Tensile testing

Tensile testing, also known as tension testing,[1] is a fundamental materials science

and engineering test in which a sample is subjected to a controlled tension until
failure. Properties that are directly measured via a tensile test are ultimate tensile
strength, breaking strength, maximum elongation and reduction in area.[2] From
these measurements the following properties can also be determined: Young's
modulus, Poisson's ratio, yield strength, and strain-hardening characteristics.[3]
Uniaxial tensile testing is the most commonly used for obtaining the mechanical
characteristics of isotropic materials. Some materials usebiaxial tensile testing.

Contents
Purposes
Tensile specimen
Equipment
Tensile testing on a coir composite.
Process Specimen size is not to standard
Standards (Instron).
Metals
Composites
Flexible materials
References
External links

Purposes
Tensile testing might have a variety of purposes, such as:

Select a material or item for an application

Predict how a material will perform in use:normal and extreme forces.
Determine if, or verify that, the requirements of aspecification, regulation, or contract are met
Decide if a new product developmentprogram is on track: Demonstrateproof of concept
Demonstrate the utility of a proposedpatent
Provide standard data for other scientific, engineering, andquality assurance functions
Provide a basis for Technical communication
Provide a technical means of comparison of several options
Provide evidence in legal proceedings

Tensile specimen
The preparation of test specimens depends on the purposes of testing and on the governing test method or specification. A tensile
specimens is usually a standardized sample cross-section. It has two shoulders and a gage (section) in between. The shoulders are
large so they can be readily gripped, whereas the gauge section has a smaller cross-section so that the deformation and failure can
occur in this area.[2][4]
The shoulders of the test specimen can be manufactured in various ways to mate to
various grips in the testing machine (see the image below). Each system has
advantages and disadvantages; for example, shoulders designed for serrated grips are
easy and cheap to manufacture, but the alignment of the specimen is dependent on
the skill of the technician. On the other hand, a pinned grip assures good alignment.
Threaded shoulders and grips also assure good alignment, but the technician must
know to thread each shoulder into the grip at least one diameter's length, otherwise
[5]
the threads can strip before the specimen fractures.

In large castings and forgings it is common to add extra material, which is designed
to be removed from the casting so that test specimens can be made from it. These Tensile specimens made from an
aluminum alloy. The left two
specimens may not be exact representation of the whole workpiece because the grain
specimens have a round cross-
structure may be different throughout. In smaller workpieces or when critical parts
section and threaded shoulders. The
of the casting must be tested, a workpiece may be sacrificed to make the test right two are flat specimens designed
specimens.[6] For workpieces that are machined from bar stock, the test specimen to be used with serrated grips.
can be made from the same piece as the bar stock.

Various shoulder styles for tensile specimens. Keys A through C are for round specimens, whereas keys D and E
are for flat specimens. Key:
A. A Threaded shoulder for use with a thread
B. A round shoulder for use with serrated grips
C. A butt end shoulder for use with a split collar
D. A flat shoulder for used with serrated grips

E. A flat shoulder with a through hole for a pinned grip

Test specimen nomenclature

[6]
The repeatability of a testing machine can be found by using special test specimens meticulously made to be as similar as possible.
A standard specimen is prepared in a round or a square section along the gauge length, depending on the standard used. Both ends of
the specimens should have sufficient length and a surface condition such that they are firmly gripped during testing. The initial gauge
length Lo is standardized (in several countries) and varies with the diameter (Do) or the cross-sectional area (Ao) of the specimen as
listed

Type specimen United States(ASTM) Britain Germany

Sheet ( Lo / √Ao) 4.5 5.65 11.3
Rod ( Lo / Do) 4.0 5.00 10.0

The following tables gives examples of test specimen dimensions and tolerances per standard
ASTM E8.

Flat test specimen[7]

Plate type (1.5 in. Sheet type (0.5 in. Sub-size specimen (0.25 in.
All values in inches
wide) wide) wide)
Gauge length 8.00±0.01 2.00±0.005 1.000±0.003
Width 1.5 +0.125–0.25 0.500±0.010 0.250±0.005
Thickness 0.188 ≤ T 0.005 ≤ T ≤ 0.75 0.005 ≤ T ≤ 0.25
Fillet radius (min.) 1 0.25 0.25
Overall length (min.) 18 8 4
Length of reduced section
9 2.25 1.25
(min.)
Length of grip section (min.) 3 2 1.25
Width of grip section 3⁄
2 0.75 8
(approx.)

Round test specimen[7]

Standard specimen at nominal
Small specimen at nominal diameter:
All values in inches diameter:
0.500 0.350 0.25 0.160 0.113
Gauge length 2.00±0.005 1.400±0.005 1.000±0.005 0.640±0.005 0.450±0.005
Diameter tolerance ±0.010 ±0.007 ±0.005 ±0.003 ±0.002

Fillet radius (min.) 3⁄ 0.25 5⁄ 5⁄ 3⁄

8 16 32 32

Length of reduced section 5⁄

2.5 1.75 1.25 0.75 8
(min.)

Equipment
Tensile testing is most often carried out at a material testing laboratory. The ASTM D638 is among the most common tensile testing
protocols. The ASTM D638 measures plastics tensile properties including ultimate tensile strength, yield strength, elongation and
Poisson’s ratio.

The most common testing machine used in tensile testing is the universal testing machine. This type of machine has two crossheads;
one is adjusted for the length of the specimen and the other is driven to apply tension to the test specimen. There are two types:
hydraulic powered and electromagnetically powered machines.[4]

The machine must have the proper capabilities for the test specimen being tested. There are four main parameters: force capacity,
speed, precision and accuracy. Force capacity refers to the fact that the machine must be able to generate enough force to fracture the
specimen. The machine must be able to apply the force quickly or slowly enough to properly mimic the actual application. Finally,
the machine must be able to accurately and precisely measure the gauge length and
forces applied; for instance, a large machine that is designed to measure long
elongations may not work with a brittle material that experiences short elongations
prior to fracturing.[5]

Alignment of the test specimen in the testing machine is critical, because if the
specimen is misaligned, either at an angle or offset to one side, the machine will
exert a bending force on the specimen. This is especially bad for brittle materials,
because it will dramatically skew the results. This situation can be minimized by
using spherical seats or U-joints between the grips and the test machine.[5] If the
initial portion of the stress–strain curve is curved and not linear, it indicates the
specimen is misaligned in the testing machine.[8]

The strain measurements are most commonly measured with an extensometer, but
strain gauges are also frequently used on small test specimen or when Poisson's ratio
is being measured.[5] Newer test machines have digital time, force, and elongation
measurement systems consisting of electronic sensors connected to a data collection
device (often a computer) and software to manipulate and output the data. However,
A universal testing machine
analog machines continue to meet and exceed ASTM, NIST, and ASM metal tensile (Hegewald & Peschke)
testing accuracy requirements, continuing to be used today
.

Process
The test process involves placing the test specimen in the testing machine and slowly extending it until it fractures. During this
process, the elongation of the gauge section is recorded against the applied force. The data is manipulated so that it is not specific to
the geometry of the test sample. The elongation measurement is used to calculate the engineering strain, ε, using the following
equation:[4]

where ΔL is the change in gauge length, L0 is the initial gauge length, and L is the final length. The force measurement is used to
calculate the engineering stress, σ, using the following equation:[4]

where F is the tensile force and A is the nominal cross-section of the specimen. The machine does these calculations as the force
increases, so that the data points can be graphed into astress–strain curve.[4]

Standards

Metals
ASTM E8/E8M-13: "Standard Test Methods for Tension Testing of Metallic Materials" (2013)
ISO 6892-1: "Metallic materials. Tensile testing. Method of test at ambient temperature" (2009)
ISO 6892-2: "Metallic materials. Tensile testing. Method of test at elevated temperature" (2011)
JIS Z2241 Method of tensile test for metallic materials

Composites
 ASTM D 3039/D 3039M: "Standard Test Method for Tensile Properties of Polymer Matrix Composite Materials"

Flexible materials
ASTM D638 Standard Test Method for Tensile Properties of Plastics
ASTM D828 Standard test method for tensile properties of paper and paperboard using constant-rate-of-elongation
apparatus
ASTM D882 Standard test method for tensile properties of thin plastic sheeting
ISO 37 rubber, vulcanized or thermoplastic—determination of tensile stress–strain properties

References
1. Czichos, Horst (2006).Springer Handbook of Materials Measurement Methods(https://books.google.com/books?id=
8lANaR-Pqi4C). Berlin: Springer. pp. 303–304. ISBN 978-3-540-20785-6.
2. Davis, Joseph R. (2004).Tensile testing (https://books.google.com/books?id=5uRIb3emL
Y8C) (2nd ed.). ASM
International. ISBN 978-0-87170-806-9.
3. Davis 2004, p. 33.
4. Davis 2004, p. 2.
5. Davis 2004, p. 9.
6. Davis 2004, p. 8.
7. Davis 2004, p. 52.
8. Davis 2004, p. 11.

External links
Video on the tensile test
Determining the properties of a material by use of eTnsile Testing
Learn more about the ASTM D638 T ensile Test

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ensile_testing&oldid=888661619"

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