Língua Inglesa Comparada

Língua Inglesa Comparada
Brasília-DF.
Compared English
(Língua Inglesa Comparada)
Elaboration
Vanessa de Carvalho Pedra
Production
Equipe Técnica de Avaliação, Revisão Linguística e Editoração

Sumário
Presentation.................................................................................................................................... 5
Book Studies Organization and Research................................................................................... 6
Introduction.................................................................................................................................. 8
Unit I
Compared English............................................................................................................................. 9
Chapter I
Origins of the English language....................................................................................... 9
Chapter II
Compared Literature........................................................................................................... 22
UNIT II
British English x American English................................................................................................. 37
Chapter I
English Speaking countries............................................................................................... 37
Chapter II
English as an international language............................................................................ 47
Not to End.................................................................................................................................... 50
References.................................................................................................................................... 51
Presentation
Dear Student,
The editorial purpose of this book studies and research is to bring together elements
that are taken as necessary for developing the study with assurance and quality. It is
characterized by present, dynamic and relevant content, as well as the interactivity and
modernity of its formal structure, suitable for the e-learning – EAD.
This material intends to reflect and understand the diversity of knowledge which it
offers. Allowing you to focus on specific concepts in the field as well as act competently
and thoughtfully, as shall befit the professional seeking continued education, to meet
the challenges that the scientific-technological developments face in the contemporary
world.
This publication was elaborated with the intent to provide valuable insight, in order to
facilitate your journey, both in personal life and in business. Use it as a tool for your
career success.
Editorial Board
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Book Studies Organization
and Research
In order to facilitate your study, the contents are organized in units, divided into chapters,
in a didactic, objective and consistent way. Chapters will begin with basic texts followed
by questions for reflection, among other editorial features that aim to make your reading
more pleasant. In the end, there will be also reference sources for further study with
readings and additional research.
The following is a brief description of the icons used in book studies organization and
research.
Challenge
Texts that seek to instigate the student to reflect on a particular subject before
he/she even starts reading or after a relevant passage from the author.
Food for thought
Questions inserted during the study so that the student takes a break and reflects
on the studied content of themes that help in his/her thinking. It is important that
he/she checks his/her knowledge, his/her experiences and feelings. The reflections
are the starting point for the building of his/her findings
Suggested follow-up study
Suggestions for reading, movies and sites for further studies, discussions, forums, or
meetings when it is necessary.
Practice
Suggestion of activities with the didactic purpose of strengthening the student’s

learning process.
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Attention
Signal important details/topics which may contribute to the synthesis/conclusion

of the target subject.
Explore more
Additional information to clarify the summary and conclusions of the subject

addressed.
Synthesis
Seeks to summarize relevant information, thus facilitating the understanding of

the student on more complex parts
Further study
Integrating text at the end of the module, which motivates students to continue
learning and stimulates further mastery of the module studied
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Introduction
The subject ‘Compared English’ will describe how the English language is used around
the world and its origins, since there are different countries and cultures that speak
English.
The English language is the mother tongue in many countries; about 375 million people
speak English as their first language. English is currently the third language in number
of native speakers, after Mandarin and Spanish. However, when you combine native
and non-native, it is the most spoken language in the world. It could also be second,
behind the combination of Chinese languages, depending on whether or not these
languages are classified as “languages” or “dialects.”
This booklet is divided into two units: ‘English Language Origin’ and ‘British English
X American English’. Each unit is subdivided into two chapters that include necessary
topics to your academic formation.
Therefore, we hope the reading can be a pleasure and that you are motivated to embark
on a journey for the knowledge of teaching the English language.
Objectives:
»» Enable the participant to understand the historical and cultural influence
on the English language training.
»» Explain the differences of language use in different places.
»» Compare the literary currents.
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Compared Unit I
English
Chapter I
Origins of the English language
Languages are representations of a people’s culture. It is also the most vulnerable point
to attack when one seeks to conquer another. In the connected world of the English
language, people know many identities and cultures, but can only be in one place at a
time. However, the world comes to you, no matter where you are.
A language acts as a straitjacket, allowing us to think in a certain way. Only being

exposed to one language, therefore, is to limit experiences and points of view, which
may not be a healthy situation. The more languages we learn and experience, the more
our brains will be encouraged to think: “I think this way, but is it like that?” or “I have
this point of view, but what about the rest?“
A brief history of origins of languages

“Mystery is the source of true science.”
(Albert Einstein)
There are many theories that try to describe the origin of language. Among them there
is the “Babel Tower” Theory. According the bible, it was in Babylon that languages
emerged and from there began to spread around the world (Genesis, 11:2).
The human beings built a tower named Babel, which would supposedly be a city, and
the so aspired tower would be high enough to reach out the sky. But God was angry
with so much arrogance from human beings and stroke the tower down, and after the
crash of said tower, there would be people spread the world over, speaking different
languages, causing a total absence of effectiveness in the communication among them.
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UNIT I │ Compared English
The Bible says that, in Babel, God “ mixed up their languages, so they wouldn’t hear or
understand the languages from each other”. (Genesis, 11:7)
There are some who say that “the Babel Tower” is a naive attempt to explain the languages
origin. But, why is the “Babel Tower” tale not accepted? Because it contradicts some
theories about the origin of languages.
Scholars use to say that the languages come from an original language that human
beings spoke about one hundred thousand years ago. Others claim that the current
languages had origin in many languages spoken for at least six thousand years. Unlike
the Bible, which does not claim that all modern languages have emerged from only one
language – a mother-tongue.
And what to say about the language groups of the world today, then? At the same time,
they are similar and different.
The language confusion from “Babel” limited the ability of humans to coordinate
their intellectual and physical abilities.
There is also the theory which mentions that there is a common origin between the
Asian and European languages, that is, the Proto-Indo-European language. The Indo-
Europeans were people from Central Asia who moved to the Indian sub-continent,
Persia and Europe. This hypothesis is the most accepted in the scientific world.
More recent studies have suggested languages emerged in Africa prior to the nomadic
practices of humans and that there were similarities among each languages.
According to Noam Chomsky, American linguist, there were universal principles

common to all languages.
The point is that there is no general consensus about the origin of languages, and if we
go on analyzing the different theories about the origin of languages, we shall not arrive
at a common place, although languages have similarities.
History of the English language

There are indications of human presence in the British Isles before the last ice age, when
the islands were not separated from the European continent, before the formation of
the English Channel. The geological phenomenon that separated the British Isles from
the mainland isolated the people who lived there.
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Compared English │ UNIT I
The history of England begins with the Celts, around 1000 BC. After many migrations,
various dialects of the Indo-European language became distinct groups of languages,
and one of these groups was the Celts.
Around 55 and 54 BC, the first Roman invasion took place, and in the subsequent years,
others followed. In 44 BC, the third invasion lead to the addition of the British island to
the Roman Empire. Since then, due to Roman culture, there have been Latin influences
in the Celtic-Breton culture.
Three and a half centuries of Roman presence was marked by tremendous influence on
the social, political and economic structure of the Celtic tribes who inhabited Britain.
Words of Latin origin naturally began to be used in everyday language.
Due to the struggles of the Roman Empire in 410 AD, Rome withdrew from Britain,
leaving the Celtics at the mercy of their enemies. The Germanic tribes, the Celtics long-
term foe, took advantage of this fact and became squatters, settling southeast of Britain,
destroying villages and massacring the local population. Therefore, we can only observe
scarce traces of the Celtic language left into English.
Around 432 AD, St. Patrick started a Christian mission to the Celtic population in Ireland.
In 597, the church sent missionaries to convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity.
This christianization process took place gradually and peacefully. It indicates the
beginning of Latin influence on the Germanic language of the Anglo-Saxons, the
predecessor to modern English.
The need for reproduction of biblical texts represented the beginning of English
literature. The introduction of Christianity also represented the rejection of certain
elements of Celtic culture and its relation to what became considered witchcraft.
Currently, Halloween night on 31st October is a reminiscent example of Celtic culture
in the eyes of the Christian faith.
The Old English dialects before Christianity were functional languages used to describe
concrete facts and meet daily communication needs. The Greco-Latin vocabulary
introduced by christianization expanded the Anglo-Saxon language towards abstract
concepts.
Experts claim the English language is the result of a combination of languages and
dialects, as mentioned in the text about the origins of languages. The combination of
these languages was named Old English.
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Old English or Anglo-Saxon, a Germanic language, was spoken in current England and
southern Scotland, around the X and XII century.
Old English went through many transitions due to the Anglo-Saxon’s migrations. This
resulted in influence from various languages, such as French and Norwegian dialects
originating from the Vikings.
Due to the diverse origins of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of Britain, Old English had, in
a certain moment, a dialect that predominated: the West Saxon. It was in this dialect
that the famous Beowulf poem was written.
An image of the original written copy of Beowulf.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Beowulf)
The medieval epic Beowulf was written somewhere around the 10th or 11th century in
England. Set in sixth century Scandinavia, the poem follows the adventure of a Geat
prince who goes to fight a demon that is terrorizing what is supposed to be the greatest
mead hall ever built. While the epic itself is a good story, it also has several social aspects
of Anglo-Saxon England. Beowulf contains some rather Christian traditions. It is also
evidence of the Norse influence on the Anglo-Saxons. As we learned in English 10, Old
English had heavy influence from the Vikings and the Danish. The story of Beowulf is
much older than the written copy. Since the Anglo-Saxons were effectively illiterate in
their early years, the story was probably passed down by spoken word – until it was
written down, becoming the copy that still exists today.
As can be seen in the image above, Beowulf is written in Old English. There are some
places in the world, even today, where people can almost read the medieval epic. This
probably has to do with how the English language developed over time. The very first
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bits of English had heavy Norse influence, from the Vikings and the Danish – about
whom the story is written. The letters themselves are just a step away from those used
in more modern English. Since the Anglo-Saxons started out as a functional illiterate
society – beginning with runes as a first written language – you can get a sense of how
long this story was passed down before it was finally written.
Beowulf is actually one story out of a collection, all written together in the same
manuscript. The collection was written by two Anglo-Saxon scribes working together.
It contains several other medieval texts, including a homily on St. Christopher, Marvels
of the East, the Letter of Alexander to Aristotle, and a copy of an Old English poem:
Judith. The manuscripts themselves are badly damaged. In the 18th century, cotton
manuscripts were moved to the Ashburnham house in Westminster for safe keeping.
Unfortunately, a fire broke out on October 23rd, 1731. There are many copies and
translations available today, but the original is safely kept in the British Library.
The “The Canterbury Tales” by Geoffrey Chaucer is the most widespread work from this
time.
During this period, there were various invasions. One of them, the Norman invasion of
England marked a language change in English, beginning the transition from the Old
English to Middle English.
Middle English
Middle English is the vernacular spoken from the early 12th century to the end of
the 15th century. It has a vast French influence due to the invasion and conquest of
England by the Normans. The Normans were a medieval people settled in northern
France whose aristocracy descended largely from Vikings of Scandinavia.
The Duchy of Normandy grew out of the 911 Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte between
King Charles III of West Francia and Rollo, leader of the Vikings. The king of France
donated this land in the hope that these Vikings would defend the country from new
foreign attacks, Viking or not. Rollo accepted the treaty and settled in the territory that
within a few years of conquests and annexations would be transformed in Normandy.
It was usual for the Vikings to marry French women and give a Catholic education
to their children. Thus, by 1000, the Norman Vikings ceased to be pagans to become
Christian Normans and French speakers.
In 1066, the Normans won the Battle of Hastings, and thus conquered the English
throne. The regime which arose from this achievement was characterized by forced
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centralization and, of course, the language of the conquerors: the French dialect
called Norman French. William I himself did not speak English and, upon his death in
1087, there was a single region of England that was not controlled by a Norman. His
successors, William II (1087-1100) and Henry I (1100-1135), spent about half of their
reigns in France and probably had little knowledge of English.
During the 300 years that followed, but more so in the first 150, the language used
by the aristocracy in England was French. Speaking French became a condition for
those of Anglo-Saxon origin in search of social mobility through sympathy and favors
from the ruling class. A marked change in the pronunciation of vowels of the English
occurred mainly during the 15th and 16th centuries.
The General Prologue (Middle English)
Whan that aprill with his shoures soote The droghte of march hath perced to the roote,
And bathed every veyne in swich licour Of which vertu engendred is the flour; Whan
zephirus eek with his sweete breeth Inspired hath in every holt and heeth Tendre
croppes, and the yonge sonne Hath in the ram his halve cours yronne, And smale
foweles maken melodye, That slepen al the nyght with open ye (so priketh hem nature
in hir corages); Thanne longen folk to goon on pilgrimages, And palmeres for to seken
straunge strondes, To ferne halwes, kowthe in sondry londes; And specially from every
shires ende Of engelond to caunterbury they wende, The hooly blisful martir for to seke,
That hem hath holpen whan that they were seeke.
The General Prologue (Modern English)
1. Whan that Aprill with his shoures soote
When April with its sweet-smelling showers
2. The droghte of March hath perced to the roote,
Has pierced the drought of March to the root,
3. And bathed every veyne in swich licour
And bathed every vein (of the plants) in such liquid
4. Of which vertu engendred is the flour;
By which power the flower is created;
5. Whan Zephirus eek with his sweete breeth
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When the West Wind also with its sweet breath,
6. Inspired hath in every holt and heeth
In every wood and field has breathed life into
7. The tendre croppes, and the yonge sonne
The tender new leaves, and the young sun
8. Hath in the Ram his half cours yronne,
Has run half its course in Aries,
9. And smale foweles maken melodye,
And small fowls make melody,
10. That slepen al the nyght with open ye
Those that sleep all the night with open eyes
11. (So priketh hem Nature in hir corages),
(So Nature incites them in their hearts),
12. Thanne longen folk to goon on pilgrimages,
Then folk long to go on pilgrimages,
13. And palmeres for to seken straunge strondes,
And professional pilgrims to seek foreign shores,
14. To ferne halwes, kowthe in sondry londes;
To distant shrines, known in various lands;
15. And specially from every shires ende
And specially from every shire’s end
16. Of Engelond to Caunterbury they wende,
Of England to Canterbury they travel,
17. The hooly blisful martir for to seke,
To seek the holy blessed martyr,
18. That hem hath holpen whan that they were seeke.
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Who helped them when they were sick.
Note: It is important to point out that during this period Latin was the lingua franca,
which is the language a multilingual group of people adopts or develops so that everyone
can systematically communicate with each other.
Modern English
In the sixteenth century, with the consolidated German and Nordic structures,
vocabulary heavily influenced by French and Latin,, the English language went through
a major change in the vowel pronunciation. Thanks to new media (first, printed paper,
radio later), this change turned into a widespread pattern. It was called the Great Vowel
Shift.
Since the UK became a colonial power, the language has served as the lingua franca.
And from the British Empire expansion, English – The Modern English – as it is known
today, was adopted in the USA, India, Africa and Australia, among other countries,
mainly in the twentieth century, after the Second World War.
These changes brought us to the English as we know it – or close to it. A good example
is the poetry of Shakespeare and the King James Bible, which still rhymes like it was
rhymed at the time, thanks to standardization of pronunciation.
Genesis Chapter 1
The creation of light
1. In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth.
2. And the earth was without form, and void; and darkness was upon the face of the
deep. And the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters.
3. And God said, Let there be light: and there was light.
4. And God saw the light, that it was good: and God divided the light from the darkness.
5. And God called the light Day, and the darkness he called Night. And the evening and
the morning were the first day.
6. And God said, Let there be a firmament in the midst of the waters, and let it divide
the waters from the waters.
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7. And God made the firmament, and divided the waters which were under the
firmament from the waters which were above the firmament: and it was so.
8. And God called the firmament Heaven. And the evening and the morning were the
second day.
9. And God said, Let the waters under the heaven be gathered together unto one place,
and let the dry land appear: and it was so.
10. And God called the dry land Earth; and the gathering together of the waters called
he Seas: and God saw that it was good.
11. And God said, Let the earth bring forth grass, the herb yielding seed, and the
fruit tree yielding fruit after his kind, whose seed is in itself, upon the earth: and it was
so.
12. And the earth brought forth grass, and herb yielding seed after his kind, and the
tree yielding fruit, whose seed was in itself, after his kind: and God saw that it was
good.
13. And the evening and the morning were the third day.
14. And God said, Let there be lights in the firmament of the heaven to divide the day
from the night; and let them be for signs, and for seasons, and for days, and years:
15. And let them be for lights in the firmament of the heaven to give light upon the
earth: and it was so.
16. And God made two great lights; the greater light to rule the day, and the lesser light
to rule the night: he made the stars also.
17. And God set them in the firmament of the heaven to give light upon the earth,
18. And to rule over the day and over the night, and to divide the light from the darkness:
and God saw that it was good.
19. And the evening and the morning were the fourth day.
20. And God said, Let the waters bring forth abundantly the moving creature that hath
life, and fowl that may fly above the earth in the open firmament of heaven.
21. And God created great whales, and every living creature that moveth, which the
waters brought forth abundantly, after their kind, and every winged fowl after his kind:
and God saw that it was good.
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22. And God blessed them, saying, Be fruitful, and multiply, and fill the waters in the
seas, and let fowl multiply in the earth.
23. And the evening and the morning were the fifth day.
24. And God said, Let the earth bring forth the living creature after his kind, cattle, and
creeping thing, and beast of the earth after his kind: and it was so.
25. And God made the beast of the earth after his kind, and cattle after their kind, and
everything that creped upon the earth after his kind: and God saw that it was good.
26. And God said, Let us make man in our image, after our likeness: and let them have
dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and
over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creped upon the earth.
27. So God created man in his own image, in the image of God created he him; male
and female created he them.
28. And God blessed them, and God said unto them, Be fruitful, and multiply, and
replenish the earth, and subdue it: and have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over
the fowl of the air, and over every living thing that moved upon the earth.
29. And God said, Behold, I have given you every herb bearing seed, which is
upon the face of all the earth, and every tree, in the which is the fruit of a tree yielding
seed; to you it shall be for meat.
30. And to every beast of the earth, and to every fowl of the air, and to everything that
creeped upon the earth, wherein there is life, I have given every green herb for meat:
and it was so.
31. And God saw everything that he had made, and, behold, it was very good. And the
evening and the morning were the sixth day.
(http://www.kingjamesbibleonline.org/Genesis-Chapter-1/)
English in the World

The English language is essential today. Due to the effects of globalization, it has become
something fundamental. English is the international language; the language of study,
travel, business, and, finally, the language of communication with the world.
So that we realize the importance and the influence the language has on ours, and many
other cultures consider the numbers of words we use daily that come from English.
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Some of these words include: jeans, flash drive, lanhouse, e-mail, notebook, among
others we are always using and sometimes we do not realize it.
At the job market, the English language has become an essential attribute to get more
university-level positions. You may have even heard someone say, “I lost the opportunity
because I did not know English.” Well, even if the applicant does not use English or is
going to use very little of it in his new job, only by knowing English, it is a differential
in a résumé. Some salary surveys reveal that the salary of a person who has a second
language is 30% more.
Due to globalization, many have gone abroad for studies, business and vacation. Just as
many foreigners have come to Brazil with the same purposes. And if you think about it,
which language would we use to communicate with the aliens? The answer is ENGLISH.
Although there are many professionals with an English background, most fall within
the basic level to the intermediate, and thus having fluency in this language is still an
competitive edge to achieve higher ranks. So, if you want to enter the labor market and
earn well, devote yourself to learning the English language, or even another language
– Spanish is also becoming fundamental, many Brazilians are learning this language
because it is similar to Portuguese.
The countries with the largest population of English language speakers are, in
descending order: United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, Nigeria, Ireland,
South Africa and New Zealand.
Countries like the Philippines, Jamaica and Nigeria also have millions of native speakers
of continuous dialects ranging from the English-based creole version to more standard
English.
Of those nations where English is spoken as a second language, India has the largest
number of speakers (Indian English).
Combining native and non-native speakers, India now has more people who speak or
understand English than any other country in the world.
http://www.solinguainglesa.com.br
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Activities
1. Write a few lines about the importance of English Language in the modern
World.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
2. Considering what you have read and your cultural background, it is possible
to say that, currently, there is no single hypothesis to explain the origin of
languages, but there are more or less plausible possibilities. There are hypotheses
that there was only one manifestation of verbal language, and others in which
there were several languages at the beginning of humanity. Based on those,
make a reflection about the origin of languages. ( justify your answer).
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
3. Due to its origin, can it be argued that the English language has become a
language loan, borrowing various elements from different languages, ( justify
your answer).
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
4. Write about the various influences on English.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
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5. Why has Latin given rise to several languages in Western Society? (justify your
answer).
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
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Chapter II
Compared Literature
It is revealed the total being of writing. A text is made of many, many cultures
and outputs that go into each other in dialogue, into parody, into contestation;
but there is a place where this multiplicity meets, and that place is not the author,
as has been said so far, it is the reader: the reader is the very space in which are
inscribed, without anything being lost, all the citations that a writing is made of;
the unity of a text is not in its origin, but in its destination.
(Barthes, 1978).
No community has ever been found to lack spoken language, but only a minority
of languages has ever been written down. Likewise, the vast majority of human
beings learn to speak, but it is only in recent years that some of these people
have learned to write.
David Crystal
“Nothing lives isolated, everybody lends to everyone: this great deal of sympathy
is universal and constant.”
(Philarete Chasles)
At first, the term “comparative literature” does not cause problems of interpretation.
Used in the singular, but generally in the plural, it designates a form of literary research
that confronts two or more sources of literature.
However, when coming into contact with works named “literary comparative studies”,
one realizes that this name turns out to label various investigations, adopting different
methodologies and diversification of object analysis, to give comparative literature a
wide range of performance.
Parallel to a dense block which examines the different reasons for migration subjects
and literature myths or search result sources and signal influences are other works of
comparison belonging to the same system or literary investigative structuring processes
of works. The diversity of these studies highlights the complexity of the issue.
In addition, the difficulty of reaching a consensus on the nature of comparative literature,

its goals and methods, grows with the literature guides, for there are a great divergence
on sense and on methodological orientations.
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In many of these guides, others call the trend without problematizing them. Some tend
to go for a generalizing concept, while others prefer to restrict certain aspects of the
scope of compared literary studies. As you can see, it is not an easy path to follow.
The meaning of “comparative literature” is further complicated when one realizes

that there is no single guideline to follow, and that it sometimes takes up a certain
methodological eclecticism.
Certain studies have concluded that the methods do not come prior to analysis, as
something previously manufactured, but they follow it.
It becomes more evident that the comparative literature cannot be understood simply
as a synonym for “comparison”.
First, because it is not an exclusive feature of comparisons. On the other hand, the
comparison is not a specific method, but a mental procedure that favors differentiation
or generalization.
A comparison is an everyday act of thinking about man and the organization of a culture.
So, to avail himself of the comparison is a widespread habit in different areas of human
knowledge and even in ordinary language.
Literary criticism sometimes is taken to establish confrontations with other works or

other authors, to elucidate and to base value judgments.
So, to compare, there will be only one goal, mainly to know whether they are similar or
different.
You could say, then, that the comparative literature is not a procedure itself, but because,
as an analytical and interpretive appeal, comparison enables this type of literary study
to receive proper exploitation of its fields and the achievement of the objectives to which
it proposes.
In summary, comparison, even in comparative studies, is a way, not an end.
Although it is not exclusive of comparative literature and cannot alone define it, it is a
systematic job that will characterize its performance. However, despite trying to clarify
the winding path of the settings, it is not convenient to point them. It is expected that
explanations arise naturally from further consideration.
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A stroll through the North American literature

The North American literature, or literature produced on American soil, began with the
oral transmission of myths, tales, legends and poems of native Indian cultures. There
is no written literature record between the different Native Indian languages and tribal
cultures existing in North America before the arrival of Europeans.
The tribes had their own religion, which worshiped gods, plants, animals or holy beings.
The story of the Natives demonstrates reverence for nature as a mother, both spiritual
and physical. Nature is alive and its protagonist are plants, animals or totems linked
to a particular tribe. For example, the legend of the Sioux mentions the importance of
caring for the most important food for North Americans, corn.
If history had been different, the United States could have become part of the Spanish
or French empires. Nowadays its inhabitants would speak French or Spanish and form
a great nation along with Mexico, or join the Canada of Montreal and Quebec.
The first European exploration record in America is written in a Scandinavian language:

the adventurous Leif Eriksson and his Norwegian group stayed for a period on the
northwest coast of America, what is now Canada region, about 400 years earlier of the
discovery of the New World.
The first recorded contacts between the Americans and the rest of the world initiated
with the renowned voyage of the Italian explorer Christopher Columbus. However,
the most relevant information about the initial contact between Native Americans and
Europeans was provided by Bartolomeo de las Casas.
Initial colonization attempts were made by the English, but without success. The first
colony was established near North Carolina, but all settlers disappeared and legends
are told about the Natives of the area.
The second colony, Jamestown, was more successful, though the settlers faced
starvation, atypical living conditions and absence of laws. However, the literature of
this period relates to America in bright colors, as a prosperous land of opportunities.
In the seventeenth century, adventurers, explorers and pirates opened the way for a
second wave of permanent colonists. The early literature of exploration that consisted
of log books, travel books, letters and reports was gradually being replaced by records
of settlers established there.
Later, England took possession of the North American colonies. Back then the most
studied and known literature was written in English. The literature of the minorities
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continued to thrive in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, and life in North America
became multicultural.
The Puritans were considered the most intellectual settlers, in the decades between
1630 and 1690. They were men with university degrees who settled in the northeast of
the United States, known as New England.
Although the themes were kept constant, the Puritan writing style ranged from complex
metaphysical poetry to homemade, daily and extremely repressive religious stories.
Life was seen as a trial, the failure led to eternal damnation and hellfire, and success to
heavenly bliss. Back then, it was a battle fought between the forces of good and evil (God
vs. Satan). The Puritans did not share the secular and religious spheres; everything was
seen as an expression of divine will, a belief that later resurfaced in Transcendentalism.
William Bradford (1590-1697) – Elected governor of Plymouth colony in the

Bay of Massachusetts, was the first historian of his colony. His ‘History Of Plymouth
Plantation’ (1651) is a quite famous in the description of America.
Of Plymouth Plantation
Being thus passed the vast ocean, and the sea troubles...
They had now no friends to welcome them nor inns to entertain or refresh their weather-
beaten bodies; no houses or much less towns to repair to, to seek for succor... savage
barbarians... were readier to fill their sides with arrows than otherwise. And for the
reason it was winter, and they that know the winters of that country know them to be
sharp and violent, and subject to cruel and fierce storms... all stand upon them with a
weather-beaten face, and the whole country; full of woods and thickets, represented a
wild and savage huge.
Anne Bradstreet (1612-1672) - Published the first book of American poetry and was
also the first book written by a woman. It was not published in England because there
was no press in the early days of the first American colonies. She was inspired by the
English metaphysical poetry. Although she wrote about love and popular comparisons
in Europe at that time, she always gave religious significance at the end of the poem.
The American Revolution against Britain (1775-1783) was the first modern war of
liberation against colonial power. Military victory created nationalist hopes about a
renewed literature, but the Americans books were not read in England and their authors
were aware of its dependence on English literary models. Thus, the search for a native
literature became an obsession. America’s cultural revolution lasted nearly 50 years.
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The writers of the revolutionary period were limited and could not find roots in
American sentiments. They had been born British, and American literary production
was delayed compared to the English. This difference in time intensified the North
American imitation.
Also during this period, writing did not bring financial return nor prestige. The lack of a
reading public was another aggravating factor. There was a preference for English works,
which had simple, light poetry, essays and short works or innovative and experimental
features like the American.
The American Enlightenment of the eighteenth century was marked by an emphasis on

rationality rather than tradition, scientific research instead of unquestioned religious
dogma, and representative government rather than absolute monarchy.
Enlightenment thinkers and writers were devoted to the ideals of justice, freedom and
equality as the natural rights of man.
Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) – Belonged to the second generation of

immigrants who came from England to Boston. He always tried to help ordinary people
become successful by sharing with them his ideas and views; he initiated the American
characteristic genre – the self-help book.
The work of Franklin Poor Richard’s Almanac begun in 1732 and was published for
many years; he became a prosperous and popular author in all the colonies. Despite his
popularity and fame, Franklin never lost his democratic sensibility, and was a major
figure in the 1776 Convention, when the US Constitution was written.
At the end of his life, he was the president of an antislavery association. One of his
efforts was to promote public education for all.
Hector St. John Crevecoeur (1735-1813) – Another representative of the

Enlightenment whose “Letters from an American Farmer” (1782) offered Europeans a
brilliant idea of opportunities for peace, pride and wealth in America.
Neither American nor farmer, but a French aristocrat who owned plantation near New
York before the Revolution, Crevecoeur praised the colonies for work, rising prosperity
and tolerance in his 12 letters describing America as an agrarian paradise.
He was the first European to develop a remarkable vision of America and the new
American characteristics.
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Melting Pot
What then is the American, this new man? He is either a European, or the descendant of
a European, hence that strange mixture of blood, which you will find in other country. I
could point out to you a family whose grandfather was an Englishman, whose wife was
Dutch, whose son married a French woman, and whose present sons have now four
wives of different nations...
Here individuals of all nations are melted into a new race of men, whose labors and
posterity one day cause changes in the world.
Thomas Paine (1737-1809) – He fed a passion for revolutionary literature, found

in pamphlets, the most popular form of political literature of that period. During the
revolution, his pamphlets encouraged patriots and threatened the supporters of the
king; the flyers were the role of the theater, as they were read aloud in the camps;
soldiers loyal to England were shot in public bonfires.
Clarity in writing was vital for a newcomer, to whom English could become a second
language.
The first important fiction writers widely recognized today, as Charles Brocken Brown,
Washington Irving and James Fennimore Cooper, used American affairs, changed
themes, nostalgic tones and historical perspectives. They wrote several prose genres
and found new designs and shapes to survive with the literature. With these American
literature writers, American literature began to be read and appreciated in the United
States and abroad.
Walt Whitman, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Herman Melville, Edgar Allan Poe, Emily
Dickinson, and the Transcendentalists represent the first great literary generation
produced in the United States. The “novels” were not merely love stories, but serious
novels that used special techniques to communicate complex and subtle meanings.
Hawthorne, Melville and Poe modeled heroic figures larger than life, full of mythical
significance, unlike many of the authors of England.
The American romance protagonists are alienated and haunted beings. The characters
Hester Prynne and Arthur Dimmesdale in Hawthorne’s ‘The Scarlet Letter’, Melville’s
Captain Ahab in “Mo by-Dick”, as well as characters of Poe’s tales are lonely and are
opposed to the unknown dark fate, and that so mysterious something emerges from the
depths of his unconsciousness. The symbolic plot reveal hidden actions of the anguished
spirit.
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The main reason for the fictional exploration into the hidden recesses of the soul is the
absence of traditional community life in America. British novelists lived in a complex
society, traditional and well-articulated. They shared with their readers worldviews that
shaped their realistic fiction. American novelists were faced with a history of conflict
and revolution, a geography of vast wilderness, a fluid and democratic society devoid of
certain social classes revealed the absence of revolutionary traditions.
The Transcendentalist movement was a reaction against the rationalism of the eighteenth
century and was based on fundamental belief in the unity of the world and of God.
Transcendentalism was intrinsically linked to Concord, a small town in New England.
This village, surrounded by forests, was a very quiet town, close to the bookstores and
schools of Boston, making it a cultural location, but away from the busy city.
Concord was also the site of the first battle of the American Revolution, and the poem
by Ralph Waldo Emerson, commemorating the battle, the “Concord Hymn,” has one of
the most famous opening stanzas in American literature.
“Concord Hymn,”
By the rude bridge that arched the flood Their flag to April’s breeze unfurled, Here once
the embattled farmers stood
And fired the shoot heard round the world.
The American Civil War (1861-1865) between the industrial North and the agricultural
and slavery-based South was a bloodshed in American history. The American idealism
remained, but was redirected.
Before the war, the idealists, mostly from the North, praised human rights, especially
the abolition of slavery. After the war, Americans began to defend the progress and the
self-made man. Trade and business flourished in period after the war.
In the 1860s, most Americans lived on farms or in small towns. By 1919, half the
population was already concentrated in large cities. This change saw the rise of
urbanization and industrialization problems, trade unions were also created and the
strikes began.
With the growth of industrialization, alienation also increased. The characteristic novels
of this period began to portray the damage caused by economic forces and alienation of
the weak and vulnerable individuals. In the 1920s, young Americans were considered
“the lost generation”. Without a framework of stable and traditional values, the
individual lost his sense of identity.
28
The familiar, comforting and safe life, plantations and harvests, the sense of patriotism,
moral values inculcated by religious belief: everything seemed to have been undermined
by the World War I and its aftermath.
The ideas and traditional ways did not offer enough meaning for many American poets
in the second half of the twentieth century. The post-war produced many writers with a
sense of discontinuous history; every act, every emotion and every moment were seen
as unique.
The biggest transformation in American society, however, was the rise of mass media
and mass culture. North American poetry was directly influenced by the mass media
and by electronic technology. Recordings, films, reading poetry and interviews with
poets became cheaply available and new methods of photographic printing encouraged
young poets to produce their own books.
The North American poetry since the 1990s permeates a renaissance at the moment, it
is a vast imagination, free territory of a boiling cauldron, a dynamic work in progress.
The excitement of American poetry since 1990 makes the decentralized field something
difficult to define. Many anthologies only exhibit a dimension of poetry.
A stroll through the British literature

The English language began about 5000 BC, at the end of the Ice Age, when the
temperature of Brittany rose, flooding the land where there is currently the English
Channel. This separated Britain from mainland Europe, turning it into an island. In the
case of English literature, we cannot fail to mention again, Beowulf, an English classic.
Beowulf is an epic poem of 3182 verses created in the eighth century that recounts
events of the VI century. Exploring this work, we can see that it was not written in
Brittany, yet it shows the established culture in place, and also reflects on the impact
caused by Christianity.
There are several works in English literature which symbolize the “island” and William
Shakespeare’s “The Tempest” was the most majestic of all; it symbolized the island in
several ways: as a magical place, as a searching object, such as a literary convention,
and even an analogy between the island and the man.
“The Tempest”
Where should this music be? I’ th’ air, th’ earth?
29
It sounds no more: and sure it was upon Some God o’ th’ Island. Sitting on a bank,
Weeping again the king my father’s wrack, This music crept by me upon the waters,
Allaying both their fury, and my passion With its sweet air: thence I have followed it (Or
it bath drawn me rather) but ‘tis gone. No, it begins again.
Nowadays, the English medieval literature can be divided into two parts: a) time of
pilgrimages and riders; b) the era of King Arthur.
In the first part of that literature, we can highlight the use of epics dealing with the
deeds of fearless heroes (like in Beowulf) and lyrics that reflect more serene aspects
of life. The lyrics have an elegiac tone and deal with the shortness of life, the winter of
terror in the Northlands and cruelty of the sea.
Although the poetry of that era is anonymous, two names are known to preserve Anglo-
Saxon literature: Cynemulf and King Alfred. They lived in the late VII century to the
beginning of the IX. They wrote about religious themes. King Alfred was responsible for
the recording of several Anglo-Saxon poems.
In the first part of medieval literature, there was the end of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms.
Edward was the last Saxon king of England; he built several churches and monasteries.
With his death (he left no heirs), the nobles of Normandy claimed the throne and
William (Duke of Normandy) became king of England.
The coronation of William the Conqueror, as he was known, was once a sign that the
relationship between Saxons and Normans would be turbulent. His first action was
to remove the lands of the Saxon lords and distribute them among the nobles from
France. As a result, feudalism was born.
With so much land donations, the king lost control and tried to organize the economy of
his kingdom. The people had the idea of the control of their lives by the king, who dubbed
the document from William I of “Doom’s day Book”, in reference to the biblical passage
way in which he says that on the day of judgment, a person’s whole life will be examined.
This book still exists and gives details about England in the end of the XI century.
With the death of William I, his son, William II, was the natural successor, but he
died shortly after his father. Fights happened in the kingdom between siblings and
another kin, Henry II, who became the new king and was the first undisputed king
since William I.
Henry wanted to control the Catholic Church and this created friction between him and
the Canterbury Archbishop, Thomas Becket, until the moment the knights killed Becket
at the altar. The murder shocked the Christian world; years later Becket was canonized,
30
and the way to Canterbury Cathedral and the tomb of the “Saint Thomas Becket” turned
into a pilgrimage route for Christians, not only for the British, but also Europeans.
And from that it was created the greatest work of English Literature: “The Canterbury
Tales”, which uses this pilgrimage as a backdrop to its story.
During this period, with the decline of feudalism, other kings were being established.
It was the birth of Saxon hatred towards the tyranny of the noble Normans and the
Catholic Church. The legend of the first popular hero of England was widespread and
extended by the songs of medieval troubadours, and only at the end of the XV century it
won the first written form. The ballad “A Gest of Robyn Hode”, which is the best known
work of Robin Hood, the outsider of Sherwood Forest that took from the rich to give
to the poor with the help of his bow and arrow, brings together the various narratives
about the legend.
In the XIV century, known as the Apocalypse Century, the English people might have
thought that the four horsemen of the apocalypse (pestilence, famine, war and death)
had ridden in England, because the sense of order to the world was lost and the lack
of certainty about the course of England, due to the crisis involving the king and the
nobles, dominated. Amidst the turmoil of this era, around 1485, the Wars of the Roses
and the English Middle Ages ceased, and, the golden age of English literature started.
Around 1476, the press was created in Germany. The technique of reproducing
texts revolutionized medieval literature. The process of propagation of large works
became faster and cheaper, and the books, more beautiful. Another consequence of
this development was the increase in the number of literate people and grammatical
standardization.
Before we get to the second part of the medieval era in English literature, we should
describe another universal work of the first phase, mentioned before: “The Canterbury
Tales”, written by Geoffrey Chaucer.
This work can be considered a new phase of tales, whereas most were versions of
popular stories circulating the Medieval Europe; Chaucer innovated literary structure
by representing the entire medieval society with its different religious, social, political
and economic classes.
In this work that is wide variety of stories, in addition to changes in the English language
made by Chaucer, as seen in this excerpt from “Prologue to the wife of Bath’s Tale.”
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“Prologue to the wife of Bath’s Tale”
Experience though noon auctoritee
Where in this world, is right enough for me
To speke of woe that is in marriage.
For lordings, sith I twelve yeer was of age, Thanked be God that is eterne on live,
Husbands at Chirche door I have had five (IF I so ofte might wedded be),
And all were worthy men in hir degree.
Alongside great works like The Canterbury Tales, the medieval English literature is
also characterized by two components: a popular strand (secular), represented by
the ballads, lyrical and chivalric romances; and a religious strand, exemplified by the
allegorical poem “Piers Plowman”, the lyrical and the medieval drama represented in
the Mystery plays, ‘Miracles’ and ‘Morality’.
This poem is an allegorical satire that celebrates the hard work and the virtues of man
while criticizing their addictions and the direction of the Catholic Church. There are
three different versions of the same text. Although there are distinctions between the
texts, they all follow the traditional poetic strategy of the Middle Ages to present the
poem as the product of a dream. The narrator of the poem, Will, reported dreams of
Piers Plowman and his quest for salvation. As it is a dream, the images take on a double
meaning, hence the presence of allegory.
Albeit with a certain delay, we come to the second part of Medieval English Literature,
and at this stage you will be introduced to the world of adventure, magic, love and
honor that surrounds the stories of King Arthur.
Arthur was born as a symbol of hope for Breton people. Following the withdrawal of the
Roman Britain in the early fifth century, the Britons had to fend for themselves against
their own invaders – the Germans, generically called by “Saxons”.
Many of the characters and elements surrounding the stories of King Arthur have their
origins in legends, customs and beliefs of the people who occupied Britain.
In France, by the mid-twelfth century, the romance of chivalry surpassed the epic poem
as the entertainment fact among the aristocracy. The romances of chivalry were long
tales of adventures first presented in poetry knights, and starting from the XIII century
prose.
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Generally, the romances of chivalry portray characters and events of a world of

improbability, fantasy, honor, innocence and extravagance. The subjects belonged to
three classes:
a. Britannia – which included the stories of King Arthur;
b. Greece – this included stories about Alexander the Great, the Trojan wars
and Theban;
c. France – which included the accounts of Carlos Magnus and his knights.
The XVI century England can be reffered to as “The Gold Age,” “The Elizabethan Age”,
“The Age of the Sea” and “The Age of Tudor.” Regardless of the term used, at no other
time England developed as much as during the reign of the Tudor dynasty.
During this dynasty there was the Protestant Reformation, where Luther criticized the
sale of indulgences, and the idolatry in the Catholic Church. The doctrine of Luther
preached:
a. the Christian faith as the only means of attaining salvation;
b. the Bible as the only source of faith;
c. free inquiry by the faithful for biblical interpretation;
d. the rejection of worship of Catholic saints and the worship of images;
e. the rejection of the authority of the Pope.
Hamlet (1601-1602), by William Shakespeare, is one of the most famous pieces, not
only of English literature, but also of world literature.
Hamlet
To be, or not to be, that is the question,
Something is rotten in the State of Denmark, There are more things in Heaven and
Earth, Than are dreamt of in our philosophy...
These words have been said by people who do not even know who Shakespeare was,
‘Hamlet’ represents the top of the Elizabethan theater, as it reports important elements
about the evolution of ancient literature in the XVI century England.
33
Understanding ‘Hamlet’ requires to overcome the literary field, to reach other areas
of human knowledge. The literature shows what the psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud
described as Oedipus complex.
Surely, this is the most analyzed part in Shakespeare because of its varied interpretative
possibilities, something that reflects the artistic concepts in vogue in the Elizabethan
period.
Some relevant concepts in Shakespeare’s work are the transition plan between two
worlds (the medieval world to the Renaissance), and the relationship between language
and reality (the Elizabethan drama explored the relationship between language and
social life).
Apart from drama, the English classicist artists also express it in what was the main
poetic form of the XVI century: the sonnet. The sonnet, usually, develops only a theme,
and although initially this was the love for a lady, their shape evolved to report other
matters such as religion, the shortness of life, the immortality of art, and death.
Despite all the religious, political and cultural upheaval of the XVI century, caused by
the Protestant Reformation and the Renaissance, the nationalist sentiment that Queen
Elizabeth I represented held the country together until her death. With the death of
Queen Elizabeth I, who failed to leave any heirs, the laws of succession to the crown
went to her cousin and the Stuart dynasty initiated.
At the end of the XVII century, England had turned into a constitutional monarchy. A
new country rose and an old regime was over thanks to a revolution. This century was
governed by the Stuart and the Hanover dynasties; however, the most relevant fact is
that the rulers had lost their effective power due to the rise of the middle class.
One consequence of this new setting for English literature was the emergence of a new
literary genre, closely linked to social class, the romance. The rise of the novel was due
to the need of the middle class to improve culturally. As a result of this search, there was
growth in readership, generating a huge demand for literary works.
In this century, the most important work is “Robinson Crusoe” by Daniel Defoe.
Written in first person to represent the changes in the protagonist’s personality along
the plot, this work exemplifies the elements that would characterize the novel from its
first moments:
a. the report is presented as the true and faithful record of Robinson Crusoe’s
life. This intention is stated in the preface;
34
b. the protagonist is an ordinary man;
c. the narrative is made in colloquial language, sometimes even carelessly;
d. There is great care with the description in details;
In the 1900s, at the height of its power, England was the motherland of Canada,
Australia, India, south Arabia, and large parts of Africa. “The sun never sets on the
British Empire” was the phrase that was heard in the streets.
The Victorian literature developed under the influence of the Industrial Revolution and
the moral and social codes represented by Queen Victoria and British imperialism. This
literature was divided into two phases:
a. moralist phase – stage where literature attempted to provide

understanding of the changes and the erosion of the values of English
society, or new values for society can be understood.
b. beauty phase – artists of this phase regard the concern of art with morality
as an oppressive element.
The result of the crisis in the fiction of modernist literature was the emergence of the
psychological regime, whose main features are:
»» The stream of consciousness;
»» The interior monologue.
The postmodern literature, unlike modern, captured the dominant culture and not only
considered the changes in artistic style, but also the extent of changes in society itself.
Tip
To understand more easily the literature made in the West, read the Bible and Greco-
Roman accounts, was about these two pillars of our civilization was created.
To understand more easily the literature made in the West, read the Bible and Greco-
Roman accounts; they were the two pillars of the creation of our civilization.
www.revistabula.com
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Activities
1. According to what you have read, one could say that the epic poem “Beowulf”
was very important to English Literature. Write a few lines about it.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. What are the characteristics of Old English Literature?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
3. Establish a connection between the unfolding of the Protestant Reformation

of England and the English colonization in North America.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. The comparative literature is widely seen as the branch of Literary Theory

which studies by comparing the literature of two or more language groups.
Write some lines about this affirmation.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5. What was the importance of Puritanism to the development of literature in

the United States of America?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
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British English
x American UNIT II
English
Chapter I
English Speaking countries
American or British? When the topic is the accent in the English language, many
people ask the question: which English to study, American or British?
The distinctions between British English and American English are not vast. They
are mainly in pronunciation, although there are some small distinctions in spelling,
vocabulary and grammar. However, it is quite complex to sort this issue completely as
when we refer to British and American native speakers, we must also refer to the many
dialects within them which differ quite as well.
Note
If you are in London and someone asks you if you have a “fag”, this can be considered normal, of
course, as in England “fag” means “cigarette”. But if you’re in New York and want to ask what “fag”, this
can be a bit more complicated and embarrassing, because in America “fag” is a pejorative and extremely
offensive term for homosexual.
As we think it is more of a cultural issue, do not try so hard to find out why this or that.
Just be aware of these differences and know that they will help you communicate with
American people and English people without going through embarrassing situations.
In a country like Brazil, for example, which is vast in geography and diverse in culture,
there are various accents and different vocabularies, but you can still establish a
consistent dialogue with someone from any region, even though differences are there,
it is up to us to know them and observe them.
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UNIT II │ British English x American English
One must learn general English, as it is not England or the United States that will
dictate what one should learn in English, because there are several people outside those
countries who speak English.
Focus on general English, because if you learn British English, you will learn American
English, yes, but there will be areas in which we do not understand very well the accents.
However, it will not make a big difference and will not become a big problem because
you speak English and know what can make all the difference.
Note
If you say that a person is “mean” in the United States, it means that he/she is a bad person, while in
England you mean that the person is not very generous in both cases you end up saying that these
people are not “good” people.
Remember it does not matter you speak British English or American English, because both are the same
language. Communication is the big deal, no one should hold or imitate accents all the time.
Different pronunciations of the letter “t”
Cat, Hat, Sit
»» When the letter “T” is at the end of the word, it remains with the sound
of “T”.
»» While in the US the natives pronounce the vowel a little different, the “T”
has the same sound.
Time, Tower, Tree
»» When the letter “T” is the word beginning, it stays with sound “T”.
Now let’s look at an example where the letter “T” is in the middle of the
word.
Water, Automatic, Computer
»» In the words the letter “T” is between two vowels. In British English
the sound of the letter does not change, pronounced with the sound of
“T”. However, American English is a little different: the sound of the “T”
between vowel sounds changes to the sound of “R” or “D”.
38
British English x American English │ UNIT II
E.G:
British English American English

“Water” “Wader”
“Automatic” “Audomadic”
“Computer” “Compuder”
Note: Do not take into account the spelling Chart words, right now, we are just
illustrating the pronunciation.
Now let’s look at an example where the words have the letter “T” after a
consonant and before a vowel.
Mountain, Sentence, Important
»» In British English, we pronounce the letter “T” with the sound “T”, but in
American English, the sound of “T” switches into a glottis stop.
E.G:

“Mountain” “Moun’ain”
“Sentence” “Sen’ence”
“Important “Impor’tant”
Note: Do not take into account the spelling Chart words, right now, we are just
illustrating the pronunciation.
»» In short, in British English, the letter “T” always remains with the sound
“T”, regardless of the word. But in American English, it is necessary to
analyze the position of the letter, in addition to analyzing the letter that
precedes it and the letter that comes after it.
Characterizing the English language into two sub-dialects is a rough underestimation

of the language. That way, where are the Jamaican, Australian, Irish English? Where
will they be represented?
There are considerable differences as pronunciation and vocabulary, but the question
goes beyond that, you must establish communication rather than worry about vocabulary
or pronunciation details.
Now let’s look at an example where the pronunciation of the letter “R” is in
the end of the words.
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Car
»» In American English the pronunciation of the letter “R” is evident. Eg:

Cárr.
»» In British English, people do not pronounce the letter “R”, they just
prolong the pronunciation of the vowel “a”. E.g: cáá.
Note: Do not take into account the spelling Chart words, right now, we
are just illustrating the pronunciation.
»» In short, in American English, the letter “R” is always pronounced,

while in British English it is like non-existent.
Don’t Forget!
The letter “R” is always pronounced in American English, regardless of their position in the word. While in
British English the letter “R “is pronounced only when it precedes a vowel, and in other cases the letter” R
“is silent.
Some differences in Vocabulary

Driver’s license Driving license
Diversion Detour
Trousers Pants
Boot Trunk
Crisps/Chips Fries/French Fries
Dummy Pacifier
Dustbin Garbage can/Trash can
Nappy Diaper
Garden Yard
Lift Elevator
Biscuit Cookie
Flat Apartment
American English British English
Soccer Football
Ride Lift
Ticket agent Booking clerk
Trial lawyer Barrister
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Lawyer Solicitor
Druggist Chemist
Rare Underdone
Dessert Sweet
Broiled Grilled
Restroom Public toilet
Bathroom Private toilet
Trailer Caravan
Do not pass No overtaking
No standing No parking/no stopping
To go To take away
Turn out Lay by
Line Queue
Fall Autumn
Check Bill
Automobile Car/ motor car
Parking lot Car park
Boss Chief/master
Soccer game Football match
Monday through Friday From Monday to Friday
To go on vacation To go on holyday
To rent To hire
Newspaperman Journalist
Attorney Lawyer/barist
Mail box Letter box/ post box
Baggage Luggage
Newsstand News stall
Sidewalk Pavement
Gas/gasoline Petrol
Movie Theater Picture Station
Zip Code Post code
Mailman Postman
Pay station Pay phone
Deliveryman Rundsman
Stud horse Stallion
Citizen Subject
Telephone booth Telephone box
Subway Underground
Bussiness card/ calling card Visiting card
41
Some Grammar differences
Present Perfect x Simple Past

I already gave her the sandwich. I have already given her the sandwich.
I just saw the cat. I’ve just seen the cat.
Did you see the news yet? Have you seen the news yet?
In American English, the Simple Past can be used with already, just and yet. In British
English , the Present Perfect is used with these adverbs.
Have x Have got

They have/have got two cars. They have/have got two cars.
Do you have a car? Yes, I do. Have you got a car? Yes, I have.
In British English, it is possible to use ‘have got’ or ‘have’ to express the idea of
possession. In American English, only ‘have’ can be used in questions and negative
sentences.
Prepositions and Particles

Checking something (out) Check something
Different from/than Different from/to
Do something over/again Do something again
In a course On a course
Live on X street Live in X street
Look around the church Look (a)round the church
Meet somebody (by chance) / meet with somebody
Meet somebody Monday through/ to friday
(planned)
Monday to friday On a team In a team
On the weekend At the weekend Ten after/past four (time)
Ten past four Ten to/of/before/till four Ten to four
Stay home Stay at home
42
Shall
»» Shall’ is not used instead of ‘will’ in American English for the first person
singular of the future:
E.g: I shall/will be here tomorrow. (British English)
E.g; I will be here tomorrow. (American English)
»» Nor is it used in polite offers:
E.g: Shall I open the window? (British English)
E.g: Should I open the window? (American English)
Irregular Verbs
»» In British English, the ‘past simple’ and ‘past participle’ of many verbs
can be formed with -ed or -t, for example, burned/burnt. In American
English only the forms ending in -ed are used:
E.g: They burned/burnt the documents. (British English)
E.g: They burned the documents. (American English)
»» When the past participle is used as an adjective, British English prefer the
“t” form, whereas in American English the -ed form is preferred, (with
the exception of ‘burnt’):
E.g: a spoilt child. (British English)
E.g: a spoiled child. (American English)
E.g: burnt toast. (British English and American English )
English Speaking Countries

Did you know that 500 years ago they did not speak English in the United States?
Native Americans had their own language, as well as the Inuit, Eskimos and Aleuts in
the Canada, the Aborigines in Australia and Maoris in New Zealand! All these countries
have English as an official language today. Now we will learn some curiosities of the
countries which speak the English language.
43
America speaks English primarily due to colonization by the British in the late sixteenth
century. However, other people migrated to American lands, such as Irish, French,
Germans and Scandinavians. Because of this, the United States is the country that has
the highest mixture of colonists in the world. The English spoken there is therefore a
mixture of all these people.
To give you an idea of the importance of other cultures in English composition, you can
just see the origin of the words below (note that they are common words in English):
»» Exit, Circus and Video come from Latin;
»» Psychology, Telephone and Cinema are of Greek origin;
»» Biscuit, Garage and Restaurant come from French;
»» Hamburger (which Americans love so much) has its origin in German;
»» Guitar, Tango and Banana are of Spanish origin.
The English language is spoken in more than 60 countries as the official or governmental
language. However, the English language has some variations from country to country.
It is remarkable the difference between the accents in British English and American
English because, as we have seen, there are some words and expressions which are also
different.
English is a rich language, and it is very important in the current world scenario.
Learning English as a second language is extremely important for those who want to
succeed in their careers and, of course, also for better use while traveling around several
countries which have English as an official language.
List of countries where English is the official language
Countries % English Speakers

United States 94
India 10
Pakistan 49
Nigeria 53
United Kingdom 97
Philippines 56
Germany 64
Bangladesh 18
44
Egypt 35
Canada 85
France 39
Italy 34
Australia 97
Thailand 27
Netherlands 90
Nepal 46
South Africa 31
Poland 33
Turkey 17
Iraq 35
Spain 22
Sweden 86
China 0,7
Kenya 1,8
Cameron 38
Malaysia 20
Belgium 59
Israel 84
Australia 73
Romania 31
Zimbabwe 41
Greece 51
Mexico 12
Denmark 86
Norway 90
Republic of Ireland 97
Finland 70
Jamaica 97
https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki
45
Activities
1. What are the advantages of speaking English nowadays? (Justify your answer.)
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. What are the main similarities and diﬀerences between British English and
American English?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
3. As there is no right and wrong, why are people so keen to speak British English
or American? Write a few lines about this.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
4. List some words ending in -og in American English which are spelled with
“ogue” in British English.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
5. Many verbs ending in “-ize” in American English are usually spelled with “-ise”
in British English. Make a list of some of them.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
46
Chapter II
English as an international language
Are those who do not speak English be partially excluded from the global
community and its labor market?
That English has become a basic necessity in our life is not news to anyone.
Research by Human Resources Area organizations confirm: mastering this
language can guarantee one a salary up to 60% higher and, of course, one is more
likely to earn a promotion. Just look at the newspapers and check how many
job ads include in its requirements the mastering of English. Not to mention the
academic needs (graduate, MBA, etc.).
A few years ago, English was a privilege of the few, today it is a necessity for all. Why is
that?
As an international language, the language of business, study, travel, communication

with the globalized world in which we live, learning English becomes increasingly
indispensable in our lives.
It appears in our day to day words, and it is adopted in full use among Brazilians, such as
notebook, laptop, flash drive, download and many others that popularized the Internet,
which makes us realize the growing influence that language has on our culture.
In the labor market, English is increasingly requested and even required by large
companies.
Knowing English at ease fills a gap in the curriculum, which ensures the candidate
better employment opportunities.
Salary surveys reveal that the salary of a person who speaks a second language is 30%
higher than of those who speak only one.
Globalization has provided many Brazilians trips abroad for studies, business and
tourism. Many foreigners have come to Brazil with the same goals. In this cultural
exchange, the most used language in communication is English, which today is spoken
by over 400 million people as a first language, not only in the US and UK, but also in
Australia, New Zealand and much of Canada. Statistics show that one in six people in
the world speak English, either as a first or second language.
47
To achieve success in the labor market, learning English is a vital step and more and
more adults seek this learning. The English language is increasingly seen as the language
of the opportunities for the future.
http://www.culturainglesa.net
Activities
1. What is the future of the language of the early days? (Justify your answer).
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
2. How was the English language spread out at the beginning? (Justify your
answer).
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
3. It can be argued that since the beginning of time, language is power. Write a
few lines about this statement.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. The greatest difficulty in talking about the future of English teaching is the
realization that the future is becoming increasingly unpredictable. The two
reasons usually given for this unpredictability are (1) the idea that the future is
only a projection of the present, and (2) the belief that the changes are happening
much faster than it did before. Write a few lines about these reasons.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
48
_________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5. In an article published on the “New York Times”, the economist Lawrence

Summers, former US Treasury secretary and former dean of Harvard, said that
studying foreign languages is, in today’s world, a complete waste of time. Write
a few lines about this.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
49
Not to End
Further study
Dear student,
We arrived at the end of this discipline “Compared English “. We really hope that you
continue studying English in a pleasant way and always seek for new questions.
Our goal was to present English to you in a new light. You can adopt multiple paths in
this study, as you live the English part of our daily life.
Over the years as English students and now as teachers, we discovered distinct
variations in the language used in writing and communication, among other aspects,
which fascinates us. We hope you will notice the utility that it may have awaken in your
life.
50
References
BASSNET, Susan. Comparative Literature: an introduction, Oxford, Blackwell, 1997.

CRYSTAL, David. English as a Global Language. Ed. Cambridge University. Press.
1997. KRAMSCH, C. Context and Culture in Language Teaching. Oxford University
Press, 1993.
NITRINI, Sandra. Literatura Comparada. São Paulo, EDUSP, 2000. SNOW,D. From
Language Learner to Language Teacher. TESOL, 2007.
51

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Vanessa de Carvalho Pedra

Equipe Técnica de Avaliação, Revisão Linguística e Editoração

Book Studies Organization and Research................................................................................... 6

Food for thought

Suggested follow-up study

Suggestion of activities with the didactic purpose of strengthening the student’s

Signal important details/topics which may contribute to the synthesis/conclusion

Additional information to clarify the summary and conclusions of the subject

Seeks to summarize relevant information, thus facilitating the understanding of

»» Explain the differences of language use in different places.

»» Compare the literary currents.

A language acts as a straitjacket, allowing us to think in a certain way. Only being

A brief history of origins of languages

According to Noam Chomsky, American linguist, there were universal principles

History of the English language

An image of the original written copy of Beowulf.

The General Prologue (Middle English)

The General Prologue (Modern English)

1. Whan that Aprill with his shoures soote

When April with its sweet-smelling showers

2. The droghte of March hath perced to the roote,

Has pierced the drought of March to the root,

3. And bathed every veyne in swich licour

And bathed every vein (of the plants) in such liquid

4. Of which vertu engendred is the flour;

By which power the flower is created;

5. Whan Zephirus eek with his sweete breeth

When the West Wind also with its sweet breath,

6. Inspired hath in every holt and heeth

In every wood and field has breathed life into

7. The tendre croppes, and the yonge sonne

The tender new leaves, and the young sun

8. Hath in the Ram his half cours yronne,

Has run half its course in Aries,

9. And smale foweles maken melodye,

And small fowls make melody,

10. That slepen al the nyght with open ye

Those that sleep all the night with open eyes

11. (So priketh hem Nature in hir corages),

(So Nature incites them in their hearts),

12. Thanne longen folk to goon on pilgrimages,

Then folk long to go on pilgrimages,

13. And palmeres for to seken straunge strondes,

And professional pilgrims to seek foreign shores,

14. To ferne halwes, kowthe in sondry londes;

To distant shrines, known in various lands;

15. And specially from every shires ende

And specially from every shire’s end

16. Of Engelond to Caunterbury they wende,

Of England to Canterbury they travel,

17. The hooly blisful martir for to seke,

To seek the holy blessed martyr,

Who helped them when they were sick.

The creation of light

1. In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth.

English in the World

4. Write about the various influences on English.

In addition, the difficulty of reaching a consensus on the nature of comparative literature,

The meaning of “comparative literature” is further complicated when one realizes

Literary criticism sometimes is taken to establish confrontations with other works or

In summary, comparison, even in comparative studies, is a way, not an end.

A stroll through the North American literature