Book of Knowledge 1.

5 (α)

Compiled by Tyler Hansel

June 23, 2010

2

Figure 1: xkcd Purity

Contents
1 The Project 7
1.1 How the Project Began . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2 General Information 9
2.1 SI Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3 Greek Alphabet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4 Metric Prexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.5 Accuracy vs. Precision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

3 Mathematics 13
3.1 Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.1.1 2-Dimensional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.1.1.1 Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.1.1.2 Quadrilaterals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.1.2 3-Dimensional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.1.2.1 Prisms and Cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.1.2.2 Pyramids and Cones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.1.2.3 Spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.2 Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.2.1 Basic Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.2.2 Logical Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.2.3 Argument Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.3 Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.3.1 Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.4 Trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.4.1 Unit Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.4.2 Trig Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.5 Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.5.1 Special Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.5.2 Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.5.2.1 f, f 0 , andf 00 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.5.3 Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

3
4 CONTENTS

3.5.3.1 Integration by Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

3.5.3.2 Length of a Smooth Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

4 Physics 25
4.1 Classical Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.1.1 Particle Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.1.1.1 Acceleration, Velocity, and Displacement . . . . 25
4.1.1.2 Uniform Circular Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.1.1.3 Simple Harmonic Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.1.2 Simple Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.1.2.1 Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.1.2.2 Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.1.3 Newton's Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.1.4 Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.1.5 Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.1.6 Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.1.7 Rotational Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.2 Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.2.1 Traveling Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.2.1.1 Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.3 Electricity and Magnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.3.1 Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.3.2 Resistor Colors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.4 Special Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.4.1 Time Dilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.4.2 Length Contraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

5 Space 33
5.1 Basic Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.1.1 Drake Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.2 Solar System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.2.1 Mercury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.2.2 Venus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.2.3 Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.2.4 Mars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.2.5 Asteroid Belt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.2.6 Jupiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.2.7 Saturn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.2.8 Uranus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.2.9 Neptune . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.2.10 Kuiper Belt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.3 Big Bang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.4 Stellar Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.4.1 H-R Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
CONTENTS 5

6 Chemistry 41
6.1 Periodic Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.1.1 Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.1.2 Families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.2 e− and VSEPR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.2.1 Quantum Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.2.2 Molecular Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.3 Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.3.1 Heating and Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.3.2 Enthalpy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.3.3 Entropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.3.4 Gibbs Free Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.4 Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.4.1 Ideal Gas Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.4.2 Partial Pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.5 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
6.5.1 Ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
6.5.2 Solubility Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.6 Equilibria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.7 RedOx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6.8 Acids and Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
6.8.1 Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
6.8.1.1 Strong Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
6.8.2 Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
6.8.2.1 Strong Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
6.8.3 Salts of Acids and Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
6.9 Identifying Chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
6.9.1 Solution Colors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
6.9.2 Flame Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
6.9.3 Misc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6.10 Misc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6.10.1 Properties of Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6.10.2 Standard State Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6.10.3 Phase Changes I always forget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

7 Earth 55
7.1 Basic Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
7.2 Condensed Geologic Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
7.3 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
7.3.1 Hadean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
7.3.2 Archean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
7.3.3 Proterozoic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
7.3.4 Phanerozoic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
7.3.4.1 Paleozoic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
7.3.4.2 Mesozoic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
7.3.4.3 Cenozoic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
6 CONTENTS

8 Biology 61
8.1 Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
8.1.1 Cell Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
8.1.2 Prokaryotic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
8.1.3 Eukaryotic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
8.1.3.1 Organelles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
8.2 Taxonomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
8.2.1 Ranks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

A Derivations 65
A.1 Math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
A.1.1 Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
A.1.2 Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
A.1.3 Trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
A.1.4 Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

B Most Important Thing in this Book 77

B.1 Obviously . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Chapter 1

The Project
1.1 How the Project Began
At the beginning of my junior year, I received a physics book which,
like many other textbooks, had important information on the inside
cover. At rst, I didn't think much of it, but later I found these
facts were incredibly useful. There were many instances where, in
the process of working a problem which I had created, I found myself
needing to look up the average radius of the earth, the denition of
a joule, or the atomic mass of zinc. I knew that all of these facts
were inside the cover of my physics book, but I only had it with me
about half the time. This, combined with the entirely useless facts
listed in the back cover of my composition notebook (under the ironic
heading: Useful Information), prompted me to create a fact sheet
on the facing page. I later deemed this version 0.

On February 2nd , I was studying for a chemistry test when I realized

that the tables in the book were not well suited for looking up un-
related facts, as all of the tables are next to paragraphs describing
them in chapters related to their usage. I then realized that there is
a lot of information which I nd myself looking up regularly and that
it would be a good idea to put it all in the same place. I grabbed
another composition notebook from my mother's stash of school sup-
plies and began transcribing tables into what would become version
1.0, the rst version to bear the name The Book of Knowledge.

I decided to split the book up into dierent sciences, as that was

the main area I intended to bring knowledge from. I labeled the
sections General Facts, Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Biology,
Earth, Space, and Misc., which were separated by rubber bands.
Even so, after a few weeks of nding new information to add to the

7
8 CHAPTER 1. THE PROJECT

book, version 1.0 became very disorganized. I decided that its pur-
pose would be to collect information, which I would organize later
in the next version over the summer. I was then assigned a calculus
project that required me to nd a word processor in Linux that would
handle mathematics. I found LYX and decided that this version would
be electronic.

1.2 Goals
The creation of this book was mostly an attempt to compile data
which I often nd myself needing for an argument or computation.
Much of this data is comprised of lists which I was supposed to mem-
orize at one point. I have found that I am incapable of memorizing
anything. I do not know if this is a cause of, or a result of the way
I think, which often causes me to derive numbers and formulas from
more basic facts, though I suspect it is one of the two.

The main goals of this book are:

1. Compile and preserve facts which I have learned

2. Minimize the need for me to memorize information, allowing me to play

to my strengths

3. Facilitate continued learning as I create the book

Chapter 2

General Information
2.1 SI Units
Measurement Name Symbol Denition
Base Units
1
Length meter m
299,792,458 of the distance light
travels in a vacuum in one
second
Mass kilogram kg approximately the mass of 1 liter
of water at 4◦ C
Time second s the duration of 9,192,631,770
periods of the radiation from a
Cs 133 atom
1
Temperature kelvin K
273.16 of the temperature
dierence between absolute 0
and the triple point of water
Current ampere A Current that produces a
2 × 10−7 N force per meter of
length between two innite
parallel wires in a vacuum
Luminous intensity candela cd luminous intensity of a source
emitting light at 540 × 1012 Hz
1 W
with a radiant intensity of
683 sr
Amount mole mol 6.022141510 × 1023 particles
Derived Units
1
Frequency hertz Hz
s
m
Angle radian rad
m - dimensionless
m2
Solid angle steradian sr
m2 - dimensionless
m·kg
Force newton N
s2
N kg
Pressure pascal Pa
m 2 = m×s2

9
10 CHAPTER 2. GENERAL INFORMATION

Measurement Name Symbol Denition

m2 ·kg
Energy joule J N·m=C·V=W·s= s2
J m2 ·kg
Power watt W
s =V·A= s3
Electric charge coulomb C A·s
W J m2 ·kg
Electromotive force volt V
A = C = s3 ·A2
C s4 ·A2
Capacitance farad F
V = m2 ·kg
V m2 ·kg
Resistance ohm Ω A = s3 ·A2
1 s3 ·A2
Conductance siemens S
Ω = m2 ·kg
V·s Wb N kg
Magnetic eld strength tesla T
m2 = m2 = A·m = s2 ·A
2
V·s Wb m ·kg
Inductance henry H
A = A = s2 ·A2
2
J m ·kg
Magnetic ux weber Wb
A = s2 ·A
2
Luminous ux lumen lm lx · m = cd · sr
lm cd·sr
Illuminance lux lx
m2 = m2
1
Radioactivity becquerel Bq
s
J m2
Absorbed dose gray Gy
kg = s2
J m2
Equivalent dose sievert Sv
kg = s2
mol
Catalytic activity katal Kat
s

2.2 Constants

Description Symbol Value

Speed of Light in a Vacuum c 2.99792458 × 108 ms

Gravitational Constant G 6.674210 × 1011 N·ms
1
Avogadro's Number NA 6.022141510 × 1023 mol
J
Gas Constant R 8.31447215 mol·K
J
Boltzmann's Constant k 1.3806505 × 1023 K
−19
Electron Charge e 1.6021765314 × 10 C
Stefan-Boltzmann Constant σ 5.67040040 × 10−8 mW 2 K4
C2
Permittivity of Free Space 0 8.854187817 × 10−12 N·m 2

Permeability of Free Space µ0 4π × 10−7 T·m

A
Planck's Constant h 6.626069311 × 10−34 J · s
Electron Rest Mass me 9.109382616 × 10−31 kg
Neutron Rest Mass mn 1.6749272829 × 10−27 kg
Proton Rest Mass mp 1.67217129 × 10−27 kg
C
Faraday's Constant F 96485.3399 mol
2.3. GREEK ALPHABET 11

2.3 Greek Alphabet

Upper Case Lower Case Name

A α alpha
B β beta
Γ γ gamma
∆ δ delta
E  epsilon
Z ζ zeta
H η eta
Θ θ theta
I ι iota
K κ kappa
Λ λ lambda
M µ mu
N ν nu
Ξ ξ xi
O o omicron
Π π pi
P ρ rho
Σ σ sigma
T τ tau
Υ υ upsilon
Φ φ,ϕ phi
X χ chi
Ψ ψ psi
Ω ω omega
12 CHAPTER 2. GENERAL INFORMATION

2.4 Metric Prexes

Prex Symbol Magnitude

yotta Y 1024
zetta Z 1021
exa E 1018
peta P 1015
tera T 1012
giga G 109
mega M 106
kilo k 103
hecto h 102
deca da 10
- - 100
deci d 10−1
centi c 10−2
milli m 10−3
micro µ 10−6
nano n 10−9
pico p 10−12
fempto f 10−15
atto a 10−18
zepto z 10−21
yocto y 10−24

2.5 Accuracy vs. Precision

Accuracy The average is near the true value

Precision The measurements are close to each other

Chapter 3

Mathematics
3.1 Geometry
3.1.1 2-Dimensional

3.1.1.1 Triangles

Side Length Rule: The sum of any two side lengths must be larger the third

Law of Cosines: Derivation on page 65

c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos C

13
14 CHAPTER 3. MATHEMATICS

Law of Sines: Derivation on page 66

a b c
= =
sin A sin B sin C

Area:

1
A = bh
2
1
A = ab sin C
2
p
A = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)

Where s is the semi-perimeter. Derivation for the third formula, Heron's

formula, can be found on page 66.

Similarity: AA, SAS, SSS; where sides (S) must be proportional and angles
(A) must be congruent

Congruency: SSS, ASA, SAS, AS, HL, HA; where sides (S), angles (A), hy-
potenuses (H), and legs (L) must be congruent

CPCTC: Corresponding Parts of Congruent Triangles are Congruent

Lines: Important lines that can be constructed for every triangle (though not
all are restricted to triangles).

Perpendicular Bisector(⊥bisector) A line that is perpendicular to

and bisects a side of the triangle

Altitude A line drawn from a vertex which is⊥to the opposite side
Angle Bisector A line that bisects an angle
Median A line drawn from a vertex to the midpoint of the opposite side

Centers: Various important points relating to a triangle. Importance and con-

struction listed.

Circumcenter: The intersection of the⊥bisectors of the sides, is the cen-

ter of the circle that passes through the vertices (the circumcircle, in
which the triangle is inscribed)

• If the circumcenter is on the inside of the triangle, the triangle

is acute.

• If the circumcenter is on the outside of the triangle, the triangle

is obtuse.

• If the circumcenter lies on one side of the triangle, that side is

the hypotenuse of a right triangle.

Orthocenter: The intersection of the altitudes.

3.1. GEOMETRY 15

Incenter: The intersection of the angle bisectors, is the center of the

incircle, which is tangent to all three sides.

Centroid: The intersection of the medians . This point is the center

of gravity of a triangle if it is made from a thin uniformly dense
material. The centroid cuts each median with a ratio 2:1 so that the
distance from the vertex to the centroid is twice the distance from
the centroid to the midpoint of the side on the median.

3.1.1.2 Quadrilaterals

Trapezoids A quadrilateral with two parallel sides

Area

1
A = h (b1 + b2 )
2
A = hm

where m is the mid-segment, the line k to and halfway between the

bases

Isosceles A trapezoid with two equal base angles, more properties can
be derived by the properties of symmetry and the triangles formed.

Parallelogram Has two pairs of parallel sides

16 CHAPTER 3. MATHEMATICS

Proofs Two pairs of parallel sides

Two pairs of congruent sides
Two pairs of opposite congruent angles
Diagonals that bisect each other
One pair of parallel and congruent sides

Area A = bh
Rhombus An equilateral quadrilateral
• ⊥ Diagonals

Area

A = bh
A = b sin α
1
A = d1 d2
2

Where α is any angle (they all have the same sine) and d1 and
d2 are the diagonals of the rhombus

Rectangle An equiangular quadrilateral

• Diagonals are congruent and bisect each other

Square A regular quadrilateral

• Has the properties of both rhombi and rectangles

3.1.2 3-Dimensional

3.1.2.1 Prisms and Cylinders

Volume V = Bh
where B is the area of the base and h is the ⊥ height

Surface Area As = pb h + 2B
where B is the area of the base, h is the ⊥ height and pb is the perimeter
of the base

3.1.2.2 Pyramids and Cones

Volume V = 13 Bh
where B is the area of the base and h is the ⊥ height. The derivation for
this formula can be found on page 67.

Surface Area As = p b ` + B
where B is the area of the base, ` is the slant height and pb is the perimeter
of the base
3.2. LOGIC 17

3.1.2.3 Spheres

Volume V = 43 πr3
The derivation of this formula can be found on page 68

Surface Area As = 4πr2

The derivation of this formula can be found on page 68

3.2 Logic
3.2.1 Basic Operators

p q ∼p p→q p↔q p∧ q p∨ q
T T F T T T T
T F F F F F T
F T T T F F T
F F T T T F F

3.2.2 Logical Transformations

Original p→q

Inverse q→p

Converse ∼ p →∼ q

Contrapositive ∼ q →∼ p

• If the original statement is true, the contrapositive is true

• If both the original and the converse are true, the statement is a denition,
and the inverse is also true (since it is the contrapositive of the converse)

3.2.3 Argument Forms

Modus Ponens

p → q
p
∴ q

Modus Tollens

p → q
∼q
∴ ∼p
18 CHAPTER 3. MATHEMATICS

Law of Syllogism

p → q
q → r
∴ p→r

Law of Contrapositives

p → q
∴ ∼ q →∼ p

3.3 Algebra

3.3.1 Logarithms

Base Change Formula

ln x
loga x =
ln a

The derivation for this formula can be found on page 68

3.4. TRIGONOMETRY 19

3.4 Trigonometry

3.4.1 Unit Circle

20 CHAPTER 3. MATHEMATICS

3.4.2 Trig Identities

Quotient Identities

sin θ
= tan θ
cos θ
cos θ
= cot θ
sin θ
1
= sec θ
cos θ
1
= csc θ
sin θ
Odd and Even Identities

sin (−θ) = − sin (θ)

cos (−θ) = cos (θ)
tan (−θ) = − tan (θ)
csc (−θ) = − csc (θ)
sec (−θ) = sec (θ)
cot (−θ) = − cot (θ)

Co-function Identities
π 
sin −θ = cos (θ)
2
π 
cos −θ = sin (θ)
2
π 
tan −θ = cot (θ)
2
π 
csc −θ = sec (θ)
2
π 
sec −θ = csc (θ)
2
π 
cot −θ = tan (θ)
2
Pythagorean Identities

sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1
2
1 + cot θ = csc2 θ
2
tan θ + 1 = sec2 θ

Sum and Dierence Identities

sin(α ± β) = sin α cos β ± cos α sin β

cos(α ± β) = cos α cos β ∓ sin α sin β
tan α ± tan β
tan(α ± β) =
1 ∓ tan α tan β
3.5. CALCULUS 21

Derivations for these formulas can be found on page 69

Half Angle Identities

  r
θ 1 − cos θ
sin = ±
2 2
  r
θ 1 + cos θ
cos = ±
2 2
  r
θ 1 − cos θ
tan = ±
2 1 + cos θ

Derivations for these formulas can be found on page 69

3.5 Calculus
3.5.1 Special Limits

sin x
lim = 1
x→0 x
cos x − 1
lim = 0
x→0 x

3.5.2 Derivatives
1

Denition
f (x + h) − f (x) dy ∗
lim =
h→0 h dx

Rules

d
(c) = 0
dx
∗ d
(xn ) = nxn−1
dx
∗ d
(uv) = uv 0 + vu0
dx
∗ d
u vu0 − uv 0
=
dx v v2
d
((f ◦ g) (x)) = f 0 (g (x)) · g 0 (x)
dx
1 The derivations for derivatives marked with an asterisk can be found in Appendix A,
starting on page 72
22 CHAPTER 3. MATHEMATICS

Exponential

∗ d u du
(e ) = eu
dx dx
∗ d u u du
(a ) = a ln a
dx dx
∗ d 1 du
(ln u) =
dx u dx
∗ d 1 du
(loga u) =
dx u ln a dx

Trigonometric

∗ d du
(sin u) = cos u
dx dx
∗ d du
(cos u) = − sin u
dx dx
∗ d du
(tan u) = sec2 x
dx dx
∗ d du
(csc u) = − csc u cot u
dx dx
∗ d du
(sec u) = sec u tan u
dx dx
∗ d 2 du
(cot u) = − csc u
dx dx

Trigonometric Inverse*

d 1 du
sin−1 u


= √
dx 1 − u dx2

d −1 du
cos−1 u


= √
dx 1 − u2 dx
d 1 du
tan−1 u


= √
dx u + 1 dx
2

d −1 du
csc−1 u


= √
dx u + 1 dx
2

d 1 du
sec−1 u


= √
dx |u| u2 − 1 dx
d −1 du
cot−1 u


= √
dx |u| u − 1 dx
2
3.5. CALCULUS 23

3.5.2.1 Connecting f 0 and f 00 with the graph of f

Undened The derivative is undened when the graph contains a vertical tan-
gent, a corner, a cusp, or a discontinuity

Extrema Extrema can only occur when the derivative is 0 or at an endpoint

First Derivative Test When the rst derivative is positive, the graph is in-
creasing, and when the rst derivative is negative, the graph is decreasing.
So when the rst derivative is equal to 0 and changes signs, there is a rel-
ative extrema. This is a maximum if the derivative goes from positive to
negative, and is a minimum if the derivative goes from negative to positive.

Second Derivative Test When the second derivative is positive, the graph
is concave up, and when the second derivative is negative, the graph is
concave down. When the rst derivative is 0 and the second derivative is
negative, there is a maximum. When the rst derivative is zero and the
second derivative is positive, there is a minimum.

3.5.3 Integrals

Rules
ˆ
1
un du = un+1 + C
n+1
ˆ
du
= ln |u| + C
u
ˆ
eu du = eu + C
ˆ
sin u du = − cos u + C
ˆ
sec2 u du = tan u + C
ˆ
csc2 u du = − cot u + C
ˆ
sec u tan u du = sec u + C
ˆ
csc u cot u du = − csc u + C
ˆ
au
au du = +C
ln a
ˆ
du 1 u
= tan−1 +C
a + u2
2 a a
ˆ
du u
√ = sin−1 +C
a + u2
2 a
ˆ
du 1 u
√ = sec−1 +C
u u2 − a2 a a
24 CHAPTER 3. MATHEMATICS

3.5.3.1 Integration by Parts

d dv du
(uv) = u +v
ˆ dx ˆ dx dx ˆ
d dv du
(uv) dx = u dx + v dx
dx dx dx
ˆ ˆ
uv = udv + vdu
ˆ ˆ
udv = uv − vdu

Where u should be the ln, inverse trig function, polynomial, exponen-

tial, or trig function in the equation, in that order.

Tabular Method When integrating functions with polynomials by parts, the

tabular method can be used, where on the left a chain of derivatives are
written from the polynomial to zero. In the right column, starting with
the dv from the original equation, integrate repetitively until the second
column is as long as the rst. Then multiply along the arrows and add the
terms, remember that every other row must be negated and a constant
must be added to the end.

3.5.3.2 Length of a Smooth Curve

dy
For a smooth curve ( dx is continuous) from (a,b) to (c,d) the length
is equal to:

ˆ ˆ
s 2 s 2
c  d 
dy dx
L= 1+ dy = 1+
a dx b dy
Chapter 4

Physics
4.1 Classical Mechanics
4.1.1 Particle Motion

4.1.1.1 Acceleration, Velocity, and Displacement

• Acceleration is the derivative of velocity which is the derivative of dis-

placement with respect to time

• Almost all problems regarding a constant acceleration can be solved by

drawing a v vs. t graph

• x = 12 at2 + v0 t + x0 since position is the integral of velocity which is the

integral of acceleration with respect to time.

• vx0 = v0 cos θ

• vx0 = v0 sin θ if θ is the angle v0 makes with the horizontal, as a conse-

quence of the denitions of sin and cos.

4.1.1.2 Uniform Circular Motion

v2
• a= r toward the center of the motion

4.1.1.3 Simple Harmonic Motion

• x = A cos (2πf t + ϕ)

• A is the amplitude, f is the frequency, ϕ is the phase change.

pm
• For spring-mass systems T = 2π k
q
`
• For pendulums, which approximate SHM for small amplitudes, T = 2π g

25
26 CHAPTER 4. PHYSICS

4.1.2 Simple Machines

W = Fd
Simple machines allow force and distance to be interchanged.

4.1.2.1 Types

• Lever

• Wheel and Axel

• Pulley

• Inclined Plane

• Wedge

• Screw

4.1.2.2 Equations

Fout
AM A =
Fin
Def f ort
IM A =
Dload

MA of a set of pulleys is the number of k strands

4.1.3 Newton's Laws

1. Inertia is a property of matter

1
 
dp
2. F = ma F = dt

3. Every action has an equal and opposite reaction

4.1.4 Energy

Conservation In classical mechanics energy is always conserved

Kinetic
1
KE = mv 2
2
Kinetic energy is the energy associated with motion, average kinetic energy
is temperature.

Potential Potential energy is energy that is stored by some means

1 Bill! Bill! Bill! Bill! Bill Nye, the science guy!.
4.1. CLASSICAL MECHANICS 27

Gravitational Potential energy associated with the gravitational force.

P Eg = mg∆h

Elastic Potential energy associated with an elastic force in a system

1 2
P Ee = kx
2
Where k is the spring constant and x is the position of a spring which
follows Hooke's Law

Power W
t

4.1.5 Friction

Friction A force that opposes motion

Kinetic Friction when the objects in contact are moving with respect to each
other

Static Friction when the objects in contact are not moving with respect to each
other, always greater than kinetic friction

Equation
Ff = µFN

Where µ is the appropriate coecient of friction, FN is the normal force

between the two surfaces, and Ff is the frictional force (a maximum in
the case of static friction).

Angle of Friction µs can be determined by nding the maximum angle at

which the friction between two surfaces is able to prevent motion using
the equation:

tan θ = µs

Surface 1 Surface 2 µs µk
Steel Steel .74 .57
Al Steel .61 .47
Cu Steel .53 .36
Rubber Concrete 1 .8
Wood Wood .25 - .5 .2
Glass Glass .94 .4
Ice Ice .1 .03
Teon Teon .04 .04
28 CHAPTER 4. PHYSICS

4.1.6 Momentum

Momentum
p = mv

Conservation Momentum is also a conserved quantity

Center of Mass Due to the conservation of momentum the center of mass of

any system of objects will have a constant velocity if no outside force is
applied.

Impulse
∆p = m∆v = F ∆t

Collisions

Elastic Collisions in which kinetic energy is conserved, no kinetic energy

is converted to another form

Inelastic Collisions in which kinetic energy is not conserved, some is

generally converted to heat or deformation

Perfectly Inelastic Collision The two colliding bodies stick to-

gether to form one more massive body whose velocity can be
found using the law of conservation of momentum.

4.1.7 Rotational Motion

Torque
τ =r×F
Where F ⊥ r, Positive torques are generally clockwise

4.2 Waves
Transverse Motion of particles is perpendicular to propagation of the wave

Longitudinal Particle motion is parallel to the propagation of the wave

Standing A wave which is xed.

Amplitude Maximum displacement within a wave

Wavelength λ the length of one full waveform

Frequency ν the number of waveforms per unit time, or one over the period,
generally in Hz
4.3. ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 29

4.2.1 Traveling Waves

Phase Velocity v The velocity at which the waveform moves as a whole.

v = νλ

Doppler Shift A change in perceived frequency due to relative motion with a

propagating wave.

4.2.1.1 Sound

• Sound is a longitudinal wave.

Medium Speed at 25◦

Air 346.1 ms
Water 1497 ms

4.3 Electricity and Magnetism

4.3.1 Light

E = hν
c = νλ

Spectrum

Type λ ν E
Radio ∞ -1 m 0 Hz-300 MHz 0 -1.98 × 10−25 J
Microwave 1 m-1 mm 300 MHz-300 Ghz 1.98 × 10−25 J-1.98 × 10−22 J
Infrared 1 mm-760 nm 300 GHz-400 THz 1.98 × 10−22 J-2.65 × 10−19 J
Visible 760 nm-380 nm 400 THz-790 THz 2.65 × 10−19 J-5.23 × 10−19 J
Red 760 nm-620 nm 400 THz-484 THz 2.65 × 10−19 J-3.21 × 10−19 J
Orange 620 nm-590 nm 484 THz-508 THz 3.21 × 10−19 J-3.37 × 10−19 J
Yellow 590 nm-570 nm 508 THz-526 THz 3.37 × 10−19 J-3.49 × 10−19 J
Green 570 nm-495 nm 526 THz-606 THz 3.49 × 10−19 J-4.02 × 10−19 J
Cyan 495 nm-476 nm 606 THz-630 THz 4.02 × 10−19 J-4.17−19 J
Blue 476 nm-450 nm 630 THz-668 THz 4.17 × 10−19 J-4.43 × 10−19 J
Violet 450 nm-380 nm 668 THz-790 THz 4.43 × 10−19 J-5.23 × 10−19 J
Ultraviolet 380 nm-10 nm 790 THz-30 PHz 5.23 × 10−19 J-1.98 × 10−17 J
X-Ray 10 nm-10 pm 30 PHz-30 EHz 1.98 × 10−17 J-1.98 × 10−14 J
Gamma Ray 10 pm-0 30 EHz-∞ 1.981.98 × 10−14 10−14 J-∞

Additive R(M)B(C)G(Y)

Subtractive Y(G)C(B)M(R)
30 CHAPTER 4. PHYSICS

4.3.2 Resistor Colors

Color # Mult. Tolerance

Black 0 1
Brown 1 10
Red 2 102
Orange 3 103
Yellow 4 104
Green 5 105
Blue 6 106
Violet 7 107
Gray 8 108
White 9 109
Gold 10−1 5%
Silver 10−2 10%
None 20%

4.4 Special Relativity

Special relativity is based on the principle that it is impossible to distinguish
between inertial frames of reference by experiment. If this is true, it means that
the speed of light is always the same, or else one could just measure the speed
of light to make the distinction.

4.4.1 Time Dilation

From this fact follows that time must slow down for rapidly moving frames of
reference. Consider a man on a train and a man in a eld next to the train. Both
men have light clocks, which count time by reecting light between two mirrors
and measuring when the light hits one of the mirrors, since light always travels
at the same speed, this is a valid clock. When the train is stopped, both men
observe the other man's clock to be exactly in sync with their own. However,
when the train begins to move, the man (F) in the eld observes that the beam
of light in the clock of the man on the train (T), to have to move a greater
distance than the light in his clock, as it not only has to cover the vertical
distance in the clock, like his, but also the horizontal distance, following the
hypotenuse of a right triangle. This means that F observes T's clock running
slower than his. Given that the vertical distance in the light clock is
q L, the
2
distance covered by the light in T's clock as observed by F is L2 + (u∆t0 ) ,
√
L2 +(u∆t0 )2
and the time it takes for the light to move that distance is ∆t0 = c
which yields:
4.4. SPECIAL RELATIVITY 31

q
2
L2 + (u∆t0 )
∆t0 =
c
2
L2 + (u∆t0 )
∆t02 =
c2
u2 ∆t02 L 2
∆t02 − =
c2  c2
u2 L2

∆t02 1 − 2 =
c c2
L2
∆t02 = 2

c2 1 − uc2
L
∆t0 = q
2
c 1 − uc2
∆t
∆t0 = q
u2
1− c2
v
β =
c
1
γ = p
1 − β2
0
∆t = γ∆t

4.4.2 Length Contraction

Given the above, consider man A, who is about to travel from the Star Y
to Star Z while man B watches from a frame of reference which is stationary
compared to the two stars. As man A moves, he sees time pass normally for
him, and measures his travel time to be ∆t while B observes A's clock to be
running slow, measuring travel time ∆t0 . They both measure the same relative
velocity between the two of them (and therefore between A and the stars). This
means that when B uses this data to nd how far A traveled, B will nd that
`0 = u∆t0 , while A will nd that he covered a distance of ` = u∆t, which means
that since ∆t0 is always longer than ∆t, `0 will longer than `, A observes a length
contraction of the distance between the stars, which is moving relative to him.
Moving rulers contract.
`0 = `γ
32 CHAPTER 4. PHYSICS
Chapter 5

Space
5.1 Basic Information
Earth

Mass 5.99 × 1024 kg

Average Radius 6.32 × 103 km
Average Orbital Distance 149.6 × 106 km

Moon

Mass 7.35 × 1022 km

Average Radius 1.74 × 103 km
Average Orbital Distance 3.84 × 105 km

Sun

Mass 1.99 × 1030 km

Average Radius 6.96 × 105 km

Andromeda

Distance 2.52 × 106 ly

Universe

Age 13.75 × 109 y

33
34 CHAPTER 5. SPACE

5.1.1 Drake Equation

N = R∗ fp ne f` fi fc L

N The number of communicating civilizations in our galaxy

R∗ The rate of star formation

fp Fraction of stars with planets

ne Average number of planets that can potentially support life per star with
planets

f` Fraction of above which eventually develop life of some kind

fi Fraction of above which eventually develop intelligent life

fc Fraction of above which eventually develop the technology to release de-

tectable signs of there existence into space

L The length of time which the above signals continue to be released

Proposed Values
∗
Person R fp ne f` fi fc L N
Drake 10 .5 2 1 .01 .01 10,000 10
Pessimist 10 .5 .01 .13 .001 .01 1000 6.5 × 10−5
Current estimates 7 .5 2 .33 .01 .01 10,000 2.31

5.2 Solar System

5.2.1 Mercury

Orbital Distance .4AU

Mass .055Earth Masses

Atmosphere Negligible

Composition Large Fe core, thin mantle

5.2.2 Venus

Orbital Distance .7AU

Mass .815Earth Masses

Atmosphere 90 times as dense as Earth's. Mostly CO2

Composition Thick silicate mantle, Fe core

Misc Hottest planet in the solar system

5.2. SOLAR SYSTEM 35

5.2.3 Earth

Orbital Distance 1AU

Mass 1Earth Masses

Atmosphere Drastically out of equilibrium

Composition Relatively large core, thick mantle

Misc Largest and Densest of inner planets, has only large satellite of an inner
planet, the only planet known to be geologically active.

5.2.4 Mars

Orbital Distance 1.5AU

Mass .107Earth Masses

Atmosphere Relatively thin CO2 atmosphere (6% of the pressure of Earth's)

Satellites Deimos, Phobos, most likely captured asteroids

5.2.5 Asteroid Belt

Orbital Distance 2.3 − 3.3AU

Composition Remnants from formation of the Solar System, prevented from

coalesing by the gravity of Jupiter

Misc Includes dwarf planet Ceres

Ceres Largest object of in the asteroid belt. Almost 1000km in diameter.

Spherical due to mass.

5.2.6 Jupiter

Orbital Distance 5.2AU

Mass 318Earth Masses

Composition Mostly H and He

Satellites 63 known, the largest of which are Ganymede, Callisto, Io, and
Europa.
36 CHAPTER 5. SPACE

5.2.7 Saturn

Orbital Distance 9.5AU

Mass 95Earth Masses

Composition Mostly H and He

Satellites 61 satellites with secure orbits. Major: Titan, Enceladus

Misc Rings, the system of rings includes many distinct rings, which are mostly
water ice.

5.2.8 Uranus

Orbital Distance 19.6AU

Mass 14Earth Masses

Composition Mostly H and He

Satellites 27 known satellites. Largest: Titania, Oberon, Umbriel, Ariel, Mi-

randa

Misc Lightest outer planet, axial tilt of 97.7◦

5.2.9 Neptune

Orbital Distance 30AU

Mass 17Earth Masses

Composition Mostly H and He

Satellites 13 known satellites. Largest: Triton- has geysers and is the only
large satellite with a retrograde orbit

Misc Smaller but more massive than Uranus

5.2.10 Kuiper Belt

Orbital Distance 30 − 50AU

Composition Icy objects

Misc Contains multiple dwarf planets, mostly small bodies

Pluto is the largest Kuiper Belt object (39AU), has a 3:2 resonance with
Neptune.
5.3. BIG BANG 37

5.3 Big Bang

Planck Epoch 0-10−43 sec: Possible unication of the forces, relativity breaks

Grand Unication Epoch 10−43 -10−36 sec: Electromagnetism is unied with

the two nuclear forces. Matter and antimatter are created. Expansion and
cooling occurs.

Electroweak Epoch 10−36 -10−12 sec: Strong force separates. Quarks and glu-
ons dominate. Neutrino dense environment prevents bonding.

Inationary Period 10−36 -10−32 sec: The separation of the strong force
is thought to have caused ination to occur. Though the timing is
not known for certain, the universe expanded rapidly shortly after its
beginning, this rapid expansion brings certain portions of the universe
out of communication for the rst time, attens the universe, and
expands quantum variations to larger scales, where they later aect
the formation of larger bodies in the universe.

Quark Epoch 10−12 -10−6 sec: The universe cools to a point where the elec-
tromagnetic and weak forces separate, and all particles are believed to
acquire mass by the Higg's mechanism. Temperature contiues to be too
high for quarks to bond.

Hadron Epoch 10−6 -1 sec: The universe continues to cool to a point where
quarks can bond to form hadrons, including neutrons and protons. At the
end of this epoch, the universe becomes transparent to neutrinos, and the
cosmic neutrino background is formed.

Lepton Epoch 1-10 sec: Most hadrons and anti-hadrons are annihilated. For
the remainder of the epoch, before they are mostly annihilated as well,
the leptons comprise the majority of the mass of the universe.

Photon Epoch 10 sec-380, 000 years: After the leptons are annihilated, pho-
tons comprise the majority of the energy in the universe. They continue
to interact with particles frequently until the end of the epoch.

Nucleosynthesis 3-20 min: During this time the temperature is just

right for nuclear fusion. By the end of the epoch there is about
3 times more H as He, by mass, with only traces of other, heavier
elements.

Matter Domination 70, 000 years: At this time the densities of matter
and photons are equal, and minute inconsistencies begin to accumu-
late in the universe.

Recombination 377, 000 years: Electrons bind to the nuclei that were
formed earlier and create neutral atoms. This allows photons to
pass freely through the universe, creating the cosmic microwave back-
ground.
38 CHAPTER 5. SPACE

Re-ionization 150 million-1 billion years: The rst quasars are created from
gravitational collapse, they emit intense radiation which reionizes their
surroundings. From this point on most of the universe is composed of
plasma.

Stars and Galaxies Galaxies and stars collapse out of the matter in the uni-
verse gravitationally. The oldest star-forming galaxies were found at a
distance of 13.2 ly meaning that they formed approximately 500,000 years
after the big bang.

5.4 Stellar Evolution

Birth Stars begin their life

as giant molecular clouds, typically these are about
100 ly 9.5 × 1014 km and can have as much as 6 million solar masses worth
of matter. As the GMC collapses it divides into smaller and smaller por-
tions. Each of these portions collapses further, releasing the gravitational
potential energy as heat. Eventually, as the temperature and pressure
increase, the fragment becomes a hot rotating ball of gas known as a
protostar.

Life The life of a star is somewhat dependent on its mass

Below .08 Solar Masses Temperatures in these small objects never reach
the temperatures required for the nuclear fusion of H to begin. These
objects are classied as brown dwarfs. Brown dwarfs heavier than
about .012 Solar Masses do fuse dueterium, but all brown dwarfs cool
slowly and and shine dimly for for hundreds of millions of years

Heavier than that In all more massive protostars, the core temperature
eventually surpasses 10 million kelvins and the proton-proton chain
reaction begins, fusing H into He. In stars that are slightly more
massive than our sun, the CNO cycle also contributes signicantly
to the energy output of a star, by fusing more H into He. Following
the onset of fusion, a hydrostatic equilibrium is quickly established
where the radiation pressure resists the force of gravity. Once this
equilibrium is established the star will be on the main sequence of the
H-R diagram, more explanation of which can be found on page 40,
where the stars will remain for the majority of their lives.

Old Age and Death

The lifespan of a star is mostly based on its mass, larger stars burn hotter and
shorter, while smaller stars burn more slowly at cooler temperatures. After
enough time though, the stars will run out of H to fuse, and will begin to
collapse. What happens next is mass dependant.
5.4. STELLAR EVOLUTION 39

Low Mass Stars Though the universe hasn't been around long enough for
stars much smaller than our Sun (with an expected lifespan of about 10
billion years) to have died, computer models suggest the following. In
stars with masses less than about .5 Solar masses, the core temperature
will never become hot enough to fuse helium, and they will develop into
red giants that will, because they aren't massive enough to fuse He, just
slowly collapse into white dwarfs, with only electron degeneracy preventing
further collapse.

Mid-Sized Stars As the star collapses, fusion will accelerate in the region
just outside the core, expanding the star into a red giant. As the regions
around the core fuse H, the resultant He drops into the core, which in turn
accelerates the fusion of H. In the mid-sized stars, the core temperature
eventually rises to the point where He fusion can begin. This results in the
expansion of the core, so the H fusion outside the core slows signicantly
and the overall energy production of the star decreases. This causes the
star to begin to collapse and the surface temperature increases, though it
never makes it back to the main sequence. When the He core runs out
of fuel, an outer shell of He burns, followed by another shell of H. Shells
of He then can ash creating a short (thousands of years) thermal pulse
after which another H shell will burn for shorter and shorter periods until
the thermal pulses cause enough of the outer material away (forming a
planetary nebula) that only the core remains, which will cool into a white
dwarf.

Massive Stars Stars of at least 9 solar masses, when the core runs out of H,
it will collapse and begin to fuse He. If the star is long enough it can
continue to fuse C, Ne, O, and Si, creating an onion type apperance of 6
fusing shells and an Fe core. At some point in this process a star may form
a planetary nebula by throwing o its outer layers. Also, if the star is not
massive enough to fuse Ne, the process will stop and the core will likely
form a white dwarf. If the star does get to Ne, but no further, the star
will likely create a supernova. If the process make is to Fe, the fusion of
which is endothermic, the star can't support its weight with further fusion.
This means the core will collapse, creating either a neutron star or, if the
core is massive enough, a black hole. Through a process that isn't well
understood, some of the gravitational potential energy is released, making
a Type Ib, Ic, or II supernova. This releases a surge of neutrinos. This
also creates a lot of matter that is colliding at very high speeds, these
are then fused to make the heavier-than-Fe elements, which play a very
important role in our lives.
40 CHAPTER 5. SPACE

5.4.1 Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram

Figure 5.1: H-R Diagram form the Wikimedia Commons. File:H-R diagram.svg,
by user Rursus
Chapter 6

Chemistry
6.1 Periodic Table
6.1.1 Trends

Right Decreasing radius, increasing electronegativity

Down Increasing radius, decreasing electronegativity

6.1.2 Families

Alkali Metals 1A very reactive, form strong bases with hydroxides, may catch
on re when exposed to water

Alkaline Earth Metals 2A also form strong bases if they dissolve, many will
precipitate easily

Transition Metals Various interesting properties due to partially lled shells

and other phenomena

Halogens Also tend to be fairly reactive, almost all diatomic

Noble Gases Almost entirely non-reactive due to full electron shells

41
42 CHAPTER 6. CHEMISTRY
6.1. PERIODIC TABLE 43
44 CHAPTER 6. CHEMISTRY

6.2 e−and VSEPR 1

6.2.1 Quantum Numbers

Principle Quantum Number n - shell number (1,2,3,...)

Angular Momentum Quantum Number l - shape (0,1,2,...) l ≤n−1

Magnetic Quantum Number ml - orientation (...,-1,0,1,...) |ml | ≤ |l|

Spin Quantum Number ms - spin ± 12

6.2.2 Molecular Geometry

Bonds Lone Pairs Hybridization Shape Example

2 0 sp linear

2 0 sp linear

3 0 sp2 trigonal
planar

2 1 sp2 bent

4 0 sp3 tetrahedral

1 Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion

6.2. E− AND VSEPR 45

Bonds Lone Pairs Hybridization Shape Example

3 1 sp3 trigonal
pyramidal

2 2 sp3 bent

5 0 sp3 d triangular
bipyramidal

4 1 sp3 d see-saw

3 2 sp3 d T-shaped

2 3 sp3 d linear

6 0 sp3 d2 octahedral
46 CHAPTER 6. CHEMISTRY

Bonds Lone Pairs Hybridization Shape Example

5 1 sp3 d2 square
pyramidal

4 2 sp3 d2 square
planar

6.3 Energy
6.3.1 Energy Change in Physical Transformations

Specic Heat When heating a substance:

q = mc∆T
J
Where c is the specic heat, usually in
gK or, and q is the energy required

Phase Changes When the substance goes through a phase change:

q = m∆Hchange

Where change is substituted for either fusion or vaporization depending on

the phase change. Remember: Freezing and condensing are exothermic,
while melting and boiling are endothermic.

6.3.2 Enthalpy

Enthalpy ∆H The amount of energy added to a system

Hess's Law Enthalpies are additive

∆H ◦ = ∆HP◦ roducts − ◦
P P
Corollary ∆HReactants

Sign Positive ∆H is endothermic, negative ∆H is exothermic

6.3.3 Entropy

Entropy ∆S is a measure of disorder in a system

Hierarchy Generally, gases have more entropy than liquids, liquids have more
than solids, solutions have more than solids, and 2 mol of a substance has
more entropy than 1 mol.
6.4. GASES 47

6.3.4 Gibbs Free Energy

∆G◦ = ∆H ◦ − T ∆S ◦
∆G◦ ◦
= −nF Ecell

• Negative means spontaneous

• Positive means non-spontaneous

6.4 Gases
6.4.1 Ideal Gas Law

P V = nRT

Where P is pressure, V is volume, n is the number of moles, T is the tem-

perature, and R is the gas constant below
R Units
L·atm
.0821
mol·K
J
8.314
mol·K
L·torr
62.364
mol·K
R can also be found by using standard conditions and using the alternate
form of the equation

P1 V1 P2 V 2
=
n1 T1 n2 T2

• Pressure is equal to 1 atm = 760 torr = 101.3 kPa

22.4 3
• When 22.4 L (
1000 m )

• Contains 1 mol of gas

• At 273 K

6.4.2 Partial Pressures

PT OT = Pa + Pb + ...
moles of a
Pa = PT OT
moles T OT
48 CHAPTER 6. CHEMISTRY

6.5 Solutions
6.5.1 Ions

1+ 1A Metals
+
Ag
+
NH4 (Ammonium)

2+ 2A Metals
2+
Pb
2+
Sn

3+
3+ Al
3+
B
3+
Fe

4+
4+ Sn
4+
Pb

1- Halogens
−
C2 H3 O2 (Acetate)
−
HCO3 (Bicarbonate)
−
HSO4 (Bisulfate)
− −
ClO3 , ClO4 (Chlorate, Perchlorate)
−
CN (Cyanide)
−
OH (Hydroxide)
−
NO3 (Nitrate)
MnO4 (Permanganate)
−
SCN (Thiocyanate)

2- O group
2−
CO3 (Carbonate)
2−
CrO4 (Chromate)
2−
Cr2 O7 (Dichromate)
2−
C2 O4 (Oxalate)
2−
O2 (Peroxide)
2−
SO4 (Sulphate)
2−
SO3 (Sulphite)
2−
S2 O3 (Thiosulphate)

3- N group
3−
PO4 (Phosphate)
6.6. EQUILIBRIA 49

6.5.2 Solubility Rules

Salts Soluble? Exceptions

−
Nitrates NO3 Y N/A
−
Acetates C2 H3 O2 Y N/A
−
Chlorates ClO3 Y N/A
Alkali Metals Y N/A
2− + 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+
Sulphates SO4 Y Ag , Pb , Ba , Ca , Hg , Hg2 , Sr
−
Bromides Br
− + 2+ 2+ 2+
Chlorides Cl Y Ag , Hg , Hg2 , Pb
−
Iodides I
2−
Chromates CrO4
2− + 2+ 2+
Dichromates Cr2 O7 Y Ag , Ba , Pb
− 2+ 2+ 2+
Hydroxides OH N Alkali Metals, Moderate: Ba , Ca , Sr
2−
Oxides O
Carbonates N Alkali Metals
Phosphates
Sulphides N Alkali Metals, Ammonium Sulphide, BaS,CaS,
MgS, SrS

6.6 Equilibria
Q
a b
[A] [B]
Q= c d
[C] [D]
For the reaction cC + dD → aA + bB

K K is the same as Q except it is only dened when the process is at equilibrium

a b
Rate Law Determined experimentally in the form R = k [A] [B]

Zero Order Reactions

[A] t − [A]0 = −kt

[A] 0
t 12 =
2k

First Order Reactions

 
[A]t
ln = −kt
[A]0
ln 2
t 12 =
k
50 CHAPTER 6. CHEMISTRY

Second Order Reactions

1 1
− = kt
[A]0 [A]t
1
t 12 =
2k [A]0

6.7 RedOx
Reduction lose charge, gain e−

Oxidation gain charge, lose e−

Standard Reduction Potentials in H2 O solutions at 25◦ C

Reactant → Product V Reactant → Product V

− − 2+
F2(g) + 2e → 2F 2.87 Ni + 2e− → Ni(s) -.25
3+ 2+ 2+
Co + e− → Co 1.82 Co + 2e− → Co(s) -.28
3+ +
Au + 3e− → Au(s) 1.50 Ti + e
−
→ Ti(s) -.34
Cl2(g) + 2e
−
→ 2Cl− 1.36 Cd
2+
+ 2e− → Cd(s) -.40
+ − 2+ +
O2(g) + 4H + 4e → 2H2 O 1.23 Cr + e− → Cr -.41
Br2(`) + 2e
−
→ 2Br− 1.07 Fe
2+
+ 2e− → Fe(s) -.44
2Hg2+ + 2e− → 2Hg2+
2 .92 Cr
3+
+ 3e− → Cr(s) -.74
2+ 2+
Hg + 2e− → Hg(`) .85 Zn + 2e− → Zn(s) -.76
+ − 2+
Ag + e → Ag(s) .80 Mn + 2e− → Mn(s) -1.18
2+ 3+
Hg + 2e− → 2Hg(`) .79 Al + 3e− → Al(s) -1.66
3+ 2+ 2+
Fe + e− → Fe .77 Be + 2e− → Be(s) -1.70
I2(s) + 2e
−
→ 2I− .53 Mg
2+
+ 2e− → Mg(s) -2.37
+ − + −
Cu + e → Cu(s) .52 Na + e → Na(s) -2.71
2+ 2+
Cu + 2e− → Cu(s) .34 Ca + 2e− → Ca(s) -2.87
4+ 2+ 2+
Sn + 2e− → Sn .15 Sr + 2e− → Sr(s) -2.89
2+ + 2+
Cu + e− → Cu .15 Ba + 2e− → Ba(s) -2.90
+ − + −
S(s) + 2H + 2e → H2 S .14 Rb + e → Rb(s) -2.92
+ − + −
2H + 2e → H2(g) 0 K +e → K(s) -2.92
2+ +
Pb + 2e− → Pb(s) -.13 Cs + e
−
→ Cs(s) -2.92
2+ +
Sn + 2e− → Sn(s) -.14 Li + e
−
→ Li(s) -3.05

Cell Potential

◦ ◦ ◦
Ecell = Ered + Eox
◦ RT
Ecell = Ecell − ln Q
nF
◦ .0592
Ecell = Ecell − log Q @25◦
n
6.8. ACIDS AND BASES 51

Galvanic Cell Spontaneous Reaction →Current

Anode Oxidation +, Cathode Reduction -

Electrolytic Cell Current → Non-Spontaneous Reaction

Anode Oxidation -, Cathode Reduction +

6.8 Acids and Bases

−
Amphoteric Able to act as an acid or a base ex. HCO3

+ −
   
Arrhenius Acid - increases H | Base - increases OH

Bronsted-Lowry Acid - proton donor | Base - proton acceptor

Lewis Acid - electron pair acceptor | Base - electron pair donor

6.8.1 Acids

6.8.1.1 Strong Acids

• HCl

• HI

• HBr

• HNO3

• H2 SO4

• HClO4

6.8.2 Bases

6.8.2.1 Strong Bases

• Hydroxides of Alkali Metals

• Hydroxides of Alkaline Earth Metals that are soluble

6.8.3 Salts of Acids and Bases

• Weak acid salts are basic

• Weak base salts are acidic

• Ka Kb = Kw
52 CHAPTER 6. CHEMISTRY

6.9 Identifying Chemicals

6.9.1 Solution Colors

Cu+ Green

Cu2+ Blue

Co2+ Pink

Ni2+ Green

Mn2+ Pink

Pb3+ Blue-Green

V2+ Violet

V3+ Blue-Green

7+
MnO1−
4 Purple (Mn )

CrO2−
4 Yellow

Cr2 O2−
7 Orange

2+
Cu (NH3 )4 Dark Blue

FeSCN2+ Red-Brown

CoCl2−
4 Blue

3+
Ti (H2 O)6 Purple

Al 3+ , Li + , K + , Na + ,Mg 2+ , Ca 2+ , Ba 2+ , Sr 2+ , Zn + are colorless in aqueous

solution and most of their salts are white.

6.9.2 Flame Test

+
Li Deep red

Na+ Yellow

K+ Violet

Ca2+ Orange-red

Sr2+ Red

Ba2+ Green

Cu2+ Blue-green
6.10. MISC 53

6.9.3 Misc

F2 Pale-yellow gas

Cl2 Green-yellow gas

Br2 Red-brown liquid

I2 Dark violet vapor

S8 Yellow solid with great odor

PbI2 Yellow precipitate

6.10 Misc
6.10.1 Properties of Water
◦ g
Density(4 C) 1 mL

Heat of Fusion 333 gJ =80 cal

g

Heat of Vaporization 2260 gJ =539 cal

g

Specic Heat(15◦ C) J
4.186 g·K = 1
cal
g·K

6.10.2 Standard State Conditions

• Gases at 1atm
• Liquids are pure

• Solids are pure

• Solutions are 1M
• 298K

6.10.3 Phase Changes I always forget

Deposition Gas to solid

Sublimation Solid to gas

54 CHAPTER 6. CHEMISTRY
Chapter 7

Earth
7.1 Basic Information
Mass 5.98 × 1024 kg
Average Radius 6.38 × 103 km
Age 4.54 × 109 ± 1%

7.2 Condensed Geologic Time

Supereon Eon Era Period Beginning

Precambrian Hadean 4.54 Ga Jan 1

Archean 3.8 Ga Mar 2
Proterozoic Paleoproterozoic 2.5 Ga Jun 13
Mesoproterozoic 1.6 Ga Aug 25
Neoproterozoic 1.0 Ga Oct 12
Phanerozoic Paleozoic Cambrian 542 Ma Nov 18
Ordovician 488 Ma Nov 22
Silurian 443 Ma Nov 26 12
Devonian 416 Ma Nov 28
Carboniferous 359 Ma Dec 3
Permian 299 Ma Dec 8
Mesozoic Triassic 251 Ma Dec 11
Jurassic 199 Ma Dec 16
Cretaceous 145 Ma Dec 20
Cenozoic Paleogene 65.5 Ma Dec 26
Neogene 23.0 Ma Dec 30
Quaternary 2.59 Ma Dec 31, 7pm

1 The Paleogene and the Neogene are the ocially recognized periods that occupy the space
which is sometimes referred to as the Tertiary.
2 Dates in the table are Geodates see denition on next page.

55
56 CHAPTER 7. EARTH

7.3 History
Geoyear Time analogy where the age of the Earth is condensed into a year, all
dates in this section are based on this analogy. Also, units like geoday and
geohour are derived from the analogy. Mixed dates occur in this version
as a result of using dierent sources, all will be standardized in a future
version.

Sparcity This section is not terribly detailed and has been marked for re-
writing, especially the end.

7.3.1 Hadean

Jan 1 - 4.54 Ga Formation of the Earth and other planets from the accretion
disk around the Sun. Earth's rst atmosphere, which was mostly H and
He was formed in the process.

Jan 3 Formation of the Moon likely by a collision of the Earth with a Mars
sized object that formed in a similar orbit. A glancing blow would have
thrown large amounts of debris into orbit around the Earth, which quickly
coalesced into the Moon, which originally was much closer. This impact
blows away the rst atmosphere, tilts the Earth signicantly, and speeds
the rotation of the Earth to produce days of approximately six hours.

Jan 13 Formation of the oldest discovered mineral, a zircon crystal found

within a sedimentary rock in Western Australia. Shows the very beginning
of continental formation.

Feb 6 - Mar 2 Late Heavy Bombardment. Approximately the same time the
Earth's second atmosphere forms by volcanic outgassing, the second at-
mosphere was a reducing atmosphere containing mostly H2 O, CO2 , SO2 ,
CO, S2 , Cl2 , N2 , H2 .

Crust Though a crust is believed to have existed before the Late Heavy
Bombardment, believed to have been basaltic in composition due
to a lack of dierentiation that had occured, a combination of the
increased rate of tectonic recycling and the Late Heavy bombardment
have melted the rocks that made up the continents that existed.

Feb 10 Formation of the oldest known rock formation, the Acasta Gneiss in
the Northwest Territories of Canada.

Mid-Feb Permanent oceans form

7.3.2 Archean

Mar 2 Beginning of life, by isotopic evidence.

Mar 26 Magnetic Field of Earth is established.

7.3. HISTORY 57

Mar 29 Oldest fossils, the apex fauna, were microorganisms of two distinct
types, found in black churt pebbles found in a conglomerate in Western
Australia.

Apr 1 Stromatolites are formed, denitive proof of photosynthesizing life, though

it almost certainly existed prior to this.

Apr 11-27 Vaalbara, the rst supercontinent, exists.

7.3.3 Proterozoic

Jun 22 Evidence for the oxygenation of the atmosphere. This creates the third
atmosphere. This was much delayed from the original evolution of photo-
synthetic organisms due mostly because the rst O2 was used to oxidize
the reduced compounds that were common in the world's oceans, this
created banded Fe formations

Jun 28 O3 layer is created from O2 and UV radiation in the upper atmosphere.

2.3 Ga The Earth's rst ice age, possibly severe enough for a snowball earth.

Jul 16 Eukaryotes appear.

1 Ga to 800 Ma Rodinia

Sept 25 Sexual reproduction occurs for the rst time.

710 Ma Snowball Earth

640 Ma Snowball Earth

Nov 15 Ediacardian biota, the rst large, complex, multicelluar organisms.

These include the rst shelled organisms, the rst muscular cells, and the
the rst neural cells. the taxonomy of most of these creatures is unclear.

7.3.4 Phanerozoic

7.3.4.1 Paleozoic

Cambrian Begins with an extinction event 542 Mya which takes with it most
of the Ediacardian biota. During this period a disproportionate number
of läggerstatten formed, allowing for an anachronistically good view of the
fauna.

Nov 18-20 Cambrian explosion, almost all extant phyla, as well as some
extinct phyla, are created.
First vertebrates with true bones, the jawless shes
Chordates, arthropods, echinoderms, mollusks, brachiopods, etc.
Cephalopods and chitons
58 CHAPTER 7. EARTH

Ordovician Begins with a mass extinction which wipes out some of the new
groups and slims most others.

Nov 24 First land plants.

Jawed Fishes

Nov 26 First land arthropods.

Ice Age

Silurian The end of the Ordovician was marked by a combination of extinctions

which wiped out many brachiopods, corals, and other marine species. It
is thought that these species died due to the cooling of the oceans.

Nov 27 Vascular plants

Nov 28 Ray-nned shes, trigonotarbid arachnids, land scorpions.

Devonian

Nov 29 First toothed shes.

Nov 29 First lichens.

Tetrapods and amphibians

Carboniferous

Pangea

Permian

7.3.4.2 Mesozoic

Triassic Most devastating extinction event to date. 95% of species die out

Dinosaurs

Jurassic An extinction event that spared most of the dinosaurs, helping to

make them dominant.

Very rst mammals

180 Ma Pangea

Birds The rst bird like dinosaurs split here, with archaeopteryx at 150
Ma

Cretaceous

Angiosperms
7.3. HISTORY 59

7.3.4.3 Cenozoic

Paleogene K-T extinction involving a meteor that impacted the Yucatan pen-
ninsula 65 Ma.

Neogene

6 Ma Ancestor to all apes and monkeys

4 Ma Bipedal apes

Quaternary

2 Ma Increased brain size, rst Homo

790,000 a Fire

200,000 a Homo sapiens

10,000 a Agriculture and civilization

60 CHAPTER 7. EARTH
Chapter 8

Biology
8.1 Cells
Discovered in 1665 by Robert Hooke, the cell is the basic unit of life.

8.1.1 Cell Theory

• All organisms are made of one or more cells

• Cells are the basicunit of life

• All cells come from other cells

8.1.2 Prokaryotic

Found in bacteria and archea, generally on the order of 10−6 to 10−5 m

Ubiquitous Features

Plasma membrane A membrane which separates the inside of the cell

from the outside, a lipid bilayer with various proteins and other struc-
tures allowing for special transport and other functions.

Nucleoid A non-membrane bound area where the DNA of a prokaryotic

cell is stored.

Ribosomes Protein synthesis organelles which use RNA to do their work.

Cytoplasm The uid in a cell.

Common Features

Flagella Motorized tails which allow for cellular transportation.

Cell Wall A rigid wall outside the membrane, which supports and gives
shape to the cell

Capsule External to the cell wall, a large layer which further protects a
cell

61
62 CHAPTER 8. BIOLOGY

8.1.3 Eukaryotic

Found in plants, animals, and fungi, generally 10−5 to 10−4 m in size.

8.1.3.1 Organelles

Unlike prokaryotes, eukaryotes have membrane-bound internal structures called

organelles, as described below

Nucleus In a eukaryotic cell, the nucleus holds the DNA and has a membrane
which regulates the passage of RNA and proteins to and from the nucleus,
and which has ribosomes on the outside.

Vacuoles Storage unit of a cell, holds anything that could be harmful or must
be saved for later. In plants there is usually a large central vacuole, while in
animals, if there are vacuoles, they tend to be smaller and more numerous
mostly either expelling or engulng and transporting various units during
metabolism.

Vesicles

Endoplasmic Reticulum The ER comes in two types, rough and smooth:

Rough ER The rough ER has ribosomes attached to the outside of its

membrane, and sythesizes proteins, and performs other function re-
lated to the synthesis of protiens.

Smooth ER The smooth ER synthesizes lipids, and helps in the metabolism

of carbohydrates, it also performs other key functions

Golgi Body The Golgi apparatus makes nal modications, sorts and trans-
ports the macromolecules synthesized within a cell.

Mitochondria The energy factories of cells, perform aerobic respiration and

contain their own DNA and ribosomes, likely evolved from prokaryotes
that formed an accidental symbiosis.

Chloroplasts The photosynthetic organelles in plants, likely formed in a man-

ner similar to the mitochondria.

Cytoskeleton Connects and holds up the structure of the cell, also contains
cilia and agella.

Cell Wall Plants have a cell wall, to give structure and protection to the plants.
8.2. TAXONOMY 63

8.2 Taxonomy
8.2.1 Ranks

• Domain - Archea, Bacteria, Eukarya

• Kingdom - Archeabacteria; Eubacteria; Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia

• Phylum - ex. Chordata

• Class - ex. Mammalia

• Order - ex. Primates

• Family - ex. Hominidae

• Genus - ex. Homo

• Species - ex. H. sapiens

64 CHAPTER 8. BIOLOGY
Appendix A

Derivations
A.1 Math
A.1.1 Geometry

Law Of Cosines Given a triangle where C = (0, 0) , B = (a, 0) , A = (b cos θ, b sin θ)

such as the triangle in Figure A.1
The distance formula gives:

q
2 2
c = (a − b cos θ) + (b sin θ − 0)
2 2
c2 = (a − b cos θ) + (b sin θ − 0)
c2 = a2 − 2ab cos θ + b2 cos2 θ + b2 sin2 θ
c2 a2 + b2 sin2 θ + cos2 θ − 2ab cos θ


=
2
c = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos θ

Figure A.1: Generic triangle.

65
66 APPENDIX A. DERIVATIONS

Law of Sines Given a triangle with altitude A drawn, having length h as in

Figure A.1

h = b sin C = c sin B
c b
=
sin C sin B

Heron's Formula Starting with the Law of Cosines, and a generic triangle
such as in Figure A.1

c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos C
a2 + b2 − c2
cos C =
2ab
p
sin C = 1 − cos2 C (A.1)
s
2 2
(2ab) (a2 + b2 − c2 )
sin C = 2 − 2
(2ab) (2ab)
q
2
4a2 b2 − (a2 + b2 − c2 )
sin C =
2ab
1
A = ab sin C
2 q
2
1 4a2 b2 − (a2 + b2 − c2 )
= ab
2q 2ab
1 2
= 4a2 b2 − (a2 + b2 − c2 ) (A.2)
4
1 p
= (2ab + a2 + b2 − c2 ) (2ab − a2 − b2 + c2 ) (A.3)
4r
1 
2
 
2

= (a + b) − c2 c2 − (a − b) (A.4)
4
1p
= ((a + b) + c) ((a + b) − c) (c + (a − b)) (c − (a − b))
4
r
1 1 1 1
= ((a + b) + c) ((a + b) − c) (c + (a − b)) (c − (a − b))
2 2 2 2
p
A = s (s − c) (s − b) (s − a)

(A.1):Rearrangement of the Pythagorean Identity

(A.2):Factor as the dierence of squares
2
(A.3):(a + b) = a2 + 2ab + b2
(A.4):Factor as the dierence of squares
A.1. MATH 67

Figure A.2: A generic cone

Volume of a Cone Given a cone, such as in Figure A.2, the volume of the
cone is the integral of the areas of horizontal disks of thickness dx.
The radius of these disks varies linearly between r at the base (x = 0) and
0 at the top (x = h). This is modeled by the equation r (x) = r h−x
h
2
Since the area of a circle is given by A = πr the area function is

2
(h − x)
= πr2
A (x)
h2
ˆ h 2
(h − x)
∴ V (x) = πr2 dx
0 h2
ˆ
πr2 h 2
= (h − x) dx
h2 0
ˆ
πr2 h 2
h − 2hx + x2 dx


= 2
h 0
2
  h
πr 2 2 1 3 
= h x − hx + x
h2 3 
0
πr2
  
3 3 1 3
= h − h + h − 0
h2 3
2 3
πr h
=
h2 3
1 2
V (x) = πr h
3
68 APPENDIX A. DERIVATIONS

Volume of a Sphere Like the volume of a cone above, the volume of a sphere
can be found by integrating the areas of innitesimally thick disks. This
√
time r (x) = r 2 − x2 .

π r 2 − x2


A(x) =
ˆ r
r2 − x2 dx


V (x) = π
−r
ˆ r ˆ r
2
= π r dx − π x2 dx
−r −r
  r
3 1 3 
= 2πr − π x 
3 −r
 
1 3 1 3
= 2πr3 − π r + r
3 3
2
= 2πr3 − πr3
3
4 3
V (x) = πr
3

Surface Area of a Sphere The surface area of a sphere is the derivative of its
volume because the volume can be thought of as the sum of the volumes
of innitesimally thick spherical shells, concentric with the sphere with
radii from 0 to r. ∴
ˆ r
V = AS (r) dr
ˆ0 r
4 3
πr = AS (r) dr
3 0
4πr2 = AS (r)

A.1.2 Algebra

Base Change Formula

loga x = y
ay = x
y ln a = ln x
ln a
y =
ln x
ln a
loga x =
ln x
A.1. MATH 69

A.1.3 Trigonometry

Angle Sum Identities Given a unit circle such as the one is Figure A.3, where
point P (1, 0), Q has the arc length, and therefore the
has the coordinates
central angle, A, R A + B , and S has the central angle
has a central angle
−B . This means that the measures of P R and QS are equal. So using the
distance formula the sum and dierence identity for the cosine function
can be derived, as seen in Algorithm A.1. Once this has been done the
other identities can be derived in the following manner:
π 
sin (A ± B) = − (A ± B)
cos
2 π  
= cos −A ∓B
 π2  π 
= cos − A cos (B) ± sin − A sin (B)
2 2
sin (A ± B) = sin (A) cos (B) ± cos (A) sin (B)

and

sin (A ± B)
tan (A ± B) =
cos (A ± B)
sin (A) cos (B) ± cos (A) sin (B)
=
cos (A) cos (B) ∓ sin (A) sin (B)
1
sin (A) cos (B) ± cos (A) sin (B) cos(A) cos(B)
= × 1
cos (A) cos (B) ∓ sin (A) sin (B) cos(A) cos(B)
sin(A) cos(B) cos(A) sin(B)
cos(A) cos(B) ± cos(A) cos(B)
= cos(A) cos(B) sin(A) sin(B)
cos(A) cos(B) ∓ cos(A) cos(B)
tan (A) ± tan (B)
=
1 ∓ tan (A) tan (B)

Half-Angle Identities
   
θ 2 2 θ
cos (θ) = cos − sin
2 2
   
θ θ
cos (θ) = cos2 + cos2 −1
2 2
 
θ
cos (θ) = 2 cos2 −1
2
 
cos (θ) + 1 θ
= cos2
2 2
r  
cos (θ) + 1 θ
± = cos
2 2
DERIVATIONS
APPENDIX A.

Algorithm A.1 Proof of the sum and dierence identity for cosines
q q
2 2 2 2
(cos (A + B) − 1) + (sin (A + B) − 0) = (cos (A) − cos (−B)) + (sin (A) − sin (−B))
cos2 (A + B) − 2 cos (A + B) + 1 + sin2 (A + B) = cos2 (A) − 2 cos (A) cos (−B) + cos2 (−B) + sin2 (A) − 2 sin (A) sin (−B) + sin2 (−B)
2 − 2 cos (A + B) = 2 − 2 cos (A) cos (−B) − 2 sin (A) sin (−B)
cos (A + B) = cos (A) cos (−B) + sin (A) sin (−B)
cos (A + B) = cos (A) cos (B) − sin (A) sin (B)
cos (A − B) = cos (A + (−B))
cos (A − B) = cos (A) cos (−B) − sin (A) sin (−B)
cos (A − B) = cos (A) cos (B) + sin (A) sin (B)
cos (A ± B) = cos (A) cos (B) ∓ sin (A) sin (B)
70
A.1. MATH 71

Figure A.3: Unit circle used in the proof of the sum of cosines identity.

   
2 θ 2 θ
cos (θ) = cos − sin
2 2
 
θ
cos (θ) = 1 − 2 sin2
2
 
cos (θ) − 1 θ
= − sin2
2 2
 
1 − cos (θ) θ
= sin2
2 2
r  
1 − cos (θ) θ
± = sin
2 2

θ
 

θ sin 2
tan = θ


2 cos 2
q
1−cos(θ)
 
θ ± 2
tan = q
2 cos(θ)+1
± 2
  s
θ 1 − cos (θ)
tan = ±
2 1 + cos (θ)
72 APPENDIX A. DERIVATIONS

A.1.4 Calculus

Derivatives

Power Rule This can be proven from the denition of a derivative by

using the binomial rule where the expansion occurs, or much more
succinctly using logarithmic dierentiation, as follows.

y = xn
ln y = n ln x
1 dy n
=
y dx x
dy
= nxn−1
dx

Product Rule

lim f (x+h)−f
h
(x)
h→0

lim u(x+h)v(x+h)−u(x)v(x)
h
h→0

lim u(x+h)v(x+h)−u(x+h)v(x)+u(x+h)v(x)−u(x)v(x)
h
h→0

lim u(x+h)(v(x+h)−v(x))+v(x)(u(x+h)−u(x))
h
h→0

lim u (x + h) v(x+h)−v(x)
h + lim v (x) u(x+h)−u(x)
h
h→0 h→0

dv
u dx + v du
dx

Quotient Rule

u(x+h) u(x)
v(x+h)
− v(x)
lim h
h→0

u(x+h)v(x)−u(x)v(x+h)
v(x)v(x+h)
lim h
h→0

lim u(x+h)v(x)−u(x)v(x)+u(x)v(x)−u(x)v(x+h)
hv(x)v(x+h)
h→0

lim v(x)(u(x+h)−u(x))−u(x)(v(x+h)v(x))
hv(x)v(x+h)
h→0

u(x+h)−u(x) v(x+h)−v(x)
v(x) −u(x)
lim h
v(x)v(x+h)
h
h→0

v(x)u (x)−u(x)v 0 (x)

0

v 2 (x)
A.1. MATH 73

ax and ex en

y = ax
ln y = x ln a
1 dy
= ln a
y dx
dy
= ax ln a
dx
ln e = 1 so the derivative of ex is itself

loga u and ln u

y = ln u
y
e = u
dy
y du
e =
dx dx
dy 1 du
=
dx ey dx
dy 1 du
=
dx eln u dx
dy 1 du
=
dx u dx

y = loga u
y
a = u
y ln a = ln u
dy 1 du
ln a =
dx u dx
dy 1 du
=
dx u ln a dx

Trigonometric Functions

sin x

lim sin(x+h)−sin(x)
h
h→0

lim sin(x) cos(h)+cos(x)

h
sin(h)−sin(x)
h→0

lim sin(x)(cos(h)−1)+cos(x)
h
sin(h)
h→0

lim sin (x) lim cos(h)−1

h + lim cos (x) lim sin(h)
h
h→0 h→0 h→0 h→0

sin (x) · 0 + cos (x) · 1

cos (x)
74 APPENDIX A. DERIVATIONS

cos x

lim cos(x+h)−cos(x)
h
h→0

lim cos(x) cos(h)−sin(x)

h
sin(h)−cos(x)
h→0

lim cos(x)(cos(h)−1)−sin(x)
h
sin(h)
h→0

lim cos (x) lim cos(h)−1

h − lim sin (x) lim sin(h)
h
h→0 h→0 h→0 h→0

cos (x) · 0 − sin (x) · 1

− sin (x)

tan x

sin (x)
tan (x) =
cos (x)
cos (x) sin0 (x) − sin (x) cos0 (x)
tan0 (x) =
cos2 (x)
cos (x) cos (x) + sin (x) sin (x)
tan0 (x) =
cos2 (x)
1
tan0 (x) =
cos2 (x)
tan0 (x) = sec2 (x)

csc x

1
csc (x) =
sin (x)
sin (x) · 0 − 1 · cos (x)
csc0 (x) =
sin2 (x)
csc0 (x) = − cot (x) csc (x)

sec x

1
sec (x) =
cos (x)
cos (x) · 0 + 1 · sin (x)
sec0 (x) =
cos2 (x)
sec0 (x) = tan x sec x
A.1. MATH 75

cot x
cos (x)
cot (x) =
sin (x)
sin (x) cos0 (x) − cos (x) sin0 (x)
cot0 (x) =
sin2 (x)
− sin2 (x) − cos2 (x)
cot0 (x) =
sin2 (x)
−1
cot0 (x) =
sin2 (x)
cot0 (x) = − csc2 (x)

Inverse Trigonometric Functions All if these follow the same pattern,

where only the derivative and the reference triangle dier. One ex-
ample should therefore suce.

sin−1

sin−1 (x) = y
sin (y) = x
dy
cos (y) = 1
dx
dy
= sec (y)
dx
By the reference triangle sec (y) is shown to equal:

dy 1
= √
dx 1 − x2
76 APPENDIX A. DERIVATIONS
Appendix B

Stella is Always Right

B.1 Obviously

77