
make him a vessel for the good qualities of the world: its natural forms, its
minerals and its spiritual realities; thus, he is a combination of all of these
minerals, plants, animals, beasts, devils and angels. Thus, he can manifest
within him the distinguishable feature of all these".52
This kind of detailed
description of the material, moral and spiritual

qualities of man and their mirror image in the form of plants, animals, devils
and angels is to be found neither in Miskawayh's Tabdhlb nor in his Fawz al

asghar. The author of these two works was more concerned with

51
Al-Raghib al-Isfahanï, Tafsïlal-Nash'atayn wa Tahsïl al-Sa'adatayn, 76f.
52
Ibid., 84, 10-11; 86,1-2.

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THE COSMOLOGY OF IKHWÄN AL-SAFA', MISKAWAYH AND AL-ISFAHANi
677

philosophically describing theory of emanation

the and the process of
evolution back to the One source. Al-IsfahänI's description of the microcosm
resembles that of Ikhwän al-Safä'. He must have been inspired by them, as he
uses similar analogies to confirm the intimate affinity between man and the
cosmos. An important difference is that Ikhwän al-Safä' pay much more
attention to comparing man's physical features with the physical features of
the universe. Whereas al-Isfahänl concentrates on similarities between man and
nature to bring out the moral qualities of man in relation to the universe. The

passage below looks at the moral and theological characteristics that man
shares with the plants and animals.

Thus, there are some who are as tyrannical as the lion, as scornful as the
people

wolf, and false as the fox, as wicked as the pig, as submissive as the dog, as
collective as the ants, as impudent as the fly, as stupid as the donkey, as meek as

the faithful bird, as skilful as the wild ass, as proud as the lion, as jealous as the
cock, and cooing as softly as the dove. Some possess beautiful outward

while the inner appearance is like the atraj tree. Conversely to that
appearance
are those who are like the gall nuts (oak apples) and acorns: ugly in appearance,
but whose demeanour inside is like nuts and almonds; and those with beautiful
appearance, but whose demeanour inside is like the khandal and the daffoli. The
good believer (compared) with animals, is like the bee that takes the good from
the trees, not plucking their fruit, not breaking the tree, nor harming other
humans. It benefits man most, sweet its taste, pleasant its smell. And (compared)
with trees, it is like the Atraj tree: pleasant its blooming fruit, wood, leaves,
smell, and taste. The hypocrite and the wicked, (compared) with animals, are
akin to the louse and the termite; and (compared) with trees, are like weeds with
no leaves, fresh air, shade, or flower. Its fruit are spoilt, trees dry; they are
origin,
like fruit with few leaves, many thorns, and difficult to reach.53

In a manner resembling the style of Ikhwän al-Safä', who compared the

universal Soul with the government of the soul, al-Isfahänl compares man with
the social and political stratification of a country:

Philosophers have related many examples of man's essence and its faculties; they
illustrate what can only be perceived by the intellect through a sensory picture
that approximates human understanding: They said: As a small world54, man, as
mentioned, is compared to a country-its structure is firm, buildings erect, walls
fortified, streets designed, places divided, houses inhabited, paths travelled, rivers
flow, and workers employed.55

53
Al-Räghib al-Isfahänl, al-Dharï'ah iläMakänm al-Sharï'ah, 166, 2-15.
54 to the city and the
Ibid., 103, for reference to man as a small world. The body is compared

intellect to the king. See also, Ibid., 67 for a similar idea.

55 cf. al-Dbarï'ah ilä
Al-Räghib al-Isfahânï, Tafsìl al-Nash'atay wa Tahsïl al-Sa'ädatayn, 92f.;
Makärim al-Sharï'ah, 103, for similar analogies in a slightly different context.

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 Y ASIEN MOHAMED
678

One may conclude that al-Isfahânï

adopted the notion of man as
microcosm from Ikhwän al-Safä', and that his analogies comparing man with
nature resemble those expressed in Rasa'il of Ikhwän al-Safä'. However, while

Miskawayh conceives of the microcosm in the context of the theory of

emanation, al-Isfahânï employs it within the framework
of of a theory
creation. It is, first, a means for arriving at the knowledge of God, and

secondly, it reveals the ethical qualities of man, which correspond with the
various beings within creation.
Ikhwän
al-Safä', Miskawayh and Isfahânï share the same view of man as
microcosm, but they approach it in different ways. The Ikhwän's theory of
Ikhwän al-Safä' is viewed within the context of emanationistic cosmology.
Detailed and precise aspects of man, his body and soul are compared with the

spiritual and material dimensions of the universe. These similes and images of
man and the cosmos recur in different forms throughout the Rasa'il.

Miskawayh adopts the same notion of man as a small world, making it integral
to his cosmological world view, but he does not offer any vivid images or
similes to illustrate it. Al-Isfahânï's microcosm does not fit into an
emanationistic perspective: the affinity between man and nature is established
through the microcosm, and so is man's dependence on the creation. The
notion of microcosm is also
employed as a rational way of arriving at

knowledge of God and increasing man's faith in Him. Unlike Miskawayh, al

Isfahânï provides vivid examples to illustrate man as a microcosm of the
universe, making the Rasa'il the model for his style.

Conclusion

Al-Isfahânï was fascinated by two main elements in al-Ikhwän's and

Miskawayh's emanationist concept of creation: first, the concept of man as a
microcosm of the universe, and secondly, the hierarchical view of creation
where man, although superior, was created last after the minerals, plants and
animals. At variance with the Neoplatonic theory, Isfahânï viewed the cosmos
as having been created by a transcendent God, the source of all things,

including man.

Although al-Isfahânï perceives the world as a direct creation of God, and

not the product of emanation from universal Intellect, he nevertheless shares
other notions with Ikhwän al-Safä' and
Miskawayh. First, he accepts the
Intellect as the first thing created, but not the view that the creation emanated
from it. Secondly, he adopts the notion of microcosm from Ikhwän al-Safä',
and (unlike Miskawayh) also imitates their style in employing analogies to
show the similarities between man and the world.
Al-Isfahânï's analogies compare man with every aspect of the cosmos,
including minerals and insects. These analogies are not used merely for

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THE COSMOLOGY OF IKHWAN AL-SAFÄ', MISKAWAYH AND AL-ISFAHANÍ
679

stylistic embellishment, but it is an attempt to show the affinity between man

and nature and the various elements that make up human nature. Another

implication of this affinity is the concept of man as the vicegerent of God.

Al-IsfahanI adopted the notion of the order of creation and spiritual
progress, with man emerging first from minerals, then plants, and then
animals, followed by his rise to the level of the angels and the Divine.
Furthermore, this spiritual evolution is made possible by man's rational
faculty and by the liberation of his soul from matter.
Al-Isfahänl shares with Miskawayh and Ikhwän al-Safä' a respectful
attitude to the universe, which
reflects something of the divine. Observation
of it will therefore leadto knowledge of God. Because of the intimate
connection between man and the cosmos, man is able to observe in the
universe what he is himself. He is able to apprehend the deeper meaning of
nature only because he can apprehend the inner depths of his own being.

@ @

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