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Q
uestions J.J. Thomson (1856-
1. What are canal rays? 1940), a British
2. If an atom contains one electron physicist, was born in
and one proton, will it carry any Cheetham Hill, a suburb
charge or not? of Manchester, on
18 December 1856. He
was awarded the Nobel
prize in Physics in 1906
for his work on the
4.2 The Structure of an Atom discovery of electrons.
He directed the Cavendish Laboratory at
We have learnt Dalton’s atomic theory in Cambridge for 35 years and seven of his
Chapter 3, which suggested that the atom research assistants subsequently won
was indivisible and indestructible. But the Nobel prizes.
discovery of two fundamental particles
(electrons and protons) inside the atom, led Thomson proposed that:
to the failure of this aspect of Dalton’s atomic (i) An atom consists of a positively
theory. It was then considered necessary to charged sphere and the electrons are
know how electrons and protons are arranged embedded in it.
within an atom. For explaining this, many (ii) The negative and positive charges are
scientists proposed various atomic models. equal in magnitude. So, the atom as a
J.J. Thomson was the first one to propose a whole is electrically neutral.
model for the structure of an atom.
Although Thomson’s model explained that
atoms are electrically neutral, the results of
4.2.1 THOMSON’S MODEL OF AN ATOM experiments carried out by other scientists
Thomson proposed the model of an atom to could not be explained by this model, as we
be similar to that of a Christmas pudding. will see below.
The electrons, in a sphere of positive charge,
were like currants (dry fruits) in a spherical 4.2.2 RUTHERFORD’S MODEL OF AN ATOM
Christmas pudding. We can also think of a
Ernest Rutherford was interested in knowing
watermelon, the positive charge in the atom
how the electrons are arranged within an
is spread all over like the red edible part of
the watermelon, while the electrons are atom. Rutherford designed an experiment for
studded in the positively charged sphere, like this. In this experiment, fast moving alpha
the seeds in the watermelon (Fig. 4.1). (α)-particles were made to fall on a thin
gold foil.
• He selected a gold foil because he wanted
as thin a layer as possible. This gold foil
was about 1000 atoms thick.
• α-particles are doubly-charged helium
ions. Since they have a mass of 4 u, the
fast-moving α-particles have a
considerable amount of energy.
• It was expected that α-particles would be
deflected by the sub-atomic particles in
the gold atoms. Since the α-particles were
much heavier than the protons, he did
Fig.4.1: Thomson’s model of an atom not expect to see large deflections.
48 SCIENCE
Q
4.2.3 BOHR’S MODEL OF ATOM uestions
In order to overcome the objections raised 1. On the basis of Thomson’s model
against Rutherford’s model of the atom, of an atom, explain how the atom
Neils Bohr put forward the following is neutral as a whole.
postulates about the model of an atom: 2. On the basis of Rutherford’s
(i) Only certain special orbits known as model of an atom, which sub-
discrete orbits of electrons, are allowed atomic particle is present in the
inside the atom. nucleus of an atom?
(ii) While revolving in discrete orbits the 3. Draw a sketch of Bohr’s model
electrons do not radiate energy. of an atom with three shells.
4. What do you think would be the
observation if the α -particle
Neils Bohr (1885-1962) scattering experiment is carried
was born in Copenhagen out using a foil of a metal other
on 7 October 1885. He was than gold?
appointed professor of
physics at Copenhagen 4.2.4 NEUTRONS
University in 1916. He got
In 1932, J. Chadwick discovered another sub-
the Nobel prize for his work
atomic particle which had no charge and a
on the structure of atom in
mass nearly equal to that of a proton. It was
1922. Among Professor
eventually named as neutron. Neutrons are
Bohr’s numerous writings, three appearing
present in the nucleus of all atoms, except
as books are:
hydr ogen. In general, a neutron is
(i) The Theory of Spectra and Atomic represented as ‘n’. The mass of an atom is
Constitution, (ii) Atomic Theory and, therefore given by the sum of the masses of
(iii) The Description of Nature. protons and neutrons present in the nucleus.
uestions
Q
These orbits or shells are called energy
levels. Energy levels in an atom are shown in 1. Name the three sub-atomic
Fig. 4.3. particles of an atom.
2. Helium atom has an atomic mass
of 4 u and two protons in its
nucleus. How many neutrons
does it have?
Q
electrons in different shells are as
follows: 1. Write the distribution of electrons
first orbit or K-shell will be = 2 × 12 = 2, in carbon and sodium atoms.
second orbit or L-shell will be = 2 × 22 = 8, 2. If K and L shells of an atom are
third orbit or M-shell will be = 2 × 32 = 18, full, then what would be the total
fourth orbit or N-shell will be = 2 × 42 number of electrons in the atom?
= 32, and so on.
(ii) The maximum number of electrons that
can be accommodated in the outermost
orbit is 8. 4.4 Valency
(iii) Electrons are not accommodated in a We have learnt how the electrons in an atom
given shell, unless the inner shells are are arranged in different shells/orbits. The
filled. That is, the shells are filled in a electrons present in the outermost shell of
step-wise manner. an atom are known as the valence electrons.
Atomic structure of the first eighteen From the Bohr-Bury scheme, we also know
elements is shown schematically in Fig. 4.4. that the outermost shell of an atom can
50 SCIENCE
Table 4.1: Composition of Atoms of the First Eighteen Elements
with Electron Distribution in Various Shells
Name of Symbol Atomic Number Number Number Distribution of Vale-
Element Number of of of Electrons ncy
Protons Neutrons Electrons K L M N
Hydrogen H 1 1 - 1 1 - - - 1
Helium He 2 2 2 2 2 - - - 0
Lithium Li 3 3 4 3 2 1 - - 1
Beryllium Be 4 4 5 4 2 2 - - 2
Boron B 5 5 6 5 2 3 - - 3
Carbon C 6 6 6 6 2 4 - - 4
Nitrogen N 7 7 7 7 2 5 - - 3
Oxygen O 8 8 8 8 2 6 - - 2
Fluorine F 9 9 10 9 2 7 - - 1
Neon Ne 10 10 10 10 2 8 - - 0
Sodium Na 11 11 12 11 2 8 1 - 1
Magnesium Mg 12 12 12 12 2 8 2 - 2
Aluminium Al 13 13 14 13 2 8 3 - 3
Silicon Si 14 14 14 14 2 8 4 - 4
Phosphorus P 15 15 16 15 2 8 5 - 3,5
Sulphur S 16 16 16 16 2 8 6 - 2
Chlorine Cl 17 17 18 17 2 8 7 - 1
Argon Ar 18 18 22 18 2 8 8 0
helium atom has two electrons in its outermost element, that is, the valency discussed in the
shell and all other elements have atoms with previous chapter. For example, hydrogen/
eight electrons in the outermost shell. lithium/sodium atoms contain one electron
The combining capacity of the atoms of each in their outermost shell, therefore each
elements, that is, their tendency to react and one of them can lose one electron. So, they are
form molecules with atoms of the same or said to have valency of one. Can you tell, what
is valency of magnesium and aluminium? It
different elements, was thus explained as an
is two and three, respectively, because
attempt to attain a fully-filled outermost shell.
magnesium has two electrons in its outermost
An outermost-shell, which had eight electrons shell and aluminium has three electrons in
was said to possess an octet. Atoms would its outermost shell.
thus react, so as to achieve an octet in the If the number of electr ons in the
outermost shell. This was done by sharing, outermost shell of an atom is close to its full
gaining or losing electrons. The number of capacity, then valency is determined in a
electrons gained, lost or shared so as to make different way. For example, the fluorine atom
the octet of electrons in the outermost shell, has 7 electrons in the outermost shell, and
gives us directly the combining capacity of the its valency could be 7. But it is easier for
Q
uestion Atomic Number
Z
4.6 Isotopes
is 8 and number of protons is also
8, then (i) what is the atomic
number of the atom? and (ii) what
is the charge on the atom?
2. With the help of Table 4.1, find
out the mass number of oxygen
and sulphur atom.
52 SCIENCE
Many elements consist of a mixture of Applications
isotopes. Each isotope of an element is a pure
Since the chemical properties of all the
substance. The chemical properties of isotopes of an element are the same,
isotopes are similar but their physical normally we are not concerned about
properties are different. taking a mixture. But some isotopes have
Chlorine occurs in nature in two isotopic special properties which find them useful
forms, with masses 35 u and 37 u in the ratio in various fields. Some of them are :
of 3:1. Obviously, the question arises: what (i) An isotope of uranium is used as a fuel
should we take as the mass of chlorine atom? in nuclear reactors.
Let us find out. (ii) An isotope of cobalt is used in the
The average atomic mass of chlorine atom, treatment of cancer.
on the basis of above data, will be (iii) An isotope of iodine is used in the
treatment of goitre.
75 25
35 × 100 + 37 × 100 4.6.1 ISOBARS
Let us consider two elements — calcium,
105 37 142 atomic number 20, and argon, atomic
= + = = 35.5 u
4 4 4 number 18. The number of protons in these
atoms is different, but the mass number of
The mass of an atom of any natural element both these elements is 40. That is, the total
is taken as the average mass of all the naturally number of nucleons is the same in the atoms
of this pair of elements. Atoms of different
occuring atoms of that element. If an element
elements with different atomic numbers, which
has no isotopes, then the mass of its atom
have the same mass number, are known as
would be the same as the sum of protons and
isobars.
neutrons in it. But if an element occurs in
isotopic forms, then we have to know the
uestions
Q
percentage of each isotopic form and then the
average mass is calculated. 1. For the symbol H,D and T
This does not mean that any one atom of tabulate three sub-atomic
chlorine has a fractional mass of 35.5 u. It particles found in each of them.
means that if you take a certain amount of 2. Write the electronic
chlorine, it will contain both isotopes of configuration of any one pair of
chlorine and the average mass is 35.5 u. isotopes and isobars.
What
you have
learnt
• Credit for the discovery of electron and proton goes to J.J.
Thomson and E.Goldstein, respectively.
• J.J. Thomson proposed that electrons are embedded in a
positive sphere.
Exercises
1. Compare the properties of electrons, protons and neutrons.
2. What are the limitations of J.J. Thomson’s model of the atom?
3. What are the limitations of Rutherford’s model of the atom?
4. Describe Bohr’s model of the atom.
5. Compare all the proposed models of an atom given in this
chapter.
6. Summarise the rules for writing of distribution of electrons in
various shells for the first eighteen elements.
7. Define valency by taking examples of silicon and oxygen.
54 SCIENCE
8. Explain with examples (i) Atomic number, (ii) Mass number,
(iii) Isotopes and iv) Isobars. Give any two uses of isotopes.
9. Na+ has completely filled K and L shells. Explain.
10. If bromine atom is available in the form of, say, two isotopes
79 81
35 Br (49.7%) and 35 Br (50.3%), calculate the average atomic
mass of bromine atom.
11. The average atomic mass of a sample of an element X is 16.2 u.
16 18
What are the percentages of isotopes 8 X and 8 X in the
sample?
12. If Z = 3, what would be the valency of the element? Also, name
the element.
13. Composition of the nuclei of two atomic species X and Y are
given as under
X Y
Protons = 6 6
Neutrons = 6 8
Give the mass numbers of X and Y. What is the relation between
the two species?
14. For the following statements, write T for True and F for False.
(a) J.J. Thomson proposed that the nucleus of an atom
contains only nucleons.
(b) A neutron is formed by an electron and a proton
combining together. Therefore, it is neutral.
1
(c) The mass of an electron is about times that of proton.
2000
(d) An isotope of iodine is used for making tincture iodine,
which is used as a medicine.
Put tick (ü) against correct choice and cross (×) against
wrong choice in questions 15, 16 and 17
15. Rutherford’s alpha-particle scattering experiment was
responsible for the discovery of
(a) Atomic Nucleus (b) Electron
(c) Proton (d) Neutron
16. Isotopes of an element have
(a) the same physical properties
(b) different chemical properties
(c) different number of neutrons
(d) different atomic numbers.
17. Number of valence electrons in Cl– ion are:
(a) 16 (b) 8 (c) 17 (d) 18
9 - 10 - - -
16 32 - - - Sulphur
- 24 - 12 - -
- 2 - 1 - -
- 1 0 1 0 -
56 SCIENCE