Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
CONTENTS 82
38
8 Success Story 12
55
12 High Yield Facts-Zoology
Neural Control and Coordination
30 NEET Foundation
Class XI
Applications of Biotechnology
PCM 900 1500 1900
72 NCERT Xtract PCB 900 1500 1900
PCMB 1000 1800 2300
Principles of Inheritance and Variation
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Rank
EXAM
Nishita Purohit
• MTG : Why did you choose medical entrance? Nishita : All the papers I appeared in, were of different
Nishita Purohit : From childhood, I had a dream of serving formats and difficulty levels. So, it is very important to find
the mankind. So, I thought it was the best occupation out all the details regarding the test. On a personal note,
satisfying my wish. Therefore, I decided to appear for the difficulty level of AIIMS was at the peak followed by JIPMER
medical entrance examinations. and finally NEET.
• MTG : What exams you • MTG : How many hours in a
The ideal preparation plan is nothing as
have appeared for and day did you study to prepare
such. Each person has a different way
what is your rank in these for the examination?
exams?
of preparation. But the basic theme is
Nishita : I studied for around
Nishita : I also appeared for same, relevance of material, frequency 5 hours in my Allen classroom and
NEET and my rank was 11. of revisions and question practice. for about 4-5 hours of self-study.
• MTG : Any other achievements? (Please mention • MTG : On which topic and chapters you laid more
the name of exams and rank) stress in each subject?
Nishita : In the past two years, I had thoroughly focussed Nishita : For AIIMS, specially I laid more stress on Physics
on AIIMS but still I qualified for the second stage of Physics followed by Chemistry. Biology is easy and is more application
Olympiad after clearing the first stage. based. Some chapters such as ‘POC’, ‘Semiconductors’, ‘States
of matter’, ‘Surface chemistry’, ‘Biomolecules’, ‘Polymers’,
• MTG : How did you prepare for AIIMS and other
‘Chemistry in everyday life’ were my main topics.
medical exams?
Nishita : The main idea was to focus on all the topics • MTG : How much time does one require for serious
as taught in the class with utmost attention and follow preparation for this exam?
guidelines given in my coaching classes by Allen Career Nishita : Quantity of time is no factor. Qualitative and
Institute, Kota. smart study is of more importance.
• MTG : What basic difference you found in various • MTG : Any extra coaching?
papers you cleared? Nishita : No extra coaching.
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3
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• Overall function of nervous system is to collect information about the external
conditions in relation to the body’s internal state, to analyse this information and
to initiate appropriate responses to satisfy certain needs (maintain homeostasis).
The most important need is survival. The nerves do not form one single system,
2016
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rather they form several systems, which are interrelated. Some of these are physically
Analysis of various PMTs from 2013-2017
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1
2
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Brain
Somatic neural system Autonomic neural system
AIPMT/NEET
K-CET
J&K
Neurofibrils
Cyton or Soma
Synaptic knob
Contain mitochondria and secretory vesicles.
Fig.: Neuron
Types of Neurons
Non-polar
• When all processes of soma are equal and nerve Multipolar
impulse can be conducted in any direction, e.g., • When the axon and several dendrites extend from the
neurons of coelenterates. soma, e.g., motor neurons and interneurons.
Na+ channel
Depolarisation opens
Voltage gated Na+ channel is K+ channel Na+ channel
in resting state and voltage
gated K+ channel is closed.
Na+ flows inward
(a) (b)
Repolarisation
K+ ions exit and Na+ begins, K+
channel begins to open channel opens
again. and Na+
(d) (c) channel gate
closese.
Types of Synapse
membrane. Thus,
t h e i m p u l s e i s Postsynaptic
neurotransmitter Ions flow through Postsynaptic
transferred to the receptor postsynaptic channels membrane
Postsynaptic Gap junction channels
membrane next neuron.
Fore brain
Brain
Thalamus Cerebrospinal
Hypothalamus fluid (CSF)
Midbrain Ventricles
Pons
Hind brain
Cerebellum
Medulla Meninges
Spinal cord
Spinal cord cavity
Vertebral column
Human Brain
• The human brain is the command centre for the human neural system. It receives input from the sensory organs and sends
output to the effectors. It processes and interprets sensory information sent from the spinal cord.
• The brain is covered by three protective layers of connective tissue called meninges.
Veins Duramater
Outermost, tough, fibrous membrane adhering
Arachnoidmater closely to the inside of the skull
Thin “spider webby” structure
Subdural space
Sub-arachnoid space Space between arachnoid membrane and
Space between arachnoid duramater
membrane and piamater and is Arachnoid granulation villi
filled with CSF
Longitudinal fissure
Piamater Separates two cerebral hemispheres
Innermost, thin, very delicate
and vascular membrane Cerebral cortex
Cerebral vein
Fore brain
(Prosencephalon)
Cerebrum Diencephalon
Olfactory lobes
• Largest and most complex part of human brain,
Epithalamus (Roof)
• Paired club shaped consists of left and right hemispheres, connected by
• Forms anterior choroid plexus.
structure, forming corpus callosum (large bands of myelinated fibres).
• Short pineal stalk, have pineal body, secretes hormone
anterior part of brain, • Cerebral cortex forms outermost portion of
melatonin.
concerned with sense cerebrum and makes up the grey matter.
of smell. • The surface of cortex is highly folded, forming gyri Thalamus (sides)
(upward folds) alternating with sulci (downward • Lies superior to mid-brain.
• Each lobe consists of grooves).
two parts - anterior • Composed primarily of grey matter.
• Beneath the grey matter, millions of medullated
olfactory bulb and nerve fibres are present, which give opaque white Hypothalamus (floor)
posterior olfactory appearance and comprise of white matter. • Hypothalamus lies above the pituitary gland and is
tract. • Each hemisphere consists of frontal, parietal, attached to it by stalk called infundibulum.
temporal and occipital lobes. • Maintains homeostasis, provides anatomical connections
• Contains sensory, motor and association areas. between nervous and endocrine systems.
Mid-brain
of mid brain are called corpora quadrigemina.
• Crura cerebri are two bundles of fibres
present on lower or inferior surface of the
• One pair is called superior colliculi (concerned with sense of mid brain.
sight) and other pair is inferior colliculi (concerned with hearing).
• The superior and inferior colliculi of each side are termed corpora • They relay impulses back and forth between
bigemina. the cerebrum, cerebellum, pons and medulla.
Hind brain
(Rhombencephalon)
• Second largest part of the human brain, consists of 3 • It is situated in front of cerebellum • Pyramid shaped, extends
layers, outer layer of cells, cerebellar cortex and deeper below the mid brain and above the from pons varolii above and
cell clusters. Middle layer contains characteristically medulla oblongata. is continuous with spinal cord
large flask shaped Purkinje cells. below.
• Functions: It relays impulses
• Cerebellum has two lateral cerebellar hemispheres • It has thin, non-vascular folded
between the medulla oblongata
and central worm shaped part, vermis. structure on its lower side called
and superior part of brain, between
• It contains branching tree like arrangement of grey posterior choroid plexus.
hemispheres of cerebellum and
and white matter called arbor vitae (tree of life). • Functions: Regulatory centres
between cerebrum and cerebellum.
• Functions: Controls posture, balance and mainly for heart rate, blood pressure,
• Pneumotaxic centre present in pons breathing, sneezing, salivation,
involuntary activities, receives information from varolii limits inspiration.
muscles, joints, skin, eyes. coughing, etc.
2. Optic Retina of eye Optic lobe of midbrain Sensory Sight (Retina of eye)
3. Oculomotor Floor of midbrain Eye, 4 muscles of eyeball Motor Movements of eye-ball, iris, lens,
eyelid and constriction of pupil
4. Trochlear Floor of midbrain Superior oblique muscles of eyeball Motor Rotation of eye-ball
(Smallest and
thinnest cranial
nerve)
7. Facial (bears Lower part of pons Anterior 2/3 tongue (taste buds), Mixed Taste, facial expression,
geniculate ganglion) varolii muscles of face, neck and salivary chewing, movement of neck
glands
8. Auditory (also called Comes from internal Organ of Corti in cochlea, semicircular Sensory Hearing and equilibrium
vestibulo-cochlear) ear and joins lateral canals
side of pons varolii
9. Glosso-pharyngeal Lateral side of medulla Posterior 1/3rd of tongue, soft palate Mixed Taste and touch, movements
and muscles of pharynx (swallowing) of pharynx,
salivation
10. Vagus (Pneumogas- Lateral side and floor Muscles of pharynx, vocal cords, Mixed Vocal cords (sound production),
tric) (Longest of medulla lungs, heart, oesophagus, stomach. lungs, respiratory reflexes,
cranial nerve) Also called wandering nerve as peristaltic intestine movements,
(i) Superior laryngeal it has maximum branches speech, swallowing, secretion
(ii) Recurrent laryngeal of gastric glands, inhibition of
(iii) Cardiac heart beat
(iv) Pneumogastric
(v) Depressor
11. Spinal accessory or Both medulla and Muscles of palate, larynx, vocal cords, Motor Movement of muscles of
accessory nerve spinal cord neck, shoulder pharynx, larynx, neck, shoulder
12. Hypoglossal Ventral side of medulla Muscles of tongue, hyoid apparatus Motor Movement of tongue
oblongata
Spinal Nerves
• There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves, named and numbered according to the vertebrae with which they are associated.
• Structure - The spinal nerves are formed by union of dorsal and ventral roots shortly after they leave spinal cord. Each
spinal nerve has afferent (sensory) and efferent (motor) fibres, in general, efferents come from ventral root and afferents go
into dorsal root. Thus, all spinal nerves are mixed nerves because they carry both sensory and motor impulses.
• After leaving vertebral column, each spinal nerve divides into:
– Posterior branch- innervates muscles and skin of the posterior portion of the body.
– Anterior branch- innervates limbs and the lateral and anterior portions of the body.
Cervical plexus Lumbar plexus
The main spinal Innervates neck and diaphragm Innervates the legs
nerves join to
form plexus Coccygeal plexus Brachial plexus Sacral plexus
Innervates skin and pelvic region Innervates chest and arm Connects pelvic region
Eye
Constricts pupil Dilates pupil
Salivary
glands
Stimulates saliva secretion Inhibits saliva secretion
Lung
Constricts bronchi Dilates bronchi
Pan
c rea Stimulates glucose
Stimulates stomach, pancreas, s
and intestine secretion Intestines Inhibits stomach, pancreas, and
intestine secretion
Bladder
Constricts bladder Relaxes bladder
SENSORY RECEPTORS
• The principle function of the special sensory receptors is to detect environmental stimuli and transduce their energy into
electrical impulses. These are then conveyed along sensory neurons to the central nervous system, where they are integrated
and processed, and a response is produced.
Mechanoreceptors Chemoreceptors
Respond to mechanical forces such as touch, pressure, vibration Respond to chemical molecules. Include olfactory cells in the nasal
and itch by generating nerve impulses. Includes the receptors mucosa and taste buds.
such as free nerve endings of sensory neurons, Merkel’s discs, hair
follicle endings, Pacinian corpuscles, muscle spindles and Golgi Nociceptors
tendon organs. Respond to painful stimuli which may be damaging to tissues. Include
free nerve endings.
Thermoreceptors
Respond to temperature changes. Include free nerve endings and Photoreceptors
Krause’s end bulbs. Respond to light energy. Include cones and rods in the retina.
• The most complex sensory receptors, are called sensory organs. They consist of numerous sense cells, sensory neurons
and associated accessory structures, e.g., eye and ear have a level of complexity of sense organs.
Eyes (Organs of Sight)
• Human eyes are spherical structures present in the bony sockets of the skull. Each eye is about 2.5 cm in diameter and
consists of tissues present in three concentric layers:
(i) Outer most layer consists of sclera and cornea.
(ii) Middle vascular layer consists of choroid, ciliary body and iris (also called uvea).
(iii) Inner most layer consists of retina.
DAVID BALTIMORE
D
avid Baltimore is an American attention to two RNA tumour viruses– Rauscher murine leukemia virus
biologist, University administrator and Rous sarcoma virus. It was through these experiments that he
and a Nobel laureate in Physiology discovered reverse transcriptase. This discovery proved an exception
or Medicine. From 1997 - 2006, he served to the “central dogma” of genetic theory. Since its discovery reverse
as President of California Institute of transcriptase has become an invaluable tool in recombinant DNA
Technology (Caltech) and is currently the technology. Reverse transcriptase is essential for the production of
President Emeritus and Robert Andrews retroviruses, allowing such viruses to turn viral RNA strands into DNA
Millikan Professor of Biology at Caltech. strands. They published these findings in the prestigious journal Nature.
He was born on March 7, 1938 in New York In 1974, Baltimore was honored as a Fellow of the American Academy of
City to Gertrude and Richard Baltimore. He Arts and Sciences. In 1975, he shared the Nobel Prize for Physiology or
graduated from Great Neck High School Medicine with Howard Temin and Renato Dulbecco. In 1980, Baltimore
in 1956 and earned his Bachelor’s degree and his group published a paper regarding Abolson murine leukemia
in Chemistry from Swarthmore College
virus (AMuLV) and showed it was a member of new class of protein
Pennsylvania in 1960. He developed his interest in molecular biology
kinase that used the amino acid tyrosine as a phospho-acceptor. In
at cold spring harbor laboratory. He obtained his PhD in 1964 from
1999, Former U.S. President Bill Clinton awarded Baltimore, the National
Rockefeller University, New York. He made fundamental discoveries
Medal of Science for his contribution to the scientific world. In 2005, he
on virus replication and its effect on cell metabolism, including the first
became member of the Encyclopedia Britannica Editorial Board Advisor
description of RNA replicase.
and was elected in 2006 as President of American Association for
In February, 1965, Baltimore was recruited by Renato Dulbecco to the advancement in science (AAAS). His laboratory at Caltech focus on two
newly established Salk Institute for Biological Studies in La Jolla, there major research areas understanding the mammalian immune system
he investigated poliovirus RNA replication. He joined the faculty of MIT and creating viral vectors to make the immune system more effective
in 1968, accompanied by Alice S. Huang, a post doctoral fellow and the in resisting cancer. In recent research led by Jimmy Zhao, Baltimore’s
two worked together on vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV). Baltimore and team has discovered a small RNA molecule called microRNA-146a and
Huang showed that vesicular stomatitis virus, an RNA virus reproduced bred a strain of mice that lacks miR146a. Their results suggest that
itself by means of an enzyme RNA-dependent RNA polymerase that microRNA-146a protects HSCs during chronic inflammation and that its
copies RNA by a process not involving DNA. In 1972, he was awarded lack may contribute to blood cancers and bone marrow failure.
tenure as a professor of Biology at MIT. In 1973, he became a professor
of Microbiology at an American Cancer Society. He then turned his
Conjunctiva
Aqueous humor Lens Vitreous humor
Thin, clear, protective
Watery liquid, formed by capillaries of ciliary Tra n s p a r e n t , b i c o n v e x , Clear jelly-like fluid that fills space
front layer over the
processes, that fills space between the cornea and circular body lying immedia- between the lens and retina,
surface of the eye and
lens. It provides nutrition to avascular structures of tely behind pupil. It forms which helps to maintain the
lining the eyelids. An
the eye, i.e., cornea and lens and maintains image on retina. It separates shape and inner pressure of
infection of eye called
intraocular pressure and helps in image forming aqueous and vitreous eyeball. It allows undistorted light
conjunctivitis occurs
mechanisms. humors. to fall on retina.
here.
Mechanism of Vision
Fig.: Schematic diagram to show layers of retina and main structures therein
Pinna
Helix
Cartilage
Sound waves are collected from Tympanic membrane (eardrum) Tympanic membrane
an external source by the help of stretches; and as the air molecules bows inwards and
Mechanism ear pinna and are transmitted to push the membrane, they cause it transmits the sound
of Hearing tympanic membrane through an to vibrate at the same frequency waves to the ear
external auditory meatus. as the sound wave. ossicles.
Hair cells receive the impulses Movements in fluid (endolymph) Vibrations are further transferred Perilymph of inner
and transmit it to brain through of scala media and tectorial to scala vestibuli and then to ear receives the
auditory nerve and finally sound membrane stimulate the sensory scala media through Reissner’s vibrations through
is detected by the brain. hair of the organ of Corti. membrane of cochlea. fenestra ovalis.
UN S C R A M B L E M E
Unscramble the words given in column I and match them with their explanations in column II.
Column I Column II
1. ALIMANINR (a) A layer of connective tissue that surrounds the myelinated nerve fibre.
2. TEMEGAENISS (b) Food reserve found in Sargassum.
3. ONEDENRUUMI (c) Alternation of asexual and sexual phases in hydrozoans.
4. SULGETINL (d) Drug obtained as by-product of heroin synthesis.
5. MECITINRS (e) Parasites that are completely dependent on the host for their nutrition.
6. LAPONYGOYL (f) Secretion from mammary glands of a mother for the first 2-3 days after
child birth.
7. MSAKC (g) Disorder in infants caused due to deficiency of thyroid hormone.
8. LOHAPOARISETS (h) Natural insecticide obtained from margosa extract.
9. HDZTAIARIANC (i) Group of storage proteins found in cereal grains.
10. OCOLTSUMR ( j) Study of external morphology of mature pollen grains.
Readers can send their responses at editor@mtg.in or post us with complete address by 25th of every month to win exciting prizes.
Winners’ names will be published in next issue.
CHAPTER-16 : DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION 4. The process by which liver cells synthesise glycogen by the
action of insulin is called
Multiple Choice Questions (a) glyconeogenesis (b) glycolysis
1. Which of the following options correctly depicts the flow (c) glycogenolysis (d) glycogenesis.
of bile from liver? 5. The salivary amylase is inactivated in stomach due to
(a) Liver → cystic duct → hepatic duct → gall bladder → (a) absence of thiocyanate ions
bile duct → hepatopancreatic ampulla → duodenum (b) presence of somatostatin
(b) Liver → hepatic duct → gall bladder → cystic duct → (c) denaturation of enzyme by acidic pH in stomach
bile duct → hepatopancreatic ampulla → duodenum (d) inhibition by enterokinase.
(c) Liver → hepatic duct → gall bladder → cystic duct
→ bile duct → hepatopancreatic ampulla → ileum 6. Which of the following options correctly describes the
(d) Liver → cystic duct → gall bladder → bile duct → sequence of enzymes involved in digestion of proteins?
hepatic duct → hepatopancreatic ampulla → duodenum (i) (ii) (iii)
Proteins Peptones Dipeptides Amino acids
2. Milk casein Y Paracasein + M (a) (i) Pepsin ; (ii) Carboxypeptidase ; (iii) Trypsin
(b) (i) Pepsin; (ii) Chymotrypsin; (iii) Trypsin
Calcium paracaseinate (c) (i) Pepsin; (ii) Chymotrypsin; (iii) Dipeptidase
(Curdling of milk) (d) (i) Trypsin; (ii) Pepsin; (iii) Dipeptidase
In the above question letter ‘Y’ and ‘M’ denote 7. Which of the following statements is correct regarding
(a) rennin and Ca++ respectively absorption of different nutrients?
(b) Ca++ and renin respectively (a) Fructose is absorbed by active transport in stomach
(c) rennin, HCl and Ca++ respectively and small intestine.
(d) renin and Ca++ respectively. (b) Amino acids are absorbed in small intestine by passive
transport.
3. The opening of bile duct before it unites with pancreatic
(c) Fatty acids and fat soluble vitamins are absorbed via
duct is guarded by
facilitated transport in small intestine.
(a) ampulla of Vater (b) sphincter of Oddi
(d) Water soluble vitamins are absorbed by simple diffusion
(c) Thebasian valve (d) sphincter of Boyden.
in small intestine.
Eustachian valve.
(c) The right atrio-ventricular opening is guarded by the
B mitral valve
(d) Impulses received from carotid sinuses decreases
C heart rate whereas impulses received from vena cava
Functional residual
SOLUTIONS
CHAPTER-16 : DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION (iii) Paneth cells - secrete lysozyme and are capable of
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (d) phagocytosis.
20. (a) A is parotid gland, B is sublingual gland and C is
5. (c) 6. (c) 7. (d) 8. (a)
submandibular gland. The parotid glands secrete
9. (d) 10. (c) much of salivary amylase or -amylase (= ptyalin).
11. A - (iii); B-(i); C-(iv); D-(ii) Sub-lingual and sub mandibular glands secrete salivary
amylase and mucus. The fluids secreted by the salivary
12. A - (ii), (x); B-(i), (iii); C- (v), (vii); D-(iv), (vi), E-(viii), (ix) glands constitute saliva.
13. (i) buccal cavity (ii) salivary amylase (b) P - Stenson's duct
(iii) acidic (iv) HCl Q - Ducts of Rivinus
(v) mucoid fluid (vi) secretin R - Wharton's duct
(vii) -amylase (viii) -dextrins CHAPTER-17 : BREATHING AND EXCHANGE OF GASES
(ix) monosaccharides (x) jejunum 1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (b)
14. (a) 15. (c) 16. (d) 17. (c) 5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (c)
18. (b) 9. (c) 10. (d)
19. (a) A is villi, B is lacteal, C are capillaries and D is crypt of 11. A - (iii), B-(i), C-(v), D-(ii), E-(iv)
Lieberkuhn. 12. A - (ii), (vii), B-(iv), (ix), C-(i), (iii); D-(vi), (x); E- (v), (viii)
(b) The innermost lining of alimentary canal mucosa have 13. (i) external respiration (ii) respiratory membrane
small finger like foldings called villi. These are covered
(iii) epithelial basement (iv) capillary basement
by a layer of columnar cells which have a 'brush
membrane membrane
border' appearance due to presence of microvilli.
These modifications increase the absorptive surface (v) capillary endothelium (vi) 0.2
of intestine. (vii) diffusing capacity (viii) solubility
(c) Following cells are present in crypts of Lieberkuhn- (ix) oxygen (x) blood
(i) Goblet cells - secrete mucus that protects the duodenal 14. (a) 15. (b) 16. (c) 17. (a)
wall from getting digested. 18. (d)
(ii) Argentaffin cells - synthesise secretin hormone and 19. (a) A - Pulmonary artery B - Pulmonary vein
5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT). C - Systemic veins D - Systemic arteries
Biomolecules-II
• In the previous issue, we have discussed most of the macromolecules comprising
the cellular pool i.e., carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, etc.
• The remaining important biomolecules such as enzymes are discussed here in
2017
2
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continuation.
ENZYMES
• Enzymes are usually the most remarkable and highly specialised proteins having 2016
6
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an extraordinary catalytic power and high degree of specificity for their substrates.
• Enzymes are core to every biochemical process as they catalyse the stepwise reactions
Analysis of various PMTs from 2013-2017
2
• Since enzymes are capable of catalysing reactions of biological origin and are
synthesised by living cells only they are called biocatalysts.
• The term ‘enzyme’ was first coined by Kuhne (1877) for catalytically active substances.
• However the enzymes were first discovered and isolated by Buchner (1897). For
2014
10
2
K-CET
J&K
AMU
Apoenzyme (Protein part)
• Made up of protein only. • Made up of two parts:
• Active site comprises of specific grouping of its own Co-factor (Non-Protein part)
amino acids. • The complete enzyme is called holoenzyme.
• E.g., pepsin, trypsin etc. • The active site is formed jointly by apoenzyme and co-factor.
• Co-factor is small, heat stable and dialysable part of conjugate enzyme which may be organic or inorganic in nature.
• Organic co-factors are of two types: Co-enzymes and .
• are easily separable non-protein organic co-factors that act as transient carriers of specific functional groups.
Co-enzymes require two apoenzymes one for picking up the group and second for transferring the group e.g., NAD+,
NADP+, CoA.
• Most of the co-enzymes are made up of water soluble vitamins B and C, e.g., thiamine, riboflavin, nicotinamide, pyridoxine, etc.
• are non protein organic co-factors firmly attached to apoenzymes and take part in group transfer
reactions, e.g., heme, biotin, pyridoxal phosphate.
• include ions of a variety of minerals, e.g., calcium, iron, copper, zinc, nickel, molybdenum etc. They
usually function as activators by forming one or more coordination bonds with both the substrate and active site of enzyme.
Apoenzyme Coenzyme
(i) It is protein part of the holoenzyme or conjugate Coenzyme is the nonprotein organic group which gets attached
enzyme. to the apoenzyme to form holoenzyme or conjugate enzyme.
(ii) It is large in size. It is small in size.
(iii) An apoenzyme is specific for an enzyme. A coenzyme can function as a cofactor for a number of enzymes
carrying out that particular type of reaction.
(iv) It takes part only in catalytic activity of the enzyme. It helps in removing a product of chemical reaction besides
bringing contact between the substrate and the enzyme.
(v) Apoenzyme does not help in group transfer. Coenzyme takes part in group transfer.
(vi) Apoenzyme is thermolabile. Coenzyme is heat stable.
• of enzyme is the small portion of enzyme that takes part in catalysing biochemical reaction by attracting and
holding particular substrate molecule by its specific charge, size or shape.
• Active site consists of a few amino acids and their side groups which are brought together in a particular fashion due to
secondary and tertiary folding of a protein molecule and its association with the cofactor, if any. An enzyme may have more
than one active site.
• The molecule or biochemical acted upon by an enzyme is known as substrate and if more than one biochemical are involved
in a reaction, they are called reactants. The chemicals formed after the completion of reaction are called products.
Coenzyme
transferred
Biocytin CO2 Biotin
Co-enzyme A Acyl groups Pantothenic acid and other compounds
5 - Deoxyadenosylcobalamin (coenzyme B12) H atoms and acyl groups Vitamin B12
Flavin adenine dinucleotide Electrons Riboflavin (vitamin B2)
Lipoate Electrons and acyl groups Not required in diet
Ions Enzymes
Cu2+ Cytochrome oxidase
Fe2+ or Fe3+ Cytochrome oxidase, catalase, peroxidase
K+ Pyruvate kinase
“I bind with enzyme at a site
Mg2+ Hexokinase, glucose 6-phosphatase, pyruvate kinase other than its active site thereby
Mn2+ Arginase, ribonucleotide reductase distorting its conformation
which prevents its catalytic
Mo Dinitrogenase activity.”
Ni2+ Urease
Se Glutathione peroxidase
Zn2+ Carbonic anhydrase, alcohol dehydrogenase,
carboxypeptidases A and B
Classification of Enzymes
• According to modern system of enzyme classification, introduced by
in 1961, enzymes are classified into six classes, based on the type of reaction catalysed.
Oxidoreductases Lyases
These enzymes catalyse the oxidation-reduction reactions by These enzymes catalyse the breakdown of specific covalent bonds
transfer of electrons. These enzymes are of three types - Oxidases, and removal of groups without hydrolysis producing double bonds or
e.g., cytochrome oxidase, dehydrogenases, e.g., succinate removal of double bonds by adding groups.
dehydrogenase and e.g., nitrate reductase. Aldolase
1 Cytochrome Fructose 1,6-diphosphate
NADH + H+ + O2 NAD++ H2O 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde + Dihydroxyacetone phosphate
2 oxidase
Isomerases
Transferases These enzymes catalyse the change of a substrate into a related
These enzymes catalyse the transfer of specific group other than isomeric form by rearrangement of molecules.
hydrogen from one substrate to another. The group transfer does not These enzymes too are of three types: Isomerases (change aldose
occur in free state. to ketose group or vice-versa), Epimerases (change in position of
Glutamic acid + Oxaloacetic acid Transferase -ketoglutaric acid + Aspartic acid one constituent or carbon group), (shift the position of side
(amino acid) (organic acid) (organic acid) (amino acid) group like Glucose-6-phosphate → Glucose-1-phosphate).
Phosphohexose
Glucose 6-phosphate Fructose 6-phosphate
isomerase
Hydrolases
These enzymes catalyse splitting of larger molecules into smaller
ones by addition of water (hydrolysis of bonds), i.e., with the help of Ligases
hydrogen and hydroxyl groups. Usually bonds formed by dehydration These enzymes catalyse the joining of two substrate molecules by
condensation, i.e., ester, ether, glycosidic are catalysed by these utilising the energy from hydrolysis of ATP.
enzymes, e.g., amylase, sucrase, lactase.
Pyruvate
Amylase Pyruvate + CO2 + ATP+ H2O Oxaloacetate + ADP + Pi
Starch Maltose + Isomaltose + -Dextrins carboxylase
Efficiency Reversibility
The efficiency of enzyme depends upon the number of active sites present Almost all enzymatic reactions are reversible. However, reversibility
over an enzyme. The number of substrate molecules changed per minute is dependent upon energy requirements, availability of reactants,
by an enzyme is called . The higher the turn over concentration of end products and pH.
number, the more efficient an enzyme is.
Thermolabile
Enzymes are heat sensitive or thermolabile and operate between
Enzymes are highly specific in their action. Different enzymes act on same 25-35°C (optimum temperature range). They become inactive at
substrate but give rise to different products. Similarly, an enzyme may act freezing temperatures and denature at 50-55°C.
on different substrates to produce different end products.
The active sites of enzymes have crevices or conformations that fit in
Enzymatic reactions are not isolated, they occur in quick succession or a the substrates in a complementary fashion forming a complex known
team of enzymes (complex) work together to perform multistep reactions. as enzyme substrate complex. The latter are changed into products.
As soon as the products are released, the active sites become free to
perform another catalytic act.
Most of the chemical reactions have an energy barrier separating the reactants and
products. Non
Therefore an external supply of energy is needed for the start of chemical reaction.
This energy is called which is quite high for the non-catalysed
reactions and is lowered by the enzyme. The activation energy increases the kinetic
energy of the system and brings about forceful collisions between the reactants.
Enzyme lowers activation energy of a reaction by : taking the reactants out of solution (Reactant)
state (desolvation), establishing weak bonds between reactants and enzymes,
(Product)
bringing reactant molecules, close to one another in the region of active sites and
developing strain in reactants bonds by electrophillic and nucleophillic attack.
All enzymes have a specific three-dimensional structure and a part of it is known as into which substrate fits to proceed chemical
reactions. The point where substrate is bound on the active site is known as the The first step in an enzymatic
reaction is that the enzyme forms a temporary association with its substrate called (E – S complex). Following
two models have been proposed to explain the formation of E – S complex.
(1894) proposed that as a particular lock can be opened by Koshland (1959) proposed that the active sites of an
enzyme are not rigid. When the substrate binds to an
only a particular key, similarly a substrate of specific shape fits into a specific
enzyme, it may induce conformational change in enzyme
active site on the enzyme surface. This suggests that both enzyme and
molecule in such a way that it is fit for the substrate-
substrate molecules have specific geometrical shapes and form an enzyme
enzyme interaction.
substrate (ES) complex. This also explains the of enzyme action.
Active site
Active site
Substrate Reactive site
+
Products
Enzyme Enzyme-substrate
Pr oducts complex (Enzyme
(Larger than substrate)
Enzyme Enzyme substrate has changed its shape
complex to accommodate the
substrate)
Temperature
An enzyme is active within a narrow range of
Reaction velocity
temperature.The temperature at which an enzyme The rate of enzymatic reaction
Reaction velocity
shows its highest activity is called increases with the increase in Limiting
temperature. The optimum temperature for enzyme concentration upto effect
most of the enzymes is between 25°C - 35°C. Optimum
a point called
Temperature above and below this range point. Above this limit, there
affects the enzyme activity. High temperature Temperature is little effect on enzyme Enzyme concentration
above 50°C destroy enzymes by causing their Fig .: Relation between temperature and
denaturation and very low temperature preserves enzyme controlled reaction velocity activity. Fig.: Effect of enzyme concentration
the enzymes in the inactive state. on the rate of biochemical reaction
pH
Enzymes work at their own optimum pH. A Initially the rate of enzymatic reaction increases with Some chemical substances or molecules
rise or fall in pH reduces enzyme activity by the increase in substrate concentration. In beginning, increase activity of enzymes such as
changing the degree of ionisation of its side the velocity of reaction is high but later it does not co-factors, e.g., K+, Mn2+ etc. On the other
chains. Most of the intracellular enzymes increase progressively with the increase in substrate hand, salts of heavy metals and compounds
function near neutral pH with the exception concentration. It happens because enzyme molecules such as cyanides, azides, iodoacetate
of several digestive enzymes that are active get fully saturated and no active site is left free to bind destroy tertiary structure of enzymes thus
either at acidic or alkaline pH range. additional substrate. affecting enzyme activty.
Michaelis-Menten Equation
• Michaelis-Menten equation mathematically illustrates the relationship between
initial reaction velocity and substrate concentration. Maximum rate
Reaction Velocity (V)
Vmax [S]
The Michaelis-Menten equation obtained after suitable algebraic manipulation is V= where V = Measured velocity,
Km +[S]
Vmax = Maximum velocity, S = Substrate concentration, Km = Michaelis-Menten constant.
• Temporary inhibition that can be overcome by withdrawal of inhibition. • Permanent inhibition of enzyme due to the change
• It occurs due to blocking of active site or binding to linkages required or destruction in conformation of enzyme.
for maintenance of active site. • It occurs due to covalent binding of heavy metals
• It is characterised by rapid dissociation of enzyme inhibitor complex. or other inhibitors with the enzymes, resulting in
• Dilution and dialysis reduces or eliminates the effect of reversible inhibition. their inactivation.
• The inhibitor binds at a site other than the active site on the enzyme
S
surface. This binding impairs the enzyme function. The inhibitor has no E+S ES E+P
structural resemblance with the substrate. It does not interfere with the + + S
• A rarely encountered inhibition called uncompetitive inhibition is also known where inhibitor binds only to the ES complex.
• Uncompetitive inhibition cannot be overcome as the ESI complex cannot form product.
• It is a type of reversible inhibition found in allosteric enzymes. The inhibitor is non-competitive
and is usually a low molecular weight intermediate or product of a metabolic pathway
having a chain of reactions involving a number of enzymes. It is, therefore, also called end
product or .
• The inhibitor is also called modulator. Modulator is a substance that attaches with an
allosteric enzyme at a site other than catalytic one but influences the latter, either inhibiting
or activating the same.
• An example of feed back or allosteric inhibition is stoppage of activity of enzyme hexokinase
(glucokinase) by glucose-6-phosphate, the product of reaction catalysed by it.
Enzymes are highly regulated by activation and repression Operate under favourable conditions, enabling Mediates thousands of chemical
of genes, allowing some enzymes to be functional or non the organism to live under favourable reactions occurring inside living
functional as per requirement. environment only. cells.
Economic Importance
Enzyme complex zymase obtained from yeast is used in brewing or Several enzymes such as diastase are prescribed to patients with
fermentation of alcoholic drinks. deficient digestive juices.
Detergents Cheese
Amylases are used as detergents for machine, dishwashing to remove Enzymes such as rennet and lactase are employed in preparation of
resistant starch residues. Lipases are used to assist in removal of fatty cheese and to impart consistency and flavour to it.
and oily stains.
Diagnostics
ELISA (Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay) is an enzyme based technology
Enzyme trypsin is used to partially predigest baby foods. used for detection of diseases such as AIDS.
METABOLITES
• Metabolites are biomolecules or organic compounds that are constantly utilised (catabolism) or formed (anabolism) in various
metabolic reactions occurring inside the cells.
• Plants and microbes produce several organic compounds that may be required for their basic metabolic process while at the
same time they also synthesise compounds that do not participate in metabolic pathways.
• On this basis, metabolites are of two types :
Types of Metabolites
Some of the organic compounds like carbohydrates, fats, proteins, nucleic acids, etc., are required for basic metabolic processes and are
directly involved in normal growth, development and reproduction. These organic compounds are called primary metabolites.
Many plants, fungi and microbes of certain genera synthesise a number of organic compounds which are not involved in primary metabolism
(photosynthesis, respiration, protein and lipid metabolism) and seem to have no direct function in growth and development of plants. These
compounds are called secondary metabolites e.g., gum, resin, rubber etc.
e.g., rubber, steroids, carotenoids. e.g., alkaloids, glycosides, glucosinolates e.g., tannins, flavonoids, lignin etc.
They are also used in making drugs, (vii) Drugs Vinblastin, curcumin, etc.
flavours, gums, resins, insecticides etc. (viii) Polymeric substances Rubber, gums, cellulose
(i) These are biomolecules required for basic metabolic These are derivatives of primary metabolites which are not
processes. involved in bast.
(ii) These are produced in generous quantities and can easily be These are produced in small quantities and their extraction from
extracted from the plant. the plant is difficult.
(iii) These are found throughout the plant kingdom. Particular secondary metabolites are found in one plant species
or families and not all.
(iv) These are part of the basic molecular structure of the cell. These are not part of the basic molecular structure of the cell.
(v) They are highly useful to plant. They have limited role in plant.
(vi) They are found from the beginning of plant life. They are found at particular stages of development.
Study the given table and identify A, B, C and D. Match column I with column II and select the correct
option from the given codes.
A Transfer of electrons 2+
A. Catalase (i) Zn
Transferases B
B. Salivary amylase (ii) Cu2+
C Transfer of functional group to water C. Carboxypeptidase (iii) Fe2+
Isomerases D D. Cytochrome oxidase (iv) Cl–
(a) A-(iv), B-(iii), C-(ii), D-(i)
A B D
(b) A-(iii), B-(iv), C-(i), D-(ii)
(a) Ligases Transfer of Oxido- Transfer of
hydride ion reductases H atom (c) A-(iii), B-(ii), C-(i), D-(iv)
(d) A-(i), B-(ii), C-(iii), D-(iv)
(b) Hydrolases Hydrolysis Lyases Transfer of
reaction ion A low Km indicates
(c) Oxido- Group Hydrolases Intramolec (a) low affinity of the enzyme for its substrate
reductases transfer -lar rearra- (b) high affinity of the enzyme for its substrate
reactions ngement (c) substrate concentration decreases at which
(d) Lyases Transfer of Ligases Transfer of chemical reaction attains maximal velocity
H atom electron (d) negligible affinity of the enzyme for its substrate.
Humans are bringing about the sixth mass extinction of life on Earth, according to scientist writing in a special edition of the leading journal Nature.
Mammals, birds and amphibians are currently becoming extinct at rates comparable to the previous five mass extinctions that occurred across the past
500 million years when “cataclysmic forces”, such as massive meteorite strikes and super volcano explosions, wiped out vast swathes of life, including
the dinosaurs.
The growing human population which has increased by 130 percent in the last 50 years and is set to rise to more than 10 billion by 2060 and our
increasing demand for resources as we become wealthier, ramping up the pressure on the natural world. Tens of thousands of species, including 25
percent of all mammals and 13 percent of birds, are now threatened with extinction because of over-hunting, poaching, pollution, loss of habitat, the
arrival of invasive species and other human-caused problems.
But the researchers said it was not “inevitable” that this process would continue. There is still time for humans to turn the situation around by protecting
habitats, changing our diets to less land-intensive food and taking other forms of conservation.
In one of a series of papers in Nature, a team of international scientists wrote:
“There is overwhelming evidence that habitat loss and fragmentation, over-exploitation of biological resources, pollution, species invasions and climate
change have increased rates of global species extinctions to levels that are much higher than those observed in the fossil records.” This loss of
biodiversity could “substantially diminish the benefits that people derive from nature”, they warned.
In order to preserve such “ecosystem services”, policies should be designed to “secure the valuable and often irreplaceable benefits of biodiversity for
future generations, even under conditions of rapid global change” the paper added.
Another paper painted a bleak picture of humans’ long history of wiping out other animals. Human-influenced extinctions began when modern humans
moved out of Africa it said. Successive waves of extinctions in Australia (50,000 years ago), North America and South America (10,000-11,000 years
ago) and Europe (3,000-12,000 years ago) were driven largely by a combination of hunting by humans and natural climate change. By 3,000 years
ago, Earth had lost half of all terrestrial mammalian megafauna species and 15 percent of all bird species.
The researchers said that since 1500 AD, human destruction of wildlife had accelerated. It said urgent action was needed to ensure that sufficient
habitats will remain to preserve the viability of species in the long term and to guarantee that such habitats are well managed.
1. The epithelium present in the descending limb of loop of 4. Bidder’s canal is found in
Henle is (a) kidney of mammal (b) testes of frog
(a) simple cuboidal epithelium (c) kidney of frog (d) ovary of mammal.
(b) simple columnar epithelium 5. In a sodium potassium exchange pump, when one ATP is
(c) simple ciliated epithelium
hydrolysed, the number of Na+ ions pumped outward and
(d) simple squamous epithelium.
K+ ions pumped inward, respectively are
2. Study the given diagram showing transverse section of (a) two, three (b) one, two
mammalian bone and select the incorrect option regarding (c) three, two (d) two, one.
P, Q, R and S.
6. Complete the following table by correctly identifying A, B
S
and C.
P
Connective Location Function
tissue
Q
Yellow elastic
Provides strength
(i) connective A
and elasticity
tissues
R Forms embryonic
(a) P forms an envelope around bone and contains Rings of
(ii) B skeleton in bony
osteoblasts which produce new bone material. trachea
vertebrates
(b) Q represents Haversian canals in bone matrix and are
White fibrous Intervertebral
interconnected by Volkmann’s canals. (iii) C
(c) R comprises of inactive bone cells called osteocytes cartilage discs
and white fibrous tissue.
(d) S represents canaliculi, which connects osteocyte with A B C
another. (a) Walls of blood Hyaline Acts as a cushion
3. Identify the tissue from the given functions. vessels cartilage and provides
(i) Collagen fibres are present in rows between many strength
parallel bundles of fibres. (b) Periosteum of Hyaline Provides articulation
(ii) Presence of this tissue at joints between skull bones bone cartilage
makes them immovable.
(c) Cornea of the Calcified Allows stretching of
(a) Loose connective tissue
eyeball cartilage pubic symphysis
(b) Dense regular connective tissue
(c) Dense irregular connective tissue (d) Nasal septum Calcified Provides flexibility to
(d) Hyaline cartilage cartilage organs
No. of questions attempted …… 90-75% GOOD WORK ! You can score good in the final exam.
No. of questions correct …… 74-60% SATISFACTORY ! You need to score more next time.
Marks scored in percentage …… < 60% NOT SATISFACTORY! Revise thoroughly and strengthen your concepts.
APPLICATIONS OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
Biotechnology is the use of living systems and organisms to develop or make useful products. It harnessess cellular and biomolecular
processes to develop technologies and products that help to improve our health and lives.
Modern biotechnology provides breakthrough solutions and technologies to combat debilitating and rare diseases, reduce our
environmental foot-prints, support use of less and cleaner energy, contribute safer and more efficient industrial manufacturing
processes and improve areas of food production and health.
The diverse applications of biotechnology in various fields have led to emergence of different branches of biotechnology.
( )
The transgenic plants are produced for variety of purposes such as they carry desirable traits for disease resistance, insect
resistance and herbicide resistance and improved food quality. Some of them are discussed here.
APPLICATIONS IN MEDICINE
• The recombinant DNA technology has made great impact in the area of healthcare by mass production of safe and more
effective therapeutic drugs.
Recombinant bacteria
Human Introduction of multiply and produce
pancreas cell recombinant DNA human insulin (either
Recombinant peptideA or B depending
Human insulin into a bacterial cell
bacterium upon the gene cloned)
producing gene in the fermentation tank
coding A and
B peptides Fermentation
tank
Annealing by DNA ligase
Plasmid
DNA
Bacterium
Fig.: Steps in production of recombinant insulin
1
Plasmid is removed and
cut open with restriction
endonuclease. 5
Bacteria producing
bovine somatotropin
are grown on large
3
Somatotropin gene scale.
is inserted into
bacterial plasmid. 4
Plasmid is reintroduced 6
into bacterium. Somatotropin is
removed from
Gene of bacteria and purified.
interest
2
Cow somatotropin
gene is isolated from 7
Bovine somato-
cow cell. tropin is adminis-
tered to cow to
enhance milk
Cow cell production.
DNA Vaccines
• DNA vaccines are composed of a small, circular piece of DNA, called a DNA plasmid that contain genes which code for
proteins of a pathogen. When the vaccine is injected into the host, the inner machinery of the host cells ‘reads’ the DNA,
converts it into proteins from the pathogen. Recognising that the protein is foreign, the cells display them on their surface
to alert the body’s immune system– both helper T-cells, which spur the production of antibodies and killer T-cells. This triggers
a range of immune responses and therefore, DNA vaccines induce wider range of immune responses.
Production of Interferons
• Interferons (IFNs) are members of a large group of proteins called cytokines, which affect a wide range of target cells and
tissues by binding to specific receptors present on the surface of their target cells. Interferons are proteins produced by the
infected cells in response to viral infections. They diffuse to neighbouring cells and trigger a reaction that neutralises the
particular virus and prevent viral infections.
Gene Therapy
• This technique is based on the fact that cells of the body manufacture substances under the guidance of DNA. Thus, by
manipulating the DNA structures, it is possible to control various diseases.
Packed into a modified retrovirus, where viral genes are replaced by ADA gene
Lymphocytes are isolated from bone marrow of patient and cultured outside (in vitro)
Thus, the ADA gene is expressed in the patients and the deficiency of ADA gene gets partially corrected
Flow Chart : Steps of gene therapy for the treatment of SCID
• The drawback of this therapy is that these cells are mortal, hence the patient requires periodic infusion of such genetically
engineered lymphocytes. However, if the therapy is done into cells at early embryonic stages, the ADA deficiency can be
permanently cured.
Production of Antibiotics
• The term antibiotics may be defined as a chemical substance produced by some microorganisms that in small concentration
can kill or inhibit the growth of other harmful microorganisms without affecting the host.
• Antibiotics function either as bactericides (killing bacteria) or bacteriostatic (inhibiting growth of bacteria).
• Suitable strain of microorganism is cultivated on a sterilised nutrient medium provided with optimum pH, aeration, temperature,
antifoaming agent and antibiotic precursor.
• When sufficient antibiotic has diffused into medium, the microorganisms are separated and the antibiotic is extracted from
medium by precipitation, absorption or solvent. It is purified, concentrated and bioassayed before packing.
• The production of newer antibiotics is a never ending process because microbes continuously become resistant to older
antibiotics. S. griseus produces more than 41 antibiotics while Bacillus subtilis can give about 60 antibiotics.
Industrial Biotechnology
Recovery of metals
Various microbes are employed to recover valuable metals from low grade ores and from dilute solutions. This
process is called as microbial ore leaching, e.g., Thiobacillus ferroxidans induces leaching of copper as copper
sulphates from ores.
Biotransformation
It is the process by which organic compounds are transformed into other recoverable products by the use of enzymes
present in microbes, plants or animal cells, e.g., biotransformation is used to produce several antibiotics and steroids.
Penicillin G acylase Modified chemically
Penicillin G (Deacylation) 6-aminopenicillanic acid Semisynthetic penicillin + Cephalosporin
Production of biofertilisers
Microorganisms used to enhance availability of nutrients, viz., nitrogen and phosphorus are produced and made available
commercially, e.g., Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Azospirillum, blue green algae.
Metabolite production
Various metabolites such as acetone, alcohol, antibiotics, enzymes, organic acids, etc., are produced using variety of
microorganisms concerned.
TRANSGENIC ANIMALS
• A transgenic animal contains a foreign gene in its genome introduced by one or the other technique of transfection.
Introduction of recombinant vector into the host cells, tissues of embryo or mature individual
Production of clones
Clones of animals with desirable traits can be produced.
Study of diseases
Transgenic animals act as models for study and understanding of causes and possible treatments of disease in concern,
e.g., cancer, cystic fibrosis, Alzheimer’s disease.
Ethical Issues
The main bioethical concerns pertaining to biotechnology are briefly mentioned as follows:
Introduction of a transgene from one species into another species violates the ‘integrity
of species’.
Biotechnology may pose unforeseen risks to the environment, including risk to biodiversity.
Thus, it could disturb the existing ecological balance.
Transfer of human genes into animals (and vice-versa) dilutes the concept of ‘humanness’.
When animals are used for production of pharmaceutical proteins, they are virtually reduced
to the status of a ‘factory’.
It is disrespectful to living beings and only exploits them for the benefit of human beings.
Bioremediation
Bioremediation refers to the process of removal or detoxification of pollutants from contaminated sites, with the use of
biological organisms as bacteria, fungi or plants. Certain bacterial, fungal and algal species capable of accumulating some
toxic inorganic contaminants are developed in the laboratory and introduced at the site. Phytoremediation on the other
hand is use of green plants and their associated microorganisms, soil ammendments to remove both organic and inorganic
contaminants.
DEPARTMENT
OF
AGRICULTUR
E
Interested parties submit an The GMO application is sent to the GMO The registrar checks if the
application to develop GMO ’s registrar at the department of agriculture application meets the
req uirements of the GMO act
A permit may be issued
GMO GMO
Application for contained use… GMO ADVISORY COMMITTEE
Applicatio Application
n
PERMIT
RE
JE
CT
ISSUED Field trials…
ED
INDE
PEND
EXPE ENT
… or commercial commodities. RTS
New MCQs
1. During the formation of recombinant insulin, maturation of 2. The genetically modified crop of golden rice is a variety
proinsulin into insulin is processed by showing
(a) adding C-peptide to proinsulin (a) insect resistance
(b) adding B-peptide to proinsulin (b) herbicide resistance
(c) removal of C-peptide from proinsulin (c) golden coloured grains with large size
(d) removal of A-peptide from proinsulin. (d) adequate quantities of provitamin A.
41. From the given pattern of gene inheritance for a particular IV. Females show traits only if their father and mother
trait, identify the type of gene associated with it. both possess it.
I. Trait appears more often in males as compared to (a) Autosomal recessive (b) Sex-linked recessive
females. (c) Autosomal dominant (d) Sex-linked dominant
II. Trait rarely appears in both father and son. 42. In maize, coloured endosperm (C) is dominant over
III. Females when homozygous for such trait, passes it to colourless (c) and full endosperm (S) is dominant over
all her sons. shrunken (s). When a dihybrid of F1 generation was test
The basic components of column chromatography are stationary phase; composed of either a solid phase or a layer of a liquid adsorbed on the
surface of a solid support. It is chosen according to the analytes to be separated and mobile phase; composed of liquid components that complement
the stationary phase and maintains constant rate of flow into the column. The general setup of gel filtration chromatography is described below.
Injector Inlet
Delivers test Provides entry to eluting solvent Data recorder
sample to the top and sample into the column. Chromatograph and analyser 75 Kd
of the column.
Detector 125 Kd
Amount of analyte
Syringe Measures visible or UV absorbance. 250 Kd
to load Quantification is achieved on the
sample basis of peak area coupled with an
Pump appropriate calibration graph. The
Column area of each peak is proportional to
Filling the chromato- the amount of analyte. Use of mass or Volume eluted
graphy column with NMR spectrometer as detector provides
matrix is referred to as structural identification of molecules.
“column packing”. The
packed matrix is called Determination of molecular weight
the “bed”. Once the effluent volume is determined for the given sample i.e., protein,
its distribution coefficient Kd is calculated. Kd refers to the distribution of
Outlet solute particle (protein) between inner and outer solvent.
Solvent/Elution
buffer The effluent from the Kd = 0, when solute molecule is large, Kd = 1 if solute is small and
(Mobile phase) column is led into two penetrate gel pores and Kd is between 0 and 1 for intermediate sized
streams i.e., continuous proteins.
monitor and collecting Kd of standard proteins of known molecular weights are plotted against
system. the log of their molecular weight. By placing the Kd of unknown protein
Fraction collector on this plot, molecular weight of unknown protein can be determined.
Collects the separated analytes. They are
programmed for collection of a definite
Sample Elution buffer
volume of the effluent in each tube
Small volume of sample having different size of It is the mobile phase that flows
before a new tube is placed in position
analytes may be injected directly into the column through the matrix and out of the
automatically.
surface with the help of a syringe or capillary tube. column.
Solvent/ Solvent
Principle
When a sample having molecules of different Elution
buffer
size is placed on the top of such an equilibrated Small molecules enter
column, the larger molecules pass through the Frit the aqueous spaces
interstitial spaces between the beads. This is It is a membrane or porous within beads
because the pores of the gel have a smaller disk that supports and
retains the matrix in the Polymer bead
diameter than what is needed for the large column but allows water
molecules to enter. Large molecules, therefore, and dissolved solutes to
move down the column with little resistance pass. Sample
and will come first in the effluent. The small
molecules, however, can enter the pores and
are thereby effectively removed from the stream Column packing Large molecules
of the eluting solvent. These molecules are thus Packing of inert heteroporous cannot enter
retarded and will then pass through the column cross linked polymeric gels or beads
beads (stationary phase)which Elution spout
at slower rate, hence appear latter in effluent. Elution
Thus, a sample passing through a gel filtration are allowed to attain equilibrium
with a solvent (mobile phase). Flow direction
column will separate based on molecular size:
the big ones will elute first , middle sized proteins It is usually carried out under a
will elute in the middle and the smallest ones Solvent Separated protein constant hydrostatic pressure
will elute last. Fig.: Principle of gel filtration chromatography. to achieve a constant flow rate.
Velocity
(ii) In asexual mode of reproduction, progeny are genetically
identical to each other but different from the parent.
(iii) Sexual reproduction is more conducive for driving
evolution. [Substrate]
(iv) A minor change in the habitat may adversely affect all Which of the following correctly represents the same
offspring derived by asexual reproduction. reaction in which no enzyme is used? Broken line represents
(v) A bisexual plant grown in isolation is always incapable the enzyme catalysed reaction for comparison.
of sexual reproduction.
Vmax Vmax
Which of these statements are correct?
(a) (i), (iii) and (iv) (b) (i), (ii) and (v)
Velocity
Velocity
(c) (iii), (iv) and (v) (d) (ii), (iii) and (iv) (INBO 2017) (a) (b)
2. Two ecological pyramids are drawn below. If ‘I‘ represents
aquatic and ‘II‘ represents terrestrial ecosystem, which of [Substrate] [Substrate]
the following statements are true?
Vmax Vmax
Velocity
Velocity
I II
(c) (d)
(i) Pyramid ‘I‘ is based on biomass.
(ii) Pyramid ‘II‘ is based on numbers. [Substrate] [Substrate]
(iii) The unshaded box in pyramid ‘I‘ represents zooplankton (INBO 2015)
and in pyramid ‘II‘ it represents insects.
5. The amount of DNA present per cell during a nuclear division
(iv) Neither ‘I‘ nor ‘II‘ can be based on energy.
is represented as a bar diagram below.
(a) (ii) and (iii) only (b) (i) and (iii) only
DNA content →
(c) (i), (ii) and (iv) only (d) (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv) 4C
(INBO 2016)
3. The support staff in a Zoology lab mixed up the description 2C
charts of the following organisms. C
X : Rotifer Y : Sea anemone Z : Spider W X Y Z
Description charts: What phase are represented by X and Y?
I. Coelomate with segmented body. (a) X - Prophase I, Y - S phase
II. Pseudocoelomate with alimentary canal and head (b) X - Prophase I, Y - Prophase II
having ciliated crown. (c) X - Metaphase II, Y - Prophase II
III. Diploblastic with gastrovascular cavity. (d) X - Anaphase II, Y - Telophase I (NSEB 2014-15)
Description charts that match X, Y and Z respectively are: 6. When treated with proteases, the extract of which of the
(a) I, II and III (b) II, III and I endocrine glands would lose its hormonal influence?
(c) III, I and II (d) I, III and II (a) Ovary (b) Pineal gland
(NSEB 2015-16) (c) Pituitary gland (d) Adrenal cortex (INBO 2014)
Phytoplanktons
Here, the biomass of phytoplankton is smaller than that of
zooplankton because of lower reproductive potential and
(a) deletion in A and inversion in B.
longevity.
(b) deletion in A and duplication in B.
(c) inversion in A and deletion in B. Pyramid II represents spindle like pyramid of number in a
(d) duplication in A and deletion in B. (NSEB 2013 - 14) tree ecosystem as given below :
No. of questions attempted …… 90-75% GOOD WORK ! You can score good in the final exam.
No. of questions correct …… 74-60% SATISFACTORY ! You need to score more next time.
Marks scored in percentage …… < 60% NOT SATISFACTORY! Revise thoroughly and strengthen your concepts.
ACROSS
1. Inorganic inclusions found in some bacteria that 1 2
help them align along the geomagnetic lines. (12)
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
3. Sternum of a bird, to which the powerful flight
muscles are attached. (4) 10 11 12
6. Sepals that are modified hairy processes in
13 14
some plants. (6)
10. The female reproductive part that dilates under 15
the influence of relaxin during child birth. (6) 16 17
13. The process of fermentation brought about by
yeast extract. (7) 18