Geological Field Report 2015

PREPARED BY:
NIRAJAN KHANAL: 2071/BCE/249
NIRMAL CHAULAGAIN: 2071/BCE/250
NISHCHAL KHANAL: 2071/BCE/251
OM KMAR SHRESTHA: 2071/BCE/252
PAWAN KUMAR MANDAL: 2071/BCE/253
PRABHAT BARAL: 2071/BCE/254

ENGINEERING
GEOLOGY 2
MALEKHU REPORT (SAMPLE)

THAPATHALI CAMPUS.

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 CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION: ...................................................................................................................... 6
1.2 OBJECTIVES: ............................................................................................................................................ 6
1.3 LOCATION OF STUDY AREA ..................................................................................................................... 6
1.4 METHODOLOGY ...................................................................................................................................... 7
1.5 INSTRUMENTS USED ............................................................................................................................... 7
a. Hammer: ............................................................................................................................................... 7
b. Brunton Compass:................................................................................................................................. 8
2. MEASUREMENT OF ATTITUDE OF PLANAR FEATURE OF ROCK
2.1 ROCK OUTCROPS AND EXPOSURES ........................................................................................................ 9
2.2 PLANNER FEATURES AT THE ROCK OUTCROPS....................................................................................... 9
a. Bedding Plane: ...................................................................................................................................... 9
b. Foliation Plane: ................................................................................................................................... 10
c. Joints: .................................................................................................................................................. 10
2.3 ATTITUDES OF THE GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES .................................................................................... 10
a. Dip Direction: ...................................................................................................................................... 10
b .Dip Amount: ........................................................................................................................................ 11
2.4 TYPES OF GEOLOGICAL COMPASS ........................................................................................................ 11
2.5 HANDLING OF GEOLOGICAL COMPASS ................................................................................................ 11
Procedures to handle the compass: ....................................................................................................... 11
Measurement of the Bearing (Dip Direction): ........................................................................................ 11
Measurement of Inclination (Dip Angle): ............................................................................................... 12
2.6 MEASUREMENT OF THE ATTITUDES PLANAR FEATURES FROM THE ROCK OUTCROP USING
GEOLOGICAL COMPASS .............................................................................................................................. 12
3. IDENTIFICATION OF THE ROCKS IN THE FIELD

3.1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................... 14

3.2 IGNEOUS ROCKS .................................................................................................................................... 14
Identification of Igneous Rocks in Field: ................................................................................................. 14
Xenoliths ............................................................................................................................................. 14
3.3 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS ........................................................................................................................... 15
Identification of Sedimentary Rock in Field: ........................................................................................... 15
3.4 METAMORPHIC ROCKS ......................................................................................................................... 15

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 Metamorphism: ...................................................................................................................................... 15
Types of Metamorphism: ........................................................................................................................ 15
Identification of Metamorphic Rocks in Field: ........................................................................................ 16
3.5 IDENTIFICATION OF ROCKS AT THE FIELD LOCATIONS ......................................................................... 16
Location 1: Sample 1 ............................................................................................................................... 19
Location 1: Sample 2 ............................................................................................................................... 17
Location 2: Sample 3 ............................................................................................................................... 18
Location 3: Sample 4 ............................................................................................................................... 19
Location 4: Sample 5 ............................................................................................................................... 21
Location 5: Sample 6 ............................................................................................................................... 22
3.6 DISCUSSION........................................................................................................................................... 23
4. GEOLOGY OF THE STUDY AREA

4.1 GEOLOGY OF THE MALEKHU AREA ....................................................................................................... 23

Topography: ............................................................................................................................................ 23
Climate: ................................................................................................................................................... 24
4.2 RECOGNITION OF THE GEOLOGICAL UNITS IN THE FIELD .................................................................... 24
Major Rock Types:................................................................................................................................... 25
4.3 ENGINEERING GEOLOGICAL COMMENTS ............................................................................................. 25
5. STUDY OF GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES IN THE FIELD

5.1 FOLD ...................................................................................................................................................... 26

Recognition of folds in the field: ............................................................................................................. 26
5.2 FAULT .................................................................................................................................................... 27
Recognition of faults in the field: ............................................................................................................ 27
Structure formed during faulting: ........................................................................................................... 27
5.3 JOINT ..................................................................................................................................................... 28
Field Identification of Joints: ................................................................................................................... 28
5.4 THRUST.................................................................................................................................................. 28
5.5 UNCONFORMITY ................................................................................................................................... 28
5.6 VEINS ..................................................................................................................................................... 29
6. STUDY OF RIVER CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY
6.1 TYPES OF RIVER CHANNEL .................................................................................................................... 29
6.1.1 Straight River:................................................................................................................................. 29
6.1.2 Meandering River: ......................................................................................................................... 29

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 6.1.3 Braided River: ................................................................................................................................. 30
Activities of River: ................................................................................................................................... 30
6.2 FACTORS AFFECTING THE RIVER CHANNEL .......................................................................................... 31
6.2.1 Discharge:....................................................................................................................................... 31
6.2.2 Velocity: ......................................................................................................................................... 31
6.2.3 Energy Level: .................................................................................................................................. 31
6.2.4 Material Property:.......................................................................................................................... 31
6.3 FEATURES DEVELOPED BY THE RIVER CHANNEL .................................................................................. 31
6.3.1 Oxbow Lakes: ................................................................................................................................. 31
6.3.2 Pet Holes: ....................................................................................................................................... 32
6.3.3 River Valleys: .................................................................................................................................. 32
6.3.4 Escarpment: ................................................................................................................................... 32
6.3.5 Fans: ............................................................................................................................................... 32
6.3.6 Delta Deposition: ........................................................................................................................... 32
6.4 RIVER CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY AT THE TRISHULI-THOPAL CONFLUENCE .......................................... 33
Erosion Bank: .......................................................................................................................................... 33
Deposition Bank: ..................................................................................................................................... 33
Channel Bar: ............................................................................................................................................ 33
Flood Plane: ............................................................................................................................................ 33
River Terrace: .......................................................................................................................................... 33
Side Bar or Point Bar: .............................................................................................................................. 34
Island: ...................................................................................................................................................... 34

7. ENGINEERING GEOLOGICAL STUDIES OF THE ROCK

7.1 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY ....................................................................................................................... 34
7.2 IMPORTANCE OF ENGINEERING GEOLOGY IN THE FIELD OF CIVIL ENGINEERING ............................... 35
7.3 ENGINEERING GEOLOGICAL DATA ........................................................................................................ 35
7.4 INTACT ROCK ......................................................................................................................................... 35
Intact rock strength:................................................................................................................................ 35
7.5 ROCK MASS ........................................................................................................................................... 36
7.6 CHARACTERISTICS OF DISCONTINUITIES IN ROCK MASS ...................................................................... 36
Characteristics of discontinuities in the rock mass: ................................................................................ 36
7.6.1 Rock type:....................................................................................................................................... 36

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 7.6.2 Orientation: .................................................................................................................................... 37
7.6.3 Intact Rock Strength:...................................................................................................................... 37
7.6.4 Spacing: .......................................................................................................................................... 37
7.6.5 Aperture: ........................................................................................................................................ 37
7.6.6 Roughness: ..................................................................................................................................... 37
7.6.7 Seepage: ......................................................................................................................................... 38
7.6.8 Infilling Materials: .......................................................................................................................... 38
8. Discussion:………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………38

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1. INRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION:
In accordance to the syllabus of geology I of Bachelor’s in Civil Engineering Part II/I,
the Department of Geology under Institute Of Engineering, Thapathali Campus had
organized a field visit to Malekhu area, 75 km west from Kathmandu. It was two days
trip from 28th to 29th February 2016. During this field visit, we were familiarized with
geological structures with their engineering significance, distribution of different
rocks, soil types, massmovement activities. We were able to relate the theoretical
knowledge obtained in class room to the real world by observing, studying the real
geological structures.

1.2 OBJECTIVES:
The geological field trip was focused about learning the basic geotechnical skills in
civil engineering that included study of river morphology, land slide, petrology with
site investigation. Besides, the major objectives was to teach us the general tactics
regarding Identification of rocks with its physical properties and engineering
properties, determination of various geotechnical parameters, observation of river
channel morphology and many more.
The main objectives of our field visit were: -
 Handling of geological compass for documentation on geological data.
 Measurement of attitude of geological planes (bedding plane, foliation plane,
joint plane and fault plane of rock exposure or rock outcrops).
 Identification of rocks in the field.
 Study of engineering and physical properties of rock.
 Study and identification of geological structures.
 Study of river channel morphology and study of land form developed by
geological works of river/water.

1.3 LOCATION OF STUDY AREA

The study site lies on the Malekhu river banks, which extends from its confluence to
the Trishuli River to about 2.5 Km. upstream. The Site itself is called Malekhu which

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 lies on 71 Km. towards south-west along the Prithvi Highway, in Dhading district,
Central Nepal.
The site was selected due to availability of different rocks, the river morphology,
natural topography in small extent of area and different types of mass movement
along the route. The site was appropriate for achieving all of the above-mentioned
objectives.

The study site is easily accessible from the Kathmandu valley; a three hours bus ride
along the Prithivi Highway from Thankot can easily take us to the site. The study trip
was facilitated by lodging and fooding at the hotels in Malekhu.

1.4 METHODOLOGY
The geological field study of the ascertained area was carried out in the following
ways:
 Field scouting and geological traversing of the site.
 Description of the field topography and rocks.
 Excavation of rock samples from different locations at the site.
 Photographs of the field topography and rocks.
 Sketch of the river topography and rock.

The study team of students were accompanied and guided by our respected teacher
during the field study. Traversing was done along the study site and the rock samples
were observed; the attitude parameters of bedding and joint planes were obtained
by the use of Brunton Compass. The idea obtained was noted and photographs of
remarkable spot were taken. A firm blow of hammer was used to check the strength
and rock types (igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary) were observed.

1.5 INSTRUMENTS USED

a. Hammer:
A hammer was used to test the hardness of rock in the field. It
was performed by striking the tip of hammer and the surface of
the rock whose hardness was to be determined. Hammer scratch
test was also performed wherever applicable. A geological
Geological Hammer

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hammer was used to determine approximate hardness and strength of rocks and
extraction of the sample. It was too used in order to compare the relative size of the
rock in the field.

b. Brunton Compass:
A Brunton Compass was used for the determination of attitude parameters. A
compass works on the simple principle that a freely suspended magnet aligns itself
along the magnetic meridian, when it comes to rest, thus pointing in the north-south
relation. The dip direction and dip amount
of the rock beds are possible to measure by
the use of Brunton Compass. While
measuring dip, not only angle but direction
of dip also should be noted. The sides of the
body of Brunton Compass are placed
Brunton Compass parallel to the rock bedding for which the
attitude is to be determined. To measure
the dip direction, the north of the Brunton Compass was placed in the same direction
of the dip and the bearing pointed by the compass needle was noted, which gives the
dip direction of the rock beds.

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2. MEASUREMENT OF ATTITUDE OF
PLANAR FEATURE OF ROCK
2.1 ROCK OUTCROPS AND EXPOSURES
These are the terminologies used to define the rock mass that is exposed to the
surface that is there is no covering soil in the surface with either herbs, shrubs or any
other natural coverings. Outcrop is a geological term referring to the appearance of
bedrock or superficial deposits exposed at the surface of the Earth. In most places
the bedrock or superficial deposits are covered by a mantle of soil and vegetation
and cannot be seen or examined closely. However in places where the overlying
cover is removed through erosion, the rock may be exposed, or crop out. Such
exposure will happen most frequently in areas where erosion is rapid and exceeds
the weathering rate such as on steep hillsides, river banks, or tectonically active
areas. Bedrock and superficial deposits may also be exposed at the earth's surface
due to human excavations such as quarrying and building of transport routes.

2.2 PLANNER FEATURES AT THE ROCK OUTCROPS

The features preserved in rock, which are responsible to found the plane surface, are
called planner features. Bedding plane generally follows the deposition plane.

a. Bedding Plane:
In geology a bed is the smallest division of a geologic formation or stratigraphic rock
series marked by well-defined divisional planes (bedding planes) separating it from
layers above and below. A bed is the smallest litho-stratigraphic unit, usually ranging
in thickness from a centimeter to several meters and distinguishable from beds
above and below it. Beds can be differentiated in various ways, including rock or
mineral type and particle size. The term is generally applied to sedimentary strata,
but may also be used for volcanic flows or ash layers.

In a quarry, bedding is a term used for a structure occurring in granite and similar
massive rocks that allows them to split in well-defined planes horizontally or parallel
to the land surface.

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b. Foliation Plane:
Foliation is usually formed by the preferred orientation of minerals within a rock.
Foliation is any penetrative planar fabric present in rocks. Foliation is common to
rocks affected by regional metamorphic compression typical of orogenic belts. Rocks
exhibiting foliation include the typical metamorphic rock sequence of slate, phyllite,
schist and gneiss.

Foliation in areas of shearing, and within the plane of thrust faults, can provide
information on the transport direction or sense of movement on the thrust or shear.
Generally, the acute intersection angle shows the direction of transport. Foliations
typically bend or curve into a shear, which provides the same information, if it is of a
scale which can be observed.

c. Joints:
In geology the term joint refers to a fracture in rock where there has been no lateral
movement in the plane of the fracture (up, down or sideways) of one side relative to
the other. This makes it distinct from a fault which is defined as a fracture in rock
where one side slides laterally past to the other. Joints normally have a regular
spacing related to either the mechanical properties of the individual rock or the
thickness of the layer involved. Joints generally occur as sets, with each set consisting
of joints sub-parallel to each other.

Joints form one of the most important types of discontinuity within rock masses,
typically having no residual strength.

2.3 ATTITUDES OF THE GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES

Strike and dip refer to the orientation or attitude of a geologic feature. The strike of
a stratum or planar feature is a line representing the intersection of that feature with
the horizontal. Strike and dip are determined in the field with a compass and a
clinometer or combination known as a Brunton compass.

a. Dip Direction:
It is the direction of the rock strata towards which it dips i.e. inclined and it always
lies at right angle to the strike. Strike is the direction on sloping surface in which a
horizontal line can be drawn.

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b .Dip Amount:
It is the maximum angle of inclination of the rock strata with the horizontal, and is
measured in vertical plane.

2.4 TYPES OF GEOLOGICAL COMPASS

Compass is used for the measurement of dip direction and dip amount of bedding
plane, folds, joints etc. there are five types of compasses in general use.
 Clinometer Compass
 Brunton Compass
 Clar Compass
 Digital Compass

2.5 HANDLING OF GEOLOGICAL COMPASS

The compass used in the field was a Brunton compass.

Procedures to handle the compass:

 The compass should be opened carefully.
 Measurement of the dip direction and dip angle should be done carefully.
 Measurement of the dip direction and dip angle should be done as mention
above.
 The rotation of the compass parts should be done carefully in such a way that
the minimum force is applied.
 While using the compass for the accurate measurements, the compass should
be aligned in the direction of the maximum inclination.

Measurement of the Bearing (Dip Direction):

The face with the mirror should be placed parallel to the planar surface; also align its
maximum inclination. Then folding the other part, i.e. main part, the main, the main
part should be made horizontal by centering the spirit level in it, Then the
reading/bearing shown by the needle should be recorded as the dip direction of the
planar feature.

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Measurement of Inclination (Dip Angle):
The edge of the compass should be aligned in the direction of maximum slope. Then
leveling the bubble in the center of the tube the angle of the structure was seen,
which is the dip angle. The leveling should be dine accurately. If necessary the mirror
can be used. For more accurate data, the reading can be taken at two or more places
in the same planar features.

2.6 MEASUREMENT OF THE ATTITUDES PLANAR FEATURES FROM

THE ROCK OUTCROP USING GEOLOGICAL COMPASS

The measurement of the planner

features was done at Location 1 at the
right bank of Trisuli River about 50m
downstream from Malekhu Suspension
Bridge. The following readings were
taken with the help of the Brunton
Compass. Readings for the dip amount
and dip direction taken in the field:

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 S.N. Dip Direction Dip Amount Attitude Remarks
1. 355 87 355/87
2. 353 87 353/87
3. 352 85 352/85
4. 352 88 352/88
5. 353 88 353/88
6. 349 90 349/90
7. 347 90 347/90
8. 344 90 344/90
9. 350 90 350/90
10. 346 90 346/90
11. 346 88 346/88
12. 348 90 348/90
13. 347 90 347/90
14. 345 88 345/88
15. 351 86 351/86
16. 355 89 355/89
17. 350 90 350/90
18. 344 81 344/81
19. 346 88 346/88
20. 348 86 348/86
21. 354 89 354/89
22. 347 90 347/90
23. 341 90 341/90
24. 353 87 353/87
25. 355 89 355/89
26. 352 86 352/86
27. 355 88 355/88
28. 348 88 348/88
29. 353 87 353/87
30. 355 87 355/87

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3. IDENTIFICATION OF THE ROCKS IN
THE FIELD
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Rocks are the aggregates of minerals, which form the earth's crust. So rocks are
composed of the minerals. According to the modes of origin, all rocks are categorized
into three major groups. They are: -
a. Igneous Rocks or Primary Rocks
b. Sedimentary Rocks or Secondary Rocks
c. Metamorphic Rocks

Rocks are identified in the field by the study of its size of grain or texture, shape of
grain layers, color, composition of minerals etc as they exposed naturally or
artificially on the surface of the earth.

3.2 IGNEOUS ROCKS

These are the rocks formed by the solidification of magma either under neat the
surface or above it. Accordingly they are divided into two groups:
a. Intrusive Bodies: These are formed underneath the surface of the earth.
b. Extrusive Bodies: These are formed due to consolidation of magma above the
surface of the earth. These are also known as volcanic rocks.

On the basis of the depth of formation, intrusive rocks are of two types:
 Plutonic rocks: These are formed at very high depths.
 Hypobysal rocks: These are formed at shallow depths.

Identification of Igneous Rocks in Field:

 Generally igneous rocks are hard, massive, and compact with interlocking
grains.
 Entire absence of fossils.
 Absence of bedding plane.
 Random orientation of minerals, usually containing much Feldspar.

Xenoliths: The relic of the host rock preserved in the igneous rock is called xenoliths.

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3.3 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Sedimentary rocks are formed by the process of sedimentation. Sedimentation is the
process by which the rocks are formed from the deposition and consolidation of
sediments or precipitation of soluble material s in layers. The sediments are formed
from the weathering of old rocks either igneous, metamorphic and even sedimentary
itself and are then eroded and transported by geological agents (water, wind, ice).
These eroded and transported sediments are then deposited on the depositional
basic and accumulated layer by layer one after another.

According to the modes of transportation of the deposits these rocks are sub -
divided into three types:
i. Mechanically Deposited (Clastic Rock)
ii. Chemically and Organically Formed (Non-Clastic Rock)

Identification of Sedimentary Rock in Field:

 Generally, soft, stratified i.e. characteristically bedded.
 Fossils common.
 Stratification, lamination, cross bedding, ripple marks, mud-marks etc are the
usual structures.
 No effect on the enclosing or the top and bottom rocks.
 Quartz, clay minerals, calcite, dolomite, hematite are the common minerals.
E.g.: Calcite, Limestone, Magnesite, Sandstone, Shale, etc.

3.4 METAMORPHIC ROCKS

These are formed by the alternation of pre-existing rocks by the action of
temperature, pressure added by sub-terrain fluids (magnetic or non magnetic).

Metamorphism:
It is a natural process whereby the pre-existing rocks are altered or modified under
the influence of pressure, temperature and the chemical solution. Under the
influence of those factors, the rocks are changed into new rocks physically and
chemically. In metamorphic rocks minerals are arranged in preferred orientation.

Types of Metamorphism:
 Dynamic Metamorphism
 Thermal Metamorphism

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  Dynamo-Thermal Metamorphism

Identification of Metamorphic Rocks in Field:

 Generally hard, interlocking grains and bedded (if derived from stratified
rocks).
 Foliated, gneissose, schistose, granular lose, slaty etc are the common
structure.
 Fossils are rarely preserved in rocks of sedimentary origin except slate.
 Preffered orientation of minerals is observed.
 Have foliation plane and rock cleavage
 Common minerals are andalusite, sillimanite, cyanite, cordierite, collastnite,
garnet, graphite etc.
 Generally has rock cleavage.
E.g.: Slate, Phyllite, Schist, Gneiss, Amphibolites etc

3.5 ROCK CLEAVAGE:

Types of rock cleavage:

1. Slaty cleavage:
2. Schistosity:
3. Gneissosity

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3.5 IDENTIFICATION OF ROCKS AT THE FIELD LOCATIONS

Location 1: Right bank of Trisuli River downstream about 150m from

Malekhu Suspension Bridge

Sample 1:

S.N. Properties Observation/Description

1. Color Yelllow silver
2. Texture Aphanitic
3. Structure Well developed Foliation Plane
4. Grain Size Fine
5. Specific Gravity Low
6. a) Hammer Scratch Test: No hammer scratch test.
b) Acid Test:
7. Mineralogical Clay minirals
Composition
8. Rock Type Metamorphic Rock
9. Identification Phyllite
10. Engineering Properties a) Strength: Low
b) Drillability: High
c) Blastibility: Low
11. Uses None

12. Occurance Mudstone, Shale

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Location 1:

Sample 2:

S.N. Properties Observation/Description

1. Color White
2. Texture Phaneritic
3. Structure Fine Crystal
4. Grain Size Fine
5. Specific Gravity Medium to High
6. a) Hammer Scratch Test: a) Rock is scratched by hammer.
b) Acid Test: b) Vigorous reaction with dilute HCl.
7. Mineralogical Calcite
Composition
8. Rock Type Metamorphic
9. Occurance Dolomite, limestone
10. Engineering Properties a) Strength: Medium
b) Drillability: High
c) Blastibility: High
11. Uses  Flooring, construction material.
 Manufacture of cement, etc.
12. Identification Marble

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Location 2: left bank of Malekhu river about 70m upstream from Malekhu
Bridge

Sample 3

S.N. Properties Observation/Description

1. Color Light grey
2. Texture Crystalline
3. Structure Well developed foliation plane
4. Grain Size Fine
5. Specific Gravity Medium
6. a) Hammer Scratch Test: a) Rock is scratched by hammer.
b) Acid Test: b) reaction with dilute HCl in powder form
7. Mineralogical CaCo3.MgCo3
Composition
8. Rock Type Metamorphic rock
9. Identification Dolomite
10. Occurance Limestone
11. Engineering Properties a) Strength: Moderate
b) Drillability: High
c) Blastibility: High
12. Uses  To make cement because of its binding
property.
 Flooring, making slabs.
 Increase aggregate strength of concrete, etc.
 In construction of dry walls.

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Location 3: Right bank of Malekhu River about 200m upstream from
Malekhu Bridge

Sample 4

S.N. Properties Observation/Description

1. Color White with dark spots
2. Texture Hollow Crystalline
3. Structure Crystalline
4. Grain Size Coarse
5. Specific Gravity High
6. a) Hammer Scratch Test: Not applicable
b) Acid Test:
7. Mineralogical  Plagioclase (Milky white crystals)
Composition  Quartz (Dirty white crystals)
 Biotite (Black)
 Moscovite (Glassy silver)
 Orthoclase (Pink crystals)
8. Rock Type Igneous (cooled beneath the surface) intrusion and
upliftment
9. Identification Granite
10. Engineering Properties a) Strength: High
b) Drillability: Low
c) Blastibility: High
impermeable and nonporous
11. Uses  Construction material
 High strength for foundation
 Flooring, slab, etc
12. Occurance Plutonic

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Location 4: In the middle of Malekhu river about 400m upstream from
Malekhu Bridge

Sample 5

S.N. Properties Observation/Description

1. Color Dirty Brown
2. Texture Aphanaritic
3. Structure Rudaceous
4. Grain Size Fine to coarse
5. Specific Gravity Low
6. a) Hammer Scratch Test: Not applicable since it is multi-mineral rock.
b) Acid Test:
7. Mineralogical Various rock fragments
Composition
8. Rock Type Sedimentary rock
9. Identification Conglomorate
10. Typical feature Boulder, cobble, pebble observed
11. Occurrence Various rock

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Location 5: Right bank of Malekhu River about 800m upstream from
Malekhu Bridge

Sample 6

S.N. Properties Observation/Description

1. Color Grey
2. Texture Crystalline
3. Structure Preferred Orientation of Mineral
4. Grain Size Fine
5. Specific Gravity Medium to High
6. a) Hammer Scratch Test: Hammer is scratched by rock.
b) Acid Test: No reaction with HCl.
7. Mineralogical Quartz
Composition
8. Rock Type Metamorphic
9. Identification Quartzite
10. Engineering Properties a) Strength: High
b) Drillability: Low
c) Blastibility: High
11. Uses  Construction material for foundation
 Slabs
 watch, etc

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3.6 DISCUSSION
According to the observations taken in the field, most of the rocks are metamorphic
in nature and sedimentary and igneous rocks in least. These are the rocks that an
engineer has to deal most within the engineering practice. The small sample tested in
the laboratory cannot represent all the complex properties of the related rock. Even,
if the rock has preserved the mentioned quality, it may not be capable to resist the
loads as we expected because of the conditions at the site. So the strength,
weathering condition, orientation and the spacing of the joints and faults etc
properties has to be studied in the detail to know completely the property of the
rock. These detail properties of the rocks can be known after the field visit of the
rock. Site for any engineering work has to b suggested only after these detail studies
of the rocks had been made. Hence field identification of rock has greater
importance in the field of civil engineering practice.

4. GEOLOGY OF THE STUDY AREA

4.1 GEOLOGY OF THE MALEKHU AREA
Geologically, Malekhu contains many geological peculiarities like joints, faults,
different types of rocks, streams and amazing flow direction of the Malekhu River.

Topography:
Malekhu is a small village on Dhading district about 70km south – west of
Kathmandu and lies at latitude of 27 degrees 45 minutes 50 seconds and longitude of
84 degrees 49 minutes 5 seconds to 84 degrees 50 minutes 50 seconds. It is situated
at the bank of Trishuli and Malekhu River. The Trishuli River is flowing from east to
west and Malekhu River from south to north that finally emerges into Trishuli River.
Malekhu River is at a distance of about 3km from Malekhu bazaar. The Trishuli River
seems to be flowing linearly with some occasional meanders.

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Malekhu lies in the region of lesser Himalayas which is one of the morpho-tectonic
zones of Nepal. Siwaliks and higher Himalayas are its neighboring morpho-tectonic
zones. Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) in south separates the Siwaliks and the Lesser
Himalaya and the Main Central Thrust (MCT) in north separates the Higher Himalayas
and Lesser Himalayas. The MBT is itself an active fault that has brought older rocks of
lesser Himalayas to Siwaliks.

The lesser Himalayas are mostly composed of non-fossil, sedimentary and meta-
sedimentary rock such as slate, phyllite, schist, quartzite etc. There are also some
intrusions of granite. The lesser Himalayas of Nepal vary from east to west in
stratigraphy, structure and magmatism. The eastern Nepal is characterized by
development of extensive thrust sheet of crystalline rocks that have traveled
southward. In central Nepal, a large thrust sheet called Kathmandu Nappe covers a
wide area around the Kathmandu region.

Malekhu lies in the vicinity of Mahabharat thrust, which lies between Indian and
Tibetan plates and thus landslides are quite common here. In few places the
Mahabharat range is intercepted by major Rivers through which all the water from
Nepal originating from north drain to south. The Mahabharat region is characterized
by concentration of population along the ridge and gently dipping northern slopes.

Climate:
Malekhu has a typical sub-tropical climate. The vegetations consist of deciduous
trees like chilaune, sal, etc. grasses and bushes. Malekhu is a river valley extending
from east to west along the Trishuli River and most of the inhabitants are
concentrated on the southern part. This causes lack of direct sunshine and foggy
mornings.

4.2 RECOGNITION OF THE GEOLOGICAL UNITS IN THE FIELD

The geology of Malekhu consists of river, valley, and mountain with different rock
types. The Trishuli River, which is following from east to west and Malekhu River
flows to Trishuli River, which is flowing north towards south. The average elevation
of the Trishuli River is 350m. There lie the lots of mountain and some cliffs whose
maximum elevation is 1036m.

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As stated above the study area i.e. Malekhu lies in the lesser Himalaya having the
predominant rock as the low graded metamorphic rock. Also in the metamorphic
rock the major rock type is Phyllite. This area shows a great geological diversity
having the presence of all the rock type i.e. the sedimentary rooks the metamorphic
rocks, and igneous rocks.

Thus the geology of the Malekhu and the adjacent area is made of three different
types of rock types with the presence of slate, schist, marble, etc. as the
metamorphic rock, limestone and rarely the mudstone as the sedimentary rock, and
granite as the igneous rock.

Major Rock Types:

On traversing the area along the Malekhu Khola from Malekhu Bridge towards
southeast reveals that the area is characterized by the presence of various rocks. The
major rock types found there are as follows:
 Phyllite
 Amphibolites
 Slate
 Quartzite
 Dolomite
 Marble
 Granite

Sedimentary rocks called Malekhu limestone cover large part of the area. The
Benighat slate is another most abundant rock type, which is metamorphic rock and
other rocks are quartzite, phyllite, and schist. There is also presence of different
igneous rocks along the bank of the river of which granite is the most common.

4.3 ENGINEERING GEOLOGICAL COMMENTS

The study area Malekhu has great importance from the engineering point of view.
This area being in the lesser Himalayan at an average height of 2200m to 3300m
from the mean sea level has great possibilities for constructing dams and reservoirs
such as the Kulekhani hydro power station.

The other engineering significant is that the area is bounded by M.B.T. differentiating
it from the Siwalik region and M.B.T. differencing it from the higher Himalayas. The

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earth quake in this region is a bit lower than that of Siwalik and quaternary basin
containing H.F.T. and M.F.T. has large number of faults thereby having high chance of
earthquake. As M.B.T. is less active than H.F.T./M.F.T, the quake in this region is
more prominent. The weak the point of areas is composed of low graded
metamorphic rocks and phyllite are predominant. The phyllite has low bearing
capacity and can be easily weathered, thereby having gentle slope.

5.STUDY OF GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES

IN THE FIELD
The structural features preserved in the rock during the formation of rock or after its
formation are called geological structures. Folds, faults, joints, etc. are the examples
of geological structures.
Continuous Deformation Structures: These are the products of plastic and
viscoplastic deformations. E.g.: folds, veins, foliation, cleavage, etc.
Discontinuous Deformation Structures: These are the product of brittle
deformation.
E.g.: joints, faults, etc.

5.1 FOLD
Any type of undulations, bending and curvatures developed in the rocks due to the
action of stresses in the geological past and preserved in the rocks are known as
folds. Folds are the results of plastic and viscoplastic deformation in the geological
past preserved in the rocks. Folds are best displayed by stratified formations such as
sedimentary or volcanic rocks or their metamorphic equivalents. But any layered or
foliated rock, such as gabbro, granite or gneiss may show folds. Some folds are a few
miles across. The width of other is to be measured in feet or inches or even fractions
of an inch. Folds of continental proportions are hundreds of miles wide.

Recognition of folds in the field:

 The easiest and simplest way is the visual inspection. If we find any geological
structure according to the normal definition of a fold then it can be identified
as fold.
 The repetition & omission of beds also indicates the presence of fold.

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  By plotting the attitudes of beds in map.
 When the types of folds are to be recognized on the basis of the age
consideration of the beds, the top and bottom of beds are determined by
taking into account the nature, and form of the features occurring on the beds
itself. Accordingly some types of folds have been inferred.

5.2 FAULT
Faults are well- defined cracks along which the rock- masses on either side have
relative displacement along the fracture plane or they are the ruptures in which the
opposite blocks moved past each other. The displacement is parallel to the fracture
plane. The attitude of faults is defined in terms of their strike and dip. The strike and
dip of fault are measured in the same way as they are for bedding.

Recognition of faults in the field:

To recognize the faults in the field, a number of criteria are used. The faults may be
directly seen in the field, particularly in artificial exposes such as river-cuttings, road
cuttings, etc. In field the faults may be recognized by:
 Variation in the behavior of the ground.
 Evidences of the past deformation.
 Change in bearing capacity of the materials.
 Deviation in stress path.
 Variation in the hydraulic behavior.

Structure formed during faulting:

Slicken sides: They are the polished and or striated or grooved surfaces which are
produced due to rubbing action of the adjacent blocks during the act of faulting.
These form important evidences of faulting.
Gouge: It is a finely pulverized, clay-like powered rock material, which occurs at or
near the base of the faulting zones. It is obviously the result of strong rubbing action
on the rocks during the faulting process.
Fault Breccia: It is the crushed (and but powdered) angular, fragmentary material
produced during faulting and found in some cases at or mar the base of the up
thrown block. Very often the angular fragments get embedded and cemented in the
gouge and produce a rock-like mass once again which is also called fault-breccia.

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Mylonite: This rock also called micro breccia, is extremely fine-grained and very hare
and coherent. Faulting is believed to be the cause of development of such rocks. It is
the metamorphic form of fault Breccia.
At the site, 330m upstream from Malekhu old bridge along left bank, fault zone was
observed.

5.3 JOINT
A joint is defined, as a fracture in a rock between the sides of which there is no
observable relative movement. They are present in most consolidated rocks of
igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary origin.

Field Identification of Joints:

 Joints are generally recognized in the field as faults without relative
displacement. Their dimension varies within wide–limits. Sometimes they are
very short in their extension, but in certain cases they are found to extend for
miles together.
 Joints commonly control the drainage pattern of an area. They also determine
the shape of coastlines, because they provide a passage, whereby water may
penetrate deeply into rock mass thus allowing weathering to take place.
 Jointed rocks are pervious to fluids and may act as aquifers or reservoir rocks
for oil or natural gas.
 Sometimes joints act as avenues for molten rock materials to come above the
surface. It also determines the localization of some mineral deposits.

5.4 THRUST
A kind of reversed fault in which hanging wall has actually moved up relative to the
footwall is called thrust. E.g.: Mahabharat thrust separates Nuwakot complex and
Kathmandu complex.

5.5 UNCONFORMITY
Surface of erosional and depositional gap within a sequence of strata is called
unconformity. These are usually the weak contact where the failure starts to
generate. It creates permeability contrast; thus, natural springs or discharge can
occur in such places.

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5.6 VEINS
The filling of the minerals in between the fault planes or fractured rocks produces a
new structure, which is called veins. Veins may have valuable minerals like gold,
copper, diamond, silver etc.
In the field we have studied and recognized quartzite vein on the right bank of Trisuli
River about 200m downstream from Malekhu Suspension Bridge.

6. STUDY OF RIVER CHANNEL

MORPHOLOGY
River is a mass of water that flows along a path high to low gradient carrying
different materials and responsible for different geological actions such as erosion,
transportation and deposition of sediments. The route along which a river flows is
called river valley. In engineering practice, many structures, such as dam, bridge,
reservoir etc. are constructed in the river channels. Besides construction of
infrastructures, construction materials are also barrowed from the river territory.
The features developed by erosional and depositional activities of river are known as
river channel morphology.

6.1 TYPES OF RIVER CHANNEL

6.1.1 Straight River:
The river channel in which water is flowing in the same direction on straight path is
straight river channel. The prefect straight channel is rare and if present, the length
will not exceed ten times its width. The straight channel is formed in the youth stage
and at the head region of the river. The gradient of the river is high, causing the flow
of velocity to be high. Since the energy level of such river is high, the erosional rate is
immensely higher than the deposition of the sediments. Deep scouring along the
river path is higher than the side cutting. Straight rivers are dominantly present in
the Higher Himalayan region.

6.1.2 Meandering River:

The river channel in which the course of river bends towards different directions
within small area is known as meandering river channel. This type of river flows along
zigzag path. The gradient of the river type is so moderate that the river strikes on one

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end and return to other direction making zigzag path. The channel is characterized by
low velocity, soft rock type and is formed at the matured stage of the river.
Meandering channel maintains a fairly steady width because erosion and widening of
the channel on one side is balanced by deposition and narrowing on the other.

6.1.3 Braided River:

In this type of river, a single river path is diverted into several paths and may
converse into single path later. The topography of the area is characterized by low
relief. The gradient of the river path is so low and the river area is widened and flow
with lower velocity. In the Terai area the velocity of water in the river channel is low
and waters flows from different small channels. Since the energy level of such river is
low, the deposition rate of sediments is immensely higher than the erosional rate.
Thick successions of sediments go on depositing along the river path and river diverts
to other subparts.

River Chanel Morphology of Trishuli River and Thopal Khola

Activities of River:
 Erosion: If the energy level increases, erosion increases.
 Transportation: This process not only removes the materials but also
transports them from higher level to lower level. River transports the
materials in three forms:
o Solid form (bed loads or suspended loads)

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 o Solution form
o Biological form
 Deposition: When energy level decreases materials are deposited.

6.2 FACTORS AFFECTING THE RIVER CHANNEL

6.2.1 Discharge:
It is the amount of the water flowing across the cross-section towards the direction
of flow.

6.2.2 Velocity:
The velocity of the river is dependent on gradient i.e. slope of the terrain, if the slope
is steep then there is the maximum energy stored which causes the erosion on the
river banks. The velocity of the river is maximum at Himalayan region and it gradually
decreases towards the low terrain.

6.2.3 Energy Level:

Energy level of the river is high when its velocity and discharge are high and vice-
versa.

6.2.4 Material Property:

Erosion made by the river depends upon the properties of the material along its
course.

6.3 FEATURES DEVELOPED BY THE RIVER CHANNEL

6.3.1 Oxbow Lakes:
The individual loops of meandering stream in the advanced stage are separated from
each other that only by a narrow stripes of lands. During large water discharging time
the river has tendency to flow straight. The stream starts flowing in that particular
region leaving the loop on one side as an isolated detached or only slightly connected
parts. These isolated curves or loop shaped part of the meandering stream often

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contain some supplies of water when they are called the ox-bow lakes.

In case of meandering rivers, the streams detach from loops and charge their path
across the shortest route. An oxbow is formed when neck of the meander is reduced
very much which is due to the low strength of the rock.

6.3.2 Pet Holes:

These have various dimensions, shapes and are the depression, which are excavated
in the riverbeds by extensive erosion. These are formed in soft rock in the cylindrical
or bowl shaped. These are initiated by plucking out of pieces of soft rocks from
riverbeds due to the velocity of water abrasion and further depressions.

6.3.3 River Valleys:

In general, every large river forms its own valley. Valley is the low land surrounded by
hills of various slopes. The erosion processes due to the cutting up of the bed form
the valley.

6.3.4 Escarpment:
Riverbanks might have alternate soft and hard rock layers. The soft rocks get eroded
quickly and the hard rocks are eroded later on. As the river continues its flow, the
bank falls suddenly creating a steep slope. This is known as escarpment.

6.3.5 Fans:
When rivers with low gradient enter the lower surfaces, the materials brought by the
river get accumulated. Also, the structure is not affected, as erosion doesn't take
place as water of the river flows over the structure.

6.3.6 Delta Deposition:

The deltas are the triangular structures formed by the alluvial deposits at the mouth
of the river. Whenever a river with high gradient enters the standing water source
the river deposits some of the material brought by it. The continuous deposition of
material results in the formation of delta.

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The number of river channels when meet at the point the flowing water looses the
velocity and therefore no other way then to drop down the balance of its load right
at this point of emergence at the mouth of the river known as the delta deposition.

6.4 RIVER CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY AT THE TRISHULI-THOPAL

CONFLUENCE
Erosion Bank:
The bank of the river, which is weaker part, has the tendency to get eroded. This is
the unstable bank of the river.

Deposition Bank:
The bank on which deposition process takes place is called deposition bank.

Channel Bar:
The accumulation of the materials at the mouth of the river is called channel bar. It
has channels on both sides.

Flood Plane:
The plane or the area covered by the river when the river is in the flooding condition.
At these places, materials from very fine to coarser conditions are found.

River Terrace:
The area that the river used in the past to cover during flooding or normal condition
is called river terrace. This is the area has left the channel level to lower level and the
remnants of earlier deposits to form higher level. This area is very suitable for human
settlement. Gravel and sand is found in such places.

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Side Bar or Point Bar:
These are the remaining of deposits carried out by the river at the stage of higher
discharge. This is also known as side bar.

Island:
It is the area formed by the river deposition. It is not necessary to be at its mouth.

7.ENGINEERING GEOLOGICAL STUDIES

OF THE ROCK OUTCROPS
7.1 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
Engineering geology is the application of the geologic sciences to engineering
practice for the purpose of assuring that the geologic factors affecting the location,
design, construction, operation and maintenance of engineering works are
recognized and adequately provided for. Engineering geologists investigate and
provide geologic and geotechnical recommendations, analysis, and design.
Engineering geologic studies may be performed during the planning, environmental
impact analysis, civil engineering design, value engineering and construction phases
of public and private works projects, and during post-construction and forensic
phases of projects. Works completed by engineering geologists include geological
hazards, geotechnical and material properties, landslide and slope stability, erosion,
flooding, dewatering, and seismic investigations, etc. Engineering geological studies
are performed by a geologist or an engineering geologist educated, professionally
trained and skilled at the recognition and analysis of geologic hazards and adverse

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geologic conditions. Their overall objective is the protection of life and property
against damage and the solution of geologic problems.

7.2 IMPORTANCE OF ENGINEERING GEOLOGY IN THE FIELD OF CIVIL

ENGINEERING
Geology in civil engineering concerned with the engineering behavior of earth
materials. It includes investigating existing subsurface conditions and materials,
assessing risks posed by site conditions, designing earthworks and structure
foundations, and monitoring site conditions, earthwork and foundation construction.

A typical geotechnical engineering project begins with a site investigation of soil,

rock, fault distribution and bedrock properties on and below an area of interest to
determine their engineering properties including how they will interact with, on or in
a proposed construction. Site investigations are needed to gain an understanding of
the area in or on which the engineering will take place. Investigations can include the
assessment of the risk to humans, property and the environment from natural
hazards such as earthquakes, landslides, sinkholes, soil liquefaction, debris flows and
rock falls.

7.3 ENGINEERING GEOLOGICAL DATA

Collection of engineering data from outcrops for certain purpose is called
engineering geological data collection. Engineering data are those, which are
purposed specific and quantitative. These data collected from outcrops are attitude
of rock (i.e. dip and strike).

7.4 INTACT ROCK

Intact rock is the part of the rock mass which is free from the discontinuities. The
combination of the intact rock and the discontinuous rock forms the rock mass. Size
of the intact rock is small at the surface and large below the surface. It is different
from different types of the rock.

Intact rock strength:

It has already been explained that the intact rock is the rock material without
discontinuities. They have greater strength than the rock mass. Their strength can be
determined in the following ways:

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  Check in lab: Required size of intact rock can be taken from the rock mass and
checked in the lab.
 Check by hammer striking: This is the cheapest and easiest way to find out
the approximate strength of rock material and this can be done directly in the
field. For this, rock material is struck by geological hammer and the sound is
identified. If metallic sound comes then the rock material is strong having
strength more than 100Mpa and if sound is as in soil then the rock material is
weak having strength less than 10Mpa. If sound is in between metallic to soil,
then strength is also in between 100Mpa to 10Mpa.
 Schmidt Hammer: It is also an easy but nearly accurate method to check the
intact strength. It can give numerical value of strength of the rock material.
Actually the hammer is a special type of hammer which measures the rebound
value.

7.5 ROCK MASS

The collective mass formed by the rock material and discontinuities is called rock
mass. So the rock exposed on the outcrop is not rock. In fact, it is the rock mass. Rock
materials (intact rock) are part of rock mass. Since, in actual practice discontinuities
are present, rock material alone doesn't exist in nature.

7.6 CHARACTERISTICS OF DISCONTINUITIES IN ROCK MASS

These are the structural features of the rock, which are developed due to the
existence of different stresses on the earth. Discontinuity decreases the strength of
the rock. A rock mass may contain two-three sets of discontinuity. The rock of two
set of discontinuity is stronger than the rock of the three set of the discontinuity.

Characteristics of discontinuities in the rock mass:

7.6.1 Rock type:

The rocks are classified on the basis of the characteristics of intact rock as well as the
discontinuities present.
 Cleavage/foliation plane, bedding plane, etc.
 Materials
 Particle size textures etc.

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7.6.2 Orientation:
Orientation of discontinuities is the attitude of the discontinuities. Depending upon
the slope of discontinuity, rock has different strength in different directions. If the
direction of the discontinuity is in the same direction as the rock mass, it is an
unfavorable condition. But if the discontinuity is in opposite direction to the rock
mass, it is a favorable condition.

7.6.3 Intact Rock Strength:

The strength of the intact rock is tested by Schmidt Hammer rebound test. Schmidt
Hammer is the instrument used to test bearing capacity of site rock mass by rebound
test. There are two ways of testing by Schmidt Hammer; one is mono-axial and
another is tri-axial test.

7.6.4 Spacing:
It is the perpendicular distance between the two adjacent discontinuities of the same
set. The space between the discontinuities set in the same direction also causes
variation in the strength of the rock. The rock material in between the discontinuity
is intact material .The volume of intact material governs the strength of the rock.

7.6.5 Aperture:
Aperture is the open spacing present in the rock due to discontinuity present in it
.The crack due to any means like alkaline water has high tendency to dissolve calcite
material may get widened up. Depending upon space it is classified as widely open
(>1 cm),open (2 mm-1 cm),close (<2mm),tight (<1mm).The apertures wide and open
cause the mechanical discontinuity as no stress is transferred all over the rock.
However if the open discontinuity is filled with any other material then strength is
transferred. The open and close aperture, if filled by any other material, has the
strength and the stability of the rock increase depending upon the material type
filling the aperture.

7.6.6 Roughness:
It is one of the characteristics of the discontinuity present in it. In rough discontinuity
surfaces due to low friction shear strength is high. It is generally of two types rough
planar (rough surface with a plane flow) rough wavy (rough surface with a wave like
flow).

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7.6.7 Seepage:
It is the flow of water under gravitational forces in a permeable medium. Flow of
water takes place from point of high head to a point of low head.

7.6.8 Infilling Materials:

These are the materials filled in the open apertures of discontinuities. If there is no
fill material, it is called clean material. If the rock has mineralized discontinuity, the
strength may be considerably high .If the rock is both powdered material and
mineralized, the rock may be either cohesive or non cohesive .Tensile strength of soil
is low.

8. CONCLUSION
Our main objectives were achieved and a lot more in this geological trip to Malekhu.
Not only did we learn about geological instruments and about rocks and geological
structures, we also gained a deep perspective about life as a civil engineer. This field
trip provided us with a clear idea about working as a team and improved our
communication skills. Obviously, we completed all our major objectives in a peaceful
and educative manner.

Our trip was two days and one night long. In this visit of Malekhu, we learnt about
geological resources of the site, geological events, geological conditions, and the
relevant engineering applications. We had practical as well as theoretical guidance
from our very helpful teacher. In this tour, we saw and felt the major types of rocks
in their natural condition and pictured them. The visit has yielded rich knowledge
about the morphology of the Malekhu River which merges with the Trishuli River. We
were able to use the geological compass provided to us to find the attitude of a rock.
We also used the calibrated hammer to check the strength and hardness of the rock.

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Finally we also observed the river morphology and the faults, folds and thrusts
present in the area.

Last but not the least, we are thankful to our teacher as well as the Institute of
Engineering, Thapathali Campus for giving this wonderful opportunity to visit
Malekhu and gain a practical exposure to what we would have otherwise learnt only
in books.

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