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Henry Chadwick’s story of the emergent Christianity is an early contribution to the Oxford
History of the Church. This is the first book of the expansive Oxford series. In less than 300
pages, the author manages to give an excellent history of the key events and forces which
shaped the Christianity in the first six centuries. In the following review, I have first
summarised the contents of each chapter briefly and then have engaged in a critical review
of the book.
The first chapter titled “From Jerusalem to Rome,” covers the events that are found in the
New Testament. Nevertheless, the author provides rich background information to the
movements of the first century Christianity. The first part of the chapter clearly portrays
Judaism as the cradle in which Christianity was shaped. The author contends to portray the
new faith as the continuation of the Jewish hopes of the Old Testament. As the Jewish
people were scattered all around the then known world, it became a powerful launching pad
for Christianity in the beginning. Christian preachers could easily get an entry into the
synagogues to propagate their faith. However, this situation changed with the course of
time as Jewish religious people found Christianity as radically different from their beliefs
and practices. Chadwick also provides information about the various Jewish sects of the
first century and how they responded to the new faith. Though this is useful, the elaborate
explanation about some of these sects distracts the flow of the theme of the first chapter.
While describing the expansion of Christianity in early times, the author is brief in
reproducing the biblical narrative found in Acts of the Apostles. Nevertheless, he has been
successful in highlighting the events that led to the separation of Christianity from the
Jewish faith shortly during the end of the Apostolic period. There is good discussion about
the struggles of the early church. The differences between the Judaistic Christians and
Gentile Christians are dealt with much details. While writing about the differences of
opinion between apostles, Chadwick sounds a bit critical of their actions. The last part of
this chapter gives an account of the Christian encounter with the Roman Empire. Chadwick
observes that the early Christian leaders had a positive attitude towards Roman authorities
though they were pagans. However, the response of the emperors towards Christianity
varied. Some of them were tolerant but others were bent on destroying the new faith.
During antagonistic periods, Christians were often made scapegoats for almost every
calamity that struck the Empire. The authorities could not really justify their aversion to
Christianity but for the reason that they were Christians. One feels sympathy for the first
Christians. They were hated by the Jews as well as the Romans. Chadwick, then explores
how Christians responded to persecutions. Although, there was a small minority which
lapsed from faith, most often people responded very courageously to persecutions. Soon
some developed a theology that favoured martyrdom. It is overwhelming to note that
Christianity spread rapidly in spite of this waves of persecution unleashed on them by
Romans.
The second chapter mainly presents some of the struggles that the early church faced and
the various responses that emerged out of this context. Prior to that, the author gives a
synopsis of the fellowship aspect of the community. Chadwick disappoints the reader in
this section because he is too brief and provides little that is new. When Christianity came
into contact with the pagan religious world around it, existing pagan philosophies attempted
to influence the belief systems of the Christians. Apostle Paul dealt with a similar issue in
Corinth and Colossae. There was the threat of syncretism. Among the major philosophical
threats, gnosticism was the hardest one. Chadwick presents a vivid narrative of the Gnostics
and their teachings. He comments that the Gnostics claimed a special knowledge (about
individual destiny) and this could be received through some mantras. The author deserves a
lot of appreciation at this juncture. He is able to explain some of the tough tenets of
Gnosticism in a easy manner. Moreover, he has been successful in bringing out the contrast
between the Orthodox Christian beliefs and the heretical views of various Gnostic groups.
The teachings of Marcion and Valentinus are briefly discussed under this section. The
second part of the chapter is the Church’s response to these threats. He points out three
important factors by which the church countered these heresies. First, the authority of the
bishops was established. The bishops were considered as the successors of the Apostles and
therefore they were believed to carry the true teachings of God’s word. Second, the gradual
emergence of the New Testament canon. The Church laid a great amount of authority to the
writings of the apostles. In the process, a large number of other writings which were
prevalent were condemned as not authoritative. Third, statements of beliefs called rule of
faith were written down. Church fathers like Iraneaus and Tertullian were instrumental in
developing the orthodox Christian faith during the immediate post-Apostolic era. The last
part of this chapter discusses the ministerial pattern that developed during this early period.
The author begins with the ministerial offices found in the epistles of Paul. Then, he goes
on to explain how the apostle-prophet-teaching offices of the apostolic era were later
shaped into bishop-presbyter-deacon pattern. Chadwick is honest in stating that he is not
able to give exact reasons for this transition. The rest of the chapter deals with how the
roles of bishops, presbyters and deacons differed from each other. This section is a bit
confusing and not easy to follow. Nevertheless, Chadwick makes an attempt to bring out
the transition in the organisational set up. He concludes the chapter with a brief comment
on the Montanists.
The third chapter deals with the expansion of the Church. Chadwick critically analyses the
reasons for the rapid growth of the church in spite of persecutions. He cites several non-
Christian historians and even opponents of Christianity to understand the factors.
Interestingly, he places the charity and good character of Christians as the major reasons of
Christianity’s growth. I think Chadwick is slightly underplaying the role of gospel sharing
done by the early believers. The section which deals with the geographical expansion of
Christianity is full of names of people and places. Therefore, it does not make an easy
reading. The last part of this chapter discusses the pioneering efforts of Christians in
defending their faith. Chadwick cites the case of Justin Martyr and his defence against
Jewish accusations. Christians also defended their faith by appealing to its acceptance by
the people across the vast areas and sections of people. Chadwick considers this as a simple
and naïve reasoning. However, I think this is worth a factor to be given serious thought in
those days as Christianity’s growth was phenomenal. From chapters four to six, Chadwick
presents the life and contribution of some of the famous Christians of the second and third
centuries. Justin Martyr’s experience with Platonism before getting converted to
Christianity influenced his understanding of Christianity. He even went on to the extend of
calling some of the early Greek philosophers as ‘Christians before Christ.’ Justin was
considered as an apologist. He introduced to the Christendom what is called as the ‘logos’
theology. Irenaeus, who came after Justin contributed to the Church as a theologian
primarily. He opposed two Gnostic Heretic Christians during his life time, Marcion and
Valentinus. The ‘rule of faith,’ a primitive form of later day creeds was first floated by
Irenaeus. He emphasised more on the authority of the apostolic tradition and writings.
Again the Church faced persecutions shortly after 350 AD under the Roman emperors
Valerian, Gallineus and the great persecution occurred under Diocletian. During this time
unlike the popular view that Christians all over the empire suffered, Chadwick clearly
differentiates between the worst and least affected Christian pockets within the empire. He
also comments on the sad state of differences that existed among Christians as to what is
apostasy. The eighth and ninth chapters of the book discuss at length the conversion of
Constantine and the consequences of that event. Chadwick presents two views. Some
historians opine that Consantine did not believe in Jesus Christ as the Christians proclaimed
about him. Rather he identified Jesus as the unconquered sun god in whom he always
believed. Others opine that he was converted to Christianity in its true sense because of a
vision he had before an important battle. Chadwick keeps his options open. Constantine
considered Christianity as an unifying factor during his reign. Therefore he resolved to
settle whatever disputes the Christians had. The council of Nicea in 325 was called in order
to settle the controversy between the Arians and the orthodox view held by the
Alexandrians. Chadwick succinctly notes that this became a precedent for the Roman
emperors of later times to interfere in Church decisions. What was achieved in Nicea was a
false unity as Arianism continued to spread even after it was condemned. Chadwick also
rightly observes how these controversies were affecting the growth of the Church in the
fourth century. One great change that happened thanks to Constantine’s rule was the end of
major persecutions against Christians. The Church under Constantine’s sons was quite
unstable as they supported different theological positions, causing chaos in the Church.
Athenesius who stood strong for the cause of the Nicene statement was exiled five times
because of Arian favouritism shown by two of Constantine’s sons. At the end of this long
controversy eventually the Nicene party gained the support of the emperors. Athenesius’
persistence and the theological sharpness of the Cappadocian Fathers enabled the Nicene
position to gain ground.
Chadwick in the following two chapters briefly mentions the attempt to revive paganism
under Julian. This effort was defeated by people like Ambrose of Milan. Later Emperor
Theodosius brought about the death knell of paganism once for all in the Roman empire. In
chapter twelve, Chadwick writes about the ascetic movement that emerged during the end
of the fourth century. The factors that led to this are clearly stated by the author. He points
out that when the Church became affluent and highly institutionalised some Christians
concluded that it was no more possible to live an uncompromising Christian life. As a
result they decided to retreat from society. Initially a few individuals like Antony and
Pachomeus went into the wilderness to meditate and pray. Nevertheless they also continued
to serve the poor and sick. Chadwick, to his credit, does not hide some of the bizarre forms
of some ascetic movements during this period. It is also interesting to note that these
sporadic movements of the fourth century grew up as strong monastic movements within
Christianity on a later stage.
In Chapter thirteen, Chadwick in the first part presents a controversy that came up from the
monasteries. Some monks accused the teachings of Origen and his interpretations of
Scripture. This was opposed by supporters of Origen’s theology. The later part of the
chapter deals with the life and ministry of John Chrysostom. Chadwick presents him as a
bold man who stood for his simple and ethical life. He is portrayed like John the Baptist.
Chapter fourteen deals with a few more Christological heresies that erupted during the fifth
century over the nature and person of Jesus Christ. The theological differences between the
Alexandrian and Antiochean schools are discussed in detail. The background and the
leaders of various controversies are mentioned. During the course of this narrative the
author also focusses on the various councils which were held to settle the controversies.
The council of Chalcedon (451) is given much importance by Chadwick. Chalcedon indeed
was a milestone in the history of the Church. The churches of the East were permanently
separated from the mainstream Church after this event. There existed Nestorian’s
monophysites and the orthodox Christians at the end of Chalcedon council. Although some
efforts were taken to bring the monophysites under the orthodox stream, it failed miserably.
Chadwick clearly identifies the political factors which were also dominant in causing the
divisions.
The fifteenth chapter focusses on the development of Latin theology during the dawn of the
fifth century. Unlike the East, the West had a lesser number of theological controversies.
The contributions of Tertullian, Cyprian and Origen remained as the theological framework
of the West for a longer period. Jerome in the fourth century attempted to develop a
distinctive Latin theology. He wrote commentaries and produced Biblical scholarship.
Chadwick observes that Jerome’s dream was fulfilled through Augustine of Hippo shortly
afterwards. Chadwick then goes on to narrate the life and conversion of Augustine. He
enlists important contributions of Augustine. His role in opposing Donatists and Pelagians
is dealt well. Augustine was undoubtedly a great theologian and original thinker. Chadwick
although presents Augustine in a glorious light. He does not fail to comment on the
vulnerability of Augustinian view of predestination.
In the sixteenth chapter the rise of the Papacy is discussed. Chadwick finds at least three
essential factors which led to the supremacy of the Bishop of Rome: the claim of Petrine
and Pauline apostolic traditions, the well developed organisational and liturgical custom
and efficient bishops like Leo and Gregory the Great. In the seventeenth chapter deals with
the missionary endeavours of the Church among the Germanic tribes who lived north of the
Roman empire. Even before the invasions Arian Christianity had made inroads into these
tribes. Therefore during the fifth century when the tribes invaded the Roman empire in the
West they came as Arian Christians. This led to conflicts between the orthodox Christians
and the Arian Christians. In the second part of the chapter Chadwick highlights the
missionary efforts of Gregroy the Great in reaching out to Anglo-Saxons and Scots.
The last chapter gives a brief account of the liturgy, art and music of the early Church.
Chadwick opines that many of these were taken from the religious practices of the
synagogue community. Many of the Judaistic symbols and practices were adopted by
Christians and new meanings were given. Chadwick sites some of the early liturgical prayer
forms and creedal statements. He also gives us a glimpse of how Christian baptism and
Sunday worship were held during the early centuries. Similarly while commenting on art
Chadwick notes that although early Church fathers strictly prohibited any form of images,
Christian paintings depicting Bible stories emerged during the third century onwards.
Chadwick also shows that there existed a varied expression of worship among the
Christians. The book comes to end with a conclusion which sums up the entire book.
Chadwick’s “The Early Church,” is certainly one of the best introductory books on Church
History available in the market. Written primarily to introduce the various events that
shaped Christianity during the early times to a popular reader, the book serves its purpose.
Nevertheless, the contents of the book is the result of good historical research. Therefore, it
provides a good launching pad for history students too. It provides an overview of so many
things which casual students of Church history probably heard of but may not have really
understood. This book can serve as a pointer for further research and study. The writing
style is pleasing although it covers a lot of details. This book would improve if the print and
the format is changed to adapt to the present day readers.
The flow of the book is on the following line – Chadwick first shows how Christianity had
its roots in a synthesis of contemporary ideas and beliefs, and analyses the causes of its
persecution under Roman emperors, the fanaticism of its martyrs and its bitter internal
controversies. Second, he highlights on the conversion of Constantine and the edict of
Theodosius and its consequences for the church. After these, the church had to reconcile
itself to a different role. Chadwick, finally, demonstrates how this new responsibility with
its struggles led to the emergence of the two vital aspects of Christianity, the monastic
movement, and papacy. Critically analysing, the book has a good number of merits and a
few demerits. As an introductory book, the author has done justice in covering most
important aspects that pertain to the first six centuries. Nevertheless, one will be surprised
to see a few key events either down played or ignored. For instance, Chadwick has not
recorded the split of the West and the East in detail though it was a significant aspect that
affected the Church. Similarly, the barbaric invasions of the West and the conversion of
these tribes has not been dealt enough. Even persecutions are given only less space in the
book. Moreover, Chadwick has arranged events in a thematic way, rather than
Chronological. This has both advantages and disadvantages. Positively, this helps the
readers to focus on one issue at a time. Negatively, a casual reader can lose track of the
historical thread as the reader jumps from one topic to another. More than anything,
Chadwick deserves our utmost appreciation for his attempt to give the readers an objective
and honest work. While writing about the theological differences and practices of the
various sections of the early church, he has not pushed himself in to give his personal
preferences or subjective views. He leaves it to the reader to come out with their own
evaluation of the events and the debates. Truly, this can be applauded as an ecumenical
account of Christian History. He tries not to favour any sections.
The book has a lot of information on the development of theology over the first six
centuries. At the same time, I feel that Chadwick has given more space for describing the
various controversies and theological debates. The life stories of patristic fathers is not set
out clearly whereas their theological contributions are dealt with in detail. In a small
introductory book like this, I wonder whether that can be justified. I also find Chadwick not
clear in making his readers understand which view had the final say at the end of debates
and councils. It would have been good if Chadwick had added a glossary at the end of the
book to identify certain major sects. Though he gives an elaborate background of the
controversies, he does not explain some key terms, like Monophysites. Nevertheless,
Chadwick’s book would remain as one of the much sought after introductory volumes for
many more years to come.
http://kingdomfriends.net/2013/01/13/the-early-church/
Henry Chadwick, La iglesia primitiva (Middlesex: Penguin Books, 1978). Pp 1-289.
El primer capítulo titulado "De Jerusalén a Roma", cubre los eventos que se encuentran en
el Nuevo Testamento. Sin embargo, el autor proporciona una rica información de fondo a
los movimientos del cristianismo del primer siglo. La primera parte del capítulo describe
claramente al judaísmo como la cuna en la que se formó el cristianismo. El autor se
propone retratar la nueva fe como la continuación de las esperanzas judías del Antiguo
Testamento. Como el pueblo judío se dispersó por todo el mundo que se conocía, al
principio se convirtió en una plataforma de lanzamiento poderosa para el cristianismo. Los
predicadores cristianos podrían obtener fácilmente una entrada en las sinagogas para
propagar su fe. Sin embargo, esta situación cambió con el transcurso del tiempo, ya que las
personas religiosas judías encontraron que el cristianismo era radicalmente diferente de sus
creencias y prácticas. Chadwick también proporciona información sobre las diversas sectas
judías del primer siglo y cómo respondieron a la nueva fe. Aunque esto es útil, la
explicación elaborada sobre algunas de estas sectas distrae el flujo del tema del primer
capítulo.
Nuevamente, la Iglesia enfrentó persecuciones poco después del 350 dC bajo los
emperadores romanos Valeriano, Gallineus y la gran persecución ocurrió bajo Diocleciano.
Durante este tiempo, a diferencia de la opinión popular de que los cristianos de todo el
imperio sufrieron, Chadwick diferencia claramente entre los bolsillos cristianos más pobres
y menos afectados dentro del imperio. También comenta sobre el triste estado de
diferencias que existía entre los cristianos en cuanto a qué es la apostasía. Los capítulos
octavo y noveno del libro analizan en detalle la conversión de Constantino y las
consecuencias de ese evento. Chadwick presenta dos puntos de vista. Algunos historiadores
opinan que Consantine no creía en Jesucristo como los cristianos proclamaban sobre él.
Más bien, él identificó a Jesús como el dios del sol invicto en quien siempre creyó. Otros
opinan que se convirtió al cristianismo en su verdadero sentido debido a una visión que
tuvo antes de una batalla importante. Chadwick mantiene sus opciones abiertas.
Constantino consideró al cristianismo como un factor unificador durante su reinado. Por
eso resolvió resolver cualquier disputa que tuvieran los cristianos. El concilio de Nicea en
325 fue convocado para resolver la controversia entre los arrianos y la visión ortodoxa
sostenida por los alejandrinos. Chadwick señala sucintamente que esto se convirtió en un
precedente para que los emperadores romanos de tiempos posteriores interfirieran en las
decisiones de la Iglesia. Lo que se logró en Nicea fue una falsa unidad, ya que el arrianismo
continuó extendiéndose incluso después de que fue condenado. Chadwick también observa
correctamente cómo estas controversias estaban afectando el crecimiento de la Iglesia en el
siglo IV. Un gran cambio que ocurrió gracias al gobierno de Constantino fue el fin de las
principales persecuciones contra los cristianos. La Iglesia bajo los hijos de Constantino era
bastante inestable ya que apoyaban diferentes posiciones teológicas, causando el caos en la
Iglesia. Athenesius, que se mantuvo firme por la causa de la declaración de Nicea, fue
exiliado cinco veces debido al favoritismo ariano demostrado por dos de los hijos de
Constantino. Al final de esta larga controversia, finalmente el partido de Nicea ganó el
apoyo de los emperadores. La persistencia de Athenesius y la agudeza teológica de los
Padres de Capadocia permitieron que la posición nicena ganara terreno.
El capítulo catorce trata con algunas más herejías cristológicas que surgieron durante el
siglo quinto sobre la naturaleza y la persona de Jesucristo. Las diferencias teológicas entre
las escuelas alejandrinas y antioqueas se discuten en detalle. Se mencionan los antecedentes
y los líderes de diversas controversias. Durante el curso de esta narrativa, el autor también
se centra en los diversos consejos que se llevaron a cabo para resolver las controversias.
Chadwick concede gran importancia al consejo de Calcedonia (451). Calcedonia de hecho
fue un hito en la historia de la Iglesia. Las iglesias del este se separaron permanentemente
de la Iglesia principal después de este evento. Existían los monofisitas de Nestorian y los
cristianos ortodoxos al final del consejo de Calcedonia. Aunque se hicieron algunos
esfuerzos para llevar a los monofisitas a la corriente ortodoxa, fracasó estrepitosamente.
Chadwick identifica claramente los factores políticos que también fueron dominantes en la
causa de las divisiones.
El capítulo quince se centra en el desarrollo de la teología latina durante los albores del
siglo quinto. A diferencia de Oriente, Occidente tenía un número menor de controversias
teológicas. Las contribuciones de Tertuliano, Cipriano y Orígenes se mantuvieron como el
marco teológico de Occidente durante un período más largo. Jerome en el siglo IV intentó
desarrollar una teología latina distintiva. Escribió comentarios y produjo becas bíblicas.
Chadwick observa que el sueño de Jerome se cumplió a través de Agustín de Hipona poco
después. Chadwick continúa narrando la vida y la conversión de Agustín. Enlista
importantes aportaciones de agustín. Su papel en oponerse a los donatistas y pelagianos es
bien tratado. Agustín fue sin duda un gran teólogo y pensador original. Chadwick aunque
presenta a Agustín en una luz gloriosa. No deja de comentar sobre la vulnerabilidad de la
visión agustiniana de la predestinación.
En el capítulo dieciséis se discute el auge del papado. Chadwick encuentra al menos tres
factores esenciales que llevaron a la supremacía del obispo de Roma: el reclamo de las
tradiciones apostólicas petrinas y paulinas, la costumbre organizativa y litúrgica bien
desarrollada y obispos eficientes como Leo y Gregorio el Grande. En el decimoséptimo
capítulo, se tratan los esfuerzos misioneros de la Iglesia entre las tribus germánicas que
vivían al norte del imperio romano. Incluso antes de las invasiones, el cristianismo arriano
había hecho incursiones en estas tribus. Por lo tanto, durante el siglo quinto, cuando las
tribus invadieron el imperio romano en Occidente, llegaron como cristianos arios. Esto
llevó a conflictos entre los cristianos ortodoxos y los cristianos arios. En la segunda parte
del capítulo, Chadwick destaca los esfuerzos misioneros de Gregroy el Grande para llegar a
los anglosajones y escoceses.
El flujo del libro está en la siguiente línea: Chadwick muestra por primera vez cómo el
cristianismo tuvo sus raíces en una síntesis de ideas y creencias contemporáneas, y analiza
las causas de su persecución bajo los emperadores romanos, el fanatismo de sus mártires y
sus amargas controversias internas. En segundo lugar, destaca sobre la conversión de
Constantino y el edicto de Teodosio y sus consecuencias para la iglesia. Después de esto, la
iglesia tuvo que reconciliarse con un papel diferente. Chadwick, finalmente, demuestra
cómo esta nueva responsabilidad con sus luchas condujo al surgimiento de los dos aspectos
vitales del cristianismo, el movimiento monástico y el papado. Analizando críticamente, el
libro tiene un buen número de méritos y algunos deméritos. Como libro introductorio, el
autor ha hecho justicia al cubrir los aspectos más importantes que pertenecen a los primeros
seis siglos. Sin embargo, uno se sorprenderá al ver algunos eventos clave ya sea jugados o
ignorados. Por ejemplo, Chadwick no ha registrado en detalle la división de Occidente y
Oriente, aunque fue un aspecto significativo que afectó a la Iglesia. Del mismo modo, las
invasiones bárbaras de Occidente y la conversión de estas tribus no se han tratado lo
suficiente. Incluso las persecuciones tienen menos espacio en el libro. Además, Chadwick
ha organizado eventos de una manera temática, en lugar de cronológica. Esto tiene tanto
ventajas como desventajas. Positivamente, esto ayuda a los lectores a enfocarse en un tema
a la vez. Negativamente, un lector ocasional puede perder la pista del hilo histórico a
medida que el lector salta de un tema a otro. Más que nada, Chadwick merece nuestro
mayor aprecio por su intento de dar a los lectores un trabajo objetivo y honesto. Mientras
escribe sobre las diferencias teológicas y las prácticas de las diversas secciones de la iglesia
primitiva, no se ha esforzado por expresar sus preferencias personales o puntos de vista
subjetivos. Deja que el lector salga con su propia evaluación de los eventos y los debates.
En verdad, esto puede ser aplaudido como un relato ecuménico de la Historia Cristiana.
Intenta no favorecer ninguna sección.
El libro tiene mucha información sobre el desarrollo de la teología durante los primeros seis
siglos. Al mismo tiempo, siento que Chadwick ha dado más espacio para describir las
diversas controversias y debates teológicos. Las historias de vida de los padres patrísticos
no se exponen claramente, mientras que sus contribuciones teológicas se tratan en detalle.
En un pequeño libro introductorio como este, me pregunto si eso puede justificarse.
También encuentro que Chadwick no tiene claro cómo hacer que sus lectores comprendan
qué opinión tuvo la última palabra al final de los debates y consejos. Hubiera sido bueno si
Chadwick hubiera agregado un glosario al final del libro para identificar ciertas sectas
importantes. A pesar de que proporciona un fondo detallado de las controversias, no explica
algunos términos clave, como Monophysites. Sin embargo, el libro de Chadwick se
mantendría como uno de los volúmenes introductorios más buscados durante muchos años
más.