FN 121 THU Prof.

Cabigas
Alaba, Jaimie B. Study Guide 2
Malubay, Francesca Raphaella Q. 2nd Reading & Covering, Protection and Movement

Reading: Mitochondrial Dynamics in the Regulation of Nutrient Utilization and Energy Expenditure
Important things to note: then because of that the body can’t digest the glucose coming in
● While aging involves insufficiency of mitochondrial well enough. That excessive glucose becomes fat so you get FAT
quality control and turnover mechanisms (such as (wew hello obesity) but also it messes up your mitochondria
autophagy), type 2 diabetes and obesity are influenced some more so yeah it’s a vicious cycle. HERE’S WHAT THE
by the ability of the organism to deal with excess RESEARCHERS THOUGHT OF. Since people eat a LOT of
nutrient environment. glucose and they don’t really get used up because tbh who likes
● Mitochondrial bioenergetic efficiency is defined as the the gym right? So yeah the balance becomes waaaay off and now
ATP produced in the mitochondria per molecule of they’re thinking of ways to eliminate that EXCESS GLUCOSE
nutrient (Figure 1), and mitochondrial ATP synthesis as waste so that it balances with the intake. BUTTTT the body
capacity is defined as the rate at which ATP is produced don’t work that way lol. It only works like that when you’re
per unit of time starving. SO THEY USED THEIR BRAINS AGAIN AND
● Cells exposed to a rich-nutrient environment tend to OMG THEY SMART AS HECK. They’re thinking of altering
keep their mitochondria in a separated (fragmented) the mitochondria’s structure or 4whuteva so that it can eliminate
state, and mitochondria in cells under starvation tend to more glucose cuz ya’ll not exercising enough. They thought of
remain for a longer duration in the connected this great idea because they’re thinking that it’s you’re
(elongated) state mitochondria’s protective mechanism since it can’t process all
● Multiple evidences demonstrate that mitochondrial your glucose but aside from that they’re also thinking of other
dynamics are important for cell viability, senescence, body processes that can lessen your sugar but they keep coming
mitochondria health, bioenergetic function, quality to the conclusion that WHEN YOU EAT TOO MUCH STUFF,
control, and intracellular signaling YOUR BODY GIVES UP ON YA LOL ½ JK. So in the end
● Thus, excessive ROS production would be a major they say that calorie restriction is the way to go!!
contributor to insulin resistance. These mechanisms
would suggest that decreased mitochondrial function is Synthesis: T ​ he paper basically aims to determine the correlation
not a regulated process but rather caused by damaging of excessive nutrient intake with the dynamics of mitochondrial
effects caused by nutrient excess. function such as ATP synthesis. It emphasizes on the role of
● Long-term exposure of beta cells to high levels of excess glucose in developing insulin resistance that ultimately
glucose, lipids, or their combination has deleterious impedes certain cellular activities, especially mitochondrial
effects on beta cell mitochondrial function, physiology, bioenergetics. Although there are ongoing studies on possible
and viability. treatments to combat Type 2 Diabetes and obesity through
● Consistent with the notion that mitochondrial elongation research on the physiology of the mitochondrion, the researchers
promotes increased mitochondrial ATP synthesis were still giving emphasis on the importance of calorie
capacity is the association of elongation with cell restriction. This is to say that treatments such as the ones
senescence. Senescence involves a decreased mentioned in the reading is only an aid for those individuals that
capacity of proliferation, homeostatic imbalance, and are not able to process glucose well on their own. The most
thus decreased capacity of mitochondrial biogenesis recommended plan of action against such problems is still
balance, moderation and variety, putting much emphasis on
**​YA’LL OKAY HERE’S HOW WE UNDERSTOOD THE balance and moderation.
THING:
So you know about how the body ages and then it doesn’t
function as well anymore? That happens to the mitochondria and

Covering, Protection, and Movement: Tissues and Membranes, Integumentary system and body temperature
Tissue
body cavities, and ducts
● Group of cells that have embryonic origin and carry
- Forms glands
out specialized activities
- Allows body to interact w/ internal and external
● Histology:​ ​histo- ​(tissue) ; ​-logy ​(study of)
environments
● Pathologist: physician examining cells and tissues
for things that might cause disease
Connective - Protects and supports body and organs
- Bind organs together, store energy reserves as
4 Basic Types of Tissues
fat, help provide body w/ immunity to
Tissue Description disease-causing organisms

Epithelial - Covers body surfaces and lines hollow organs, Muscular - Has cells for contraction & generation of force

Alaba & Malubay | 1 of 8

 - Generates heat to warm body - Inside plasma membrane → integrins
attach to intermediate filaments
Nervous - Detects changes inside and outside environment - Outside plasma membrane → integrins
and responds through generating electric signals attach to laminin
- ​Nerve Action Potential (Nerve impulses): - ​Laminin:​ present in basement membrane
activate muscular contractions and glandular - Anchor cells not to each other but to
secretions basement membrane

Gap Junctions - Connexins: membrane proteins that form

Cell Junctions
tiny fluid-filled tunnels called connexons
● Contact points b/w plasma membranes of tissue cells
connecting neighboring cells
- Passage of large molecules is prevented
5 Types of Cell Junctions
- Permit electrical and chemical signals to
Cell Junction Description pass b/w cells
- Enable nerve impulses to spread rapidly
Tight Junctions - Weblike strands of transmembrane among cells
proteins that fuse together the outer
surfaces of adjacent plasma membranes to
seal off passageways b/w adjacent cells
- Inhibit passage of subs b/w cells and
prevent contents of orgams from leaking
into blood or surrounding tissues
- Form fluid-tight seals b/w cells

Adherens - ​Plaque: ​dense layer of proteins on inside

Junctions of plasma membrane attached to membrane
proteins and microfilaments of cytoskeleton
- ​Cadherins:​ transmembrane glycoproteins
that join cells
- Cadherins insert into plaque from opposite
side of membrane, partially crosses space
b/w cells, and connects to cadherins of
adjacent cell
- ​Adhesion Belts: ​extensive zones that
encircle cell formed in epithelial cells
- Help resist separation during contractile
activities Differences b/w Epithelial and Connective Tissues

Desmosomes - Has plaque and cadherins that perform Difference Epithelial Connective
same function like adherens junctions
- Unlike adherens junctions, plaque doesn’t # of cells - Many cells tightly - Large amount of
attach to microfilaments but to intermediate packed together w/ extracellular material
filaments (found in cytoskeleton) little or no separating cells widely
- ​Intermediate Filaments:​ consist of extracellular matrix scattered
protein keratin that extend from
desmosomes on one side across the cytosol Presence of None - Significant network of
to those on other side of cell blood vessels blood vessels
- Spot weld-like junctions
- Prevent epidermal cells from separating Formation of - Almost always and
under tension and cardiac muscle cells from surface layers isn’t covered by
pulling apart during contraction another tissue
- Exception is lining of
Hemidesmosomes - Don’t link adjacent cells blood vessels where
- Look like half desmosomes blood constantly
- ​Integrins:​ transmembrane glycoproteins passes over epithelium
in hemidesmosomes

References: ​Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. (2017). ​Principles of anatomy and physiology 15th Edition​. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
FN 121 Study Guide #2 Covering, Protection and Movement Alaba & Malubay | 2 of 12
 Epithelial Tissue​ ​(Epithelium) ○ Reticular Lamina
● Consists of cells arranged in continuous sheets, 1 or ● Form surface where cells epithelial cells migrate
multiple layers during growth or wound healing
● Little space b/w adjacent plasma membranes ● Restrict passage of large molecules b/w epithelium
● Avascular: relies on blood vessels of adjacent and connective tissue
connective tissue to bring nutrients and remove ● Participate in filtration of blood in kidneys
wastes
● Exchange of subs occurs by diffusion 2 Layers of Basement Membrane
● Combines w/ nervous tissue to form special organs
Layer Description
for smell, hearing, vision, and touch
● Protects, secretes, absorbs and excretes
Basal - Closer to and secreted by epithelial cells
● Two types:
Lamina - Proteins: laminin and collagen
○ Surface Epithelium: Covering and lining
- Glycoproteins and proteoglycans
various surfaces
○ Glandular Epithelium: Forming secreting Reticular - Closer to connective tissue
portions on glands Lamina - ​Fibroblasts:​ connective cells that produce
collagen contained in layer
Surfaces of Covering and Lining of Epithelium Cells
Surface Description Classification of Epithelial Tissue
Apical (free) - Faces body surface, body cavity, the lumen Character Type Function
(interior space) of internal organ, or tubular duct istic
that receives cell secretions
- May have cilia or microvilli Simple Epithelium - 1 layer functioning in
- Most superficial layer in multi-layered epithelial diffusion, osmosis, filtration,
cells Layers of secretion, or absorption
cell -​ Secretion:​ produce and
Lateral - Face adjacent cells on either side release of mucus, sweat,
- May contain tight junctions, adherens junctions, enzymes
desmosomes, and or gap junctions - ​Absorption:​ intake of fluids
or digested food from
Basal - Opposite of apical intestinal tract
- Deepest layer of epithelial cells adhere to
extracellular materials like basement membrane Pseudostratified - Pseudo = false
- Hemidesmosomes in this surface anchor Epithelium - Appears to have multiple
epithelium to basement membrane layers because nuclei lie at
- Deepest layer in multi-layered epithelial cells different levels and not all
cells reach apical surface
- A simple epithelium because
cells rest on basement
membrane
- Cells that do extend to apical
surface may contain cilia
- Others (goblet cells) secrete
mucus

Stratified - Stratum = layer

Epithelium - 2 or more layers that protect
underlying tissues where
there’s wear and tear

Basement Membrane
● Thin extracellular layer Squamous - Flat, thin
● 2 layers: - Allows rapid passage of subs
○ Basal Lamina Shapes of

References: ​Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. (2017). ​Principles of anatomy and physiology 15th Edition​. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
FN 121 Study Guide #2 Covering, Protection and Movement Alaba & Malubay | 3 of 12
 cell Squamous resembles when it lines filtration,
tiled floor cardiovascular diffusion, or
from apical and lymphatic secretion
- Flat and system - Not found in
Cuboidal - As tall as they are wide oval nucleus - ​Mesothelium: areas w/ wear
(cubes or hexagon) at center when it forms and tear
- Can have microvilli at apical epithelial layer
surface of serous
- Functions in secretion or membranes
absorption - Lung air sacs,
Kidney’s
Columnar - Taller than wide Glomerular
- Protect underlying tissues (Browman’s)
- Can have cilia or microvilli capsule,
in apical surface tympanic
- Secretion and absorption membrane
(eardrum) inner
surface

Transitional - Change shape from squamous Simple -1 layer, - Ovary surface - Secretion and
to cuboidal and back when Cuboidal cubes - Anterior Absorption
organs stretch and collapse - Round surface of eye
nucleus at lens
Simple Epithelium A. Simple Squamous center - Forms
1. Endothelium:​ lines - Couldn’t pigmented
heart, blood vessels, form small epithelium at
lymphatic vessels tubes, posterior of
2. Mesothelium: ​forms pie-shaped retina
epithelial layer of -Kidney tubules
serous membranes and smaller
B. Simple Cuboidal ducts of glands
C. Simple Columnar - Secreting
1. Nonciliated:​ no cilia portions of
2. Ciliated:​ w/ cilia glands and
D. Pseudostratified Columnar ducts
Combo of 1. Nonciliated
layer and 2. Ciliated Nonciliated - 1 layer, - Lines GI tract - Secretion and
shape Simple - Oval (stomach → absorption
Stratified A. Stratified Squamous Columnar nucleus near anus) - Larger cell →
Epithelium 1. Nonkeratinized: no base of cell - Ducts of many more organelles
keratin - Has glands → higher level
2. Keratinized: keratin microvilli - Gallbladder of secretion and
B. Stratified Cuboidal (increasing absorption
C. Stratified Columnar cell’s - Helps prevent
D. Transitional or Urothelium: absorption) at destruction of
lines most of urinary tract apical stomach lining
- ​Goblet cell: by acidic gastric
modified juice
columnar
epithelial
cells
Simple Epithelium secreting
mucus that
Type Description Location Function accumulates
at upper of
Simple - 1 layer, flat, - ​Endothelium: - In sites of cell causing

References: ​Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. (2017). ​Principles of anatomy and physiology 15th Edition​. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
FN 121 Study Guide #2 Covering, Protection and Movement Alaba & Malubay | 4 of 12
 bulge looking
like goblet
before
release

Ciliated - 1 layer - lines some - Cilia beat in

Simple - Oval bronchioles, unison helping
Columnar nucleus near fallopian tubes, mucus to move
base of cel uterus, particles toward
- Goblet cells paranasal throat and move
are sinuses, central oocytes expelled
interspersed canal of spinal from ovaries
cord, ventricles towards
of brain fallopian tubes
- Coughing &
sneezing help
hasten cilia and Stratified Epithelium
mucus Type Description Location Function

Nonciliated - appear to - lines - Secretion and Stratified - 2 or more - ​Keratinized: - Protection

Pseudostrat have several epididymis , Absorption Squamous layers Forms superficial against
ified layers due to larger ducts of - cells in deep layer of skin abrasion,
Columnar nuclei glands, parts of layers vary -​Nonkeratinized: water loss,
- even though male urethra from Lines wet ultraviolet
some cells cuboidal to surfaces and radiation,
are attached columnar covers tongue foreign
to basement - At apical invasion.
membrane in layer, after - Both types
1 layer, some dead cells form first line
dont extend lose cell of defense
to apical junctions, from
- No cilia and they’re microbes
goblet cells sloughed off,
but replaced
Ciliated - all cells - lines airways - secretes mucus continuously
Pseudostrat attached to of most upper trapping foreign as new cells
ified basement respiratory tract particles emerge from
Columnar membrane in -cilia sweep basal cells.
1 layer, some away mucus for -​Keratinized
dont extend elimination stratified
to apical squamous:
- w/ cilia and develops
goblet cells touch layer of
keratin in
apical of cells
several layers
deep to it.
-​Nonkeratini
zed stratified
squamous:
Doesn’t
contain a lot
of keratin in
apical and is
constantly

References: ​Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. (2017). ​Principles of anatomy and physiology 15th Edition​. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
FN 121 Study Guide #2 Covering, Protection and Movement Alaba & Malubay | 5 of 12
 moistened by
mucus from
salivary and
mucous
glands;
organelles
not replaced

Stratified - 2 or more - Ducts of adult - Protection

Cuboidal layers sweat glands and - Limited
-Cube-shaped esophageal glands secretion and
cells in apical - Male urethra absorption
- Fairly rare

Stratified - Basal layers - Lines part of - Protection

Columnar consist of urethra and secretion
shortened, - Large excretory
irregularly ducts of some
shaped cells glands like
- Only apical esophageal glands
has columnar - Small areas in
cells anal mucous
-Uncommon membrane
- Conjunctiva of Glandular Epithelium
eye ● Secretion by glandular cells
● Gland:​ consists of epithelium that secretes subs into
Transitional - Multiple - lines urinary - Allows ducts, surfaces, blood
or layers and bladder and parts stretch and
Urothelium elasticity is of ureters and maintenance Types of Glands
ideal for urethra of protective
Type Description Location Function
lining hollow lining of
structures urinary organs Endocrine - Hormones - Pituitary gland, - Regulate
that expand while holding Gland enter Pineal gland many
inside fluids w/o interstitial - Thyroid and metabolic and
- Relaxed rupturing fluid and parathyroid psychological
state:​ looks diffuse into glands activities
like stratified bloodstream - Adrenal glands
cuboidal, w/out - Pancreas
except apical flowing - ovaries, testes
tend to be through duct - thymus
large and
rounded
- ​Stretched: Exocrine - Secretions - Sweat, oil, - Produce
flatter, looks Gland released into earwax glands sweat to lower
like stratified ducts emptied - Digestive glands body temp,
squamous onto surface like salivary and oil, earwax,
of a covering pancreas saliva,
and lining digestive
epithelium enzymes
like skin or
lumen
- Can be
unicellular or
Multicellular
Multicellular Glands

References: ​Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. (2017). ​Principles of anatomy and physiology 15th Edition.​ John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
FN 121 Study Guide #2 Covering, Protection and Movement Alaba & Malubay | 6 of 12
 ● Classifications:
Type Description
○ Ducts are branched or unbranched
○ Shape of secretory portions
Merocrine Glands - secretions synthesized in ribosome
● Simple Gland:​ duct of gland doesn’t branch
-released from cell in secretory vesicles
● Compound Gland:​ duct branches
via exocytosis
● Tubular Glands:​ w/ tubular secretory parts
- salivary glands and pancreas
● Acinar Glands/Alveolar glands​: rounded secretory
parts Apocrine Glands - accumulate secretions at apical
● Tubuloacinar Glands:​ both tubular and rounded - cell pinched off by exocytosis from
secretory parts rest of cell to secrete
- cell repairs and repeats cycle
Combinations of Multicellular Glands - mammary and sweat glands
Simple Glands
Holocrine Glands - accumulate secretions in cytosol
Simple Tubular - straight, attached to single unbranched - cell matures, ruptures, becomes
duct secretion
- glands in large intestine - contains lots of lipids from plasma
and intracellular membranes
Simple Branched - branched, attached to single - sebaceous gland
unbranched duct
- gastric glands

Simple Coiled - coiled, attaches to single unbranched

Tubular duct
- sweat glands

Simple Acinar - rounded, attached to single unbranched

duct
- glands of penile urethra

Simple Branched - rounded part attaches to single

Acinar unbranched duct
- sebaceous glands

Compound Glands

Compound Tubular - tubular, attaches to branched duct

- Bulbourethral (Cowper’s) gland

Compound Acinar - rounded, attached to branched duct Connective Tissues

- mammary gland ● One of most abundant and widely distributed
● Binds, supports, strengthens other tissues
Compound - both tubular and rounded, attaches to ● Protects and insulates internal organs major transport
Tubuloacinar branched duct system
- acinar glands of pancreas ● Primary location of stored energy reserves
● Main source of immune responses
● Two basic elements
○ Extracellular Matrix: material b/w widely
spaced cells, consists of protein fibers and
ground sub
○ Cells

Types of Connective Tissue

Functional Classification of Exocrine Glands Type Description

References: ​Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. (2017). ​Principles of anatomy and physiology 15th Edition.​ John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
FN 121 Study Guide #2 Covering, Protection and Movement Alaba & Malubay | 7 of 12
 Fibroblasts - large, flat, branching processes Type Description Location Function
- present in all and most numerous
Mesenchyme - irregularly - almost - forms other
Macrophages - phagocytes from monocytes (wbc) shaped exclusively ct types
- ​Fixed Macrophages: ​particular mesenchymal under skin and
tissue, alveolar macrophages in lungs cells in developing
or splenic in spleen ground subs bones of
-​Wandering Macrophages:​ move containing embryo
throughout tissue and gather at sites of delicate - blood vessels
infection or inflammation for reticular fibers in adult ct
phagocytosis
Mucous - widely - Umbilical - support
Plasma - most reside in connective tissue in (mucoid) scattered cord
cells/Plasmocytes GI and respiratory tract connective fibroblasts in
tissue sticky,
Mast cells/Mastocytes - involved in inflammatory response jelly-like
- can bind to, ingest, kill bacteria ground sub w/
fine collagen
Adipocytes - fat or adipose cells fibers
- store triglycerides
- found in deep skin and around Mature Connective Tissue: Connective tissue proper - Loose
organs Connective Tissue

Leukocytes (wbc) - significant numbers in normal tissue Areolar - one of most - in and around - strength,
- migrate from blood → connective Connective widely nearly every support,
tissue Tissue distributed body structure elasticity
- neutrophils and eosinophils - fibers - “packing
arranged material” of
randomly and body
cells in
Ground substance
semifluid
● contains water and assortment of large, organic
ground sub
materials
● Glycosaminoglycans
Adipose - from - same as - reduced
● Proteoglycans
Tissue fibroblasts for areolar CT heat loss
● Hyaluronic Acid: ​viscous, binds, lubricates joints,
storage of through skin
maintain shape of eyeball
triglycerides - energy
● Chondroitin sulfate: ​support and adhesiveness in
as large reserve
cartilage, bone, skin, vessels
centrally - supports
○ Dermatan sulfate
located droplet and protects
○ Keratan sulfate
- ​White AT: organs
● Adhesion proteins
adults
○ Fibronectin: ​main
- ​Brown AT:
darker cuz
Fibers
blood rich and
● Three types:
lot of
○ Collagen: very strong, resist pulling or
pigmented
stretching
mitochondria,
○ Elastic: ​smaller in diameter than collagen,
in fetus and
branch and join to form fibrous network,
infant
elastin and fibrillin
○ Reticular: ​collagen arranged in fine bundles
Reticular CT - fine, - stroma of - forms
w/ coating of glycoprotein, support and form
interlacing liver, spleen, stroma of
networks, stroma (supporting framework)
network of lymph nodes organs
Classification of Connective Tissue
reticular fibers - around blood - binds
Embryonic Connective Tissue and cells vessels and smooth

References: ​Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. (2017). ​Principles of anatomy and physiology 15th Edition.​ John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
FN 121 Study Guide #2 Covering, Protection and Movement Alaba & Malubay | 8 of 12
 muscles muscles w/n ex matrix - intervertebral
tissue cells - lacks discs
- filters and perichondrium -menisci
removes
worn-out Elastic - chondrocytes - lid on top of - strength and
blood cells Cartilage in threadlike larynx elasticity
and microbes network of (epiglottis) - maintains
elastic fibers - external ear shape of
Mature Connective Tissue: Connective tissue proper - Dense w/n ex matrix (auricle) certain
Connective Tissue - has - auditory structures
perichondrium (eustachian)
Dense - shiny white - ​Tendons​: - strong tubes
Regular CT extracellular muscle to bone attachments
matrix - ​Ligaments​: b/w Mature Connective Tissue: Supporting CT - Bone Tissue
- collagen bone to bone structures
fibers - ​Aponeuroses​: -withstands Compact - Osteons that - Both make up - support,
regularly sheetlike tension along bone contain many parts of protection,
arranged in tendons attach axis lamellae, body storage
bundles w/ to muscle to lacunae, - houses
fibroblasts in muscle or osteocytes, blood-formin
rows b/w muscle to bone canaliculi, g tissue
central canals - ​Levers​: act
Dense - collagen - occurs in - tensile w/ muscle
Irregular CT fibers sheets strength in Spongy bone - ​Trabeculae​: tissue for
- irregularly - heart valves many thin columns moving
arranged w/ - fasciae, etc. directions filled with red
few fibroblasts bone marrow

Elastic CT - mostly - Lung tissues, - stretching Mature Connective Tissue: Liquid CT

elastic fibers walls of elastic of organs
w/ fibroblasts arteries, - strong and Blood - blood - w/n blood - ​RBCs​:
b/w them trachea, can recoil plasma, vessel and transport O​2
- unstained is bronchial tubes, - ​Elasticity​: formed chambers of and CO​2
yellowish ligaments important for elements heart - ​WBCs​:
lung tissue - erythrocytes, phagocytosis
functions and leukocytes, and mediate
arteries thrombocytes allergic rxns
and immune
Mature Connective Tissue: Supporting CT - Cartilage system
response
Hyaline - resilient gel - most abundant - smooth - ​Platelets​:
Cartilage as ground sub cartilage surfaces for blood clot
- shiny, - ends of long movement of
bluish-white bones, anterior joints Lymph - extracellular
- prominent of ribs, nose, - flexibility fluid in
chondrocytes parts of larynx, and support lymphatic
found in trachea, - weakest; vessels
lacunae bronchi, easily
surrounded by embryonic fractured
perichondrium skeleton

Fibrocartilage - chondrocytes - ​Pubic - support and

among clearly symphysis: joining
Membranes
visible thick where hip - strongest
● flat sheets of pliable tissue that cover or line a part of
bundle of bones join cartilage
the body
collagen fibers anteriorly

References: ​Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. (2017). ​Principles of anatomy and physiology 15th Edition.​ John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
FN 121 Study Guide #2 Covering, Protection and Movement Alaba & Malubay | 9 of 12
 ● Epithelial Membranes: epithelial + connective ● Axon​: output of neuron, conducting nerve impulses
tissue toward another neuron
○ Mucous Membrane: ​line the entire ● Neuroglia​: don't generate nerve impulses
digestive, respiratory, and reproductive ● Exhibits sensitivity to various types of stimuli; converts
tracts, and much of the urinary tract, ​lamina stimuli into nerve impulses, conducts nerve impulses to
propia other neurons, muscle fibers, or glands.
○ Serous Membranes: ​lines a body cavity
that does not open directly to exterior INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
(thoracic or abdominal cavities), and covers The Integumentary system is comprised of:
organs that are w/n cavity ● Skin
○ Cutaneous Membrane​: covers the entire ● Hair
surface of the body and consists of a ● Oil/sweat glands
superficial portion called the ​epidermis ​and ● Nails
a deeper portion called the ​dermis ● Sensory receptors
● Synovial Membrane​: line the cavities of freely
Skin
movable joints, synoviocytes, synovial fluid
● Aka cutaneous membrane
● Largest organ in weight
Muscular Tissue
● consists of elongated cells called muscle fibers o​ r
myocytes ​that can use ATP to generate force Layers of the skin
● body movements, maintains posture, and generates • Epidermis
heat, protection ❏ Avascular
❏ Composed of epithelial tissue
Types of Muscular Tissue ❏ 4 principal types of cells:
❖ Keratinocytes: produce keratin (protects skin
Type Description Location Function from external harm), lamellar granules (keep
the skin water repellent)
Skeletal - ​long, - attached to - motion, ❖ Melanocytes: produce melanin
cylindrical, bones by posture, heat ❖ Intraepidermal macrophages: helps identify
striated fibers tendons production,
- vary greatly in microbe
protection ❖ Tactile epithelial cells: detect touch
length
- voluntary sensations

Cardiac - ​branched, - heart wall - pumps

striated fibers blood to all
with usually body parts
only one
centrally located
nucleus
- involuntary

Smooth - non-striated - iris - Motion

fibers - walls of blood
- small spindle- vessels
shaped cell - airways to
thickest in lungs, stomach,
middle, tapering
intestines, gall
at each end, and
containing a and urinary
single, centrally bladder, uterus
located nucleus

Nervous Tissue
● Neurons: convert stimuli to electrical signals called
nerve action potential
● Dendrites: pering, highly branched, and usually short
cell processes, input portion of neuron

References: ​Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. (2017). ​Principles of anatomy and physiology 15th Edition.​ John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
FN 121 Study Guide #2 Covering, Protection and Movement Alaba & Malubay | 10 of 12
 ❖ Melanin: the amount and darkness of
melanin increase w/ UV exposure hence
tanning

❖ Hemoglobin: for light-skinned people, the

epidermis appear translucent therefore the
“flushing” is due to the hemoglobin in blood
flowing through capillaries in the dermis

❖ Carotene: this pigment is stored in the S.

corneum, excessive intake contribute to the
orange appearance of skin that is visible in
light-skinned people.
Accessory structure of the skin
Accessory structures of the skin—hair, skin glands, and
nails—develop from the embryonic epidermis.
❏ Hair: composed of dead, keratinized epidermal cells
bound by extracellular proteins
❖ Hair shaft
❖ Hair root
❖ Hair follicle
❖ Hair bulb
❏ Glands: Epithelial cells that secrete a sub
❖ Sebaceous glands​: secretes sebum; prevents
• Dermis excessive evaporation of water; inhibits
❏ Vascular growth of some bacteria
❏ Composed of connective tissue
❏ Combination of collagen and elastic fibers provides ❖ Sudoriferous glands​: aka sweat glands
extensibility (stretch) and elasticity (return to original ● Eccrine: helps regulate body temp.
form) (thermoregulation)
● Apocrine: active during emotional
sweating

❖ Ceruminous glands​: cerumen wards off

foreign bodies/insects from ears
❏ Nails: tightly packed, dead epidermal cells
Functions of the skin
- Skin functions include body temperature regulation,
blood storage, protection, sensation, excretion and
absorption, and synthesis of vitamin D.
Thermoregulation​:
● ↑ env. Temp > ↑ sweat production from eccrine
glands > evaporation ↓ temp @ skin surface
● ↑ env. Temp > blood vessels dilate > ↑ amt. of heat
loss from body
Subcutaneous Layer ● ↓ env. Temp > ↓ sweat production
❏ consist of areolar and adipose tissues ● ↓ env. Temp > blood vessels constrict
❏ serves as storage for fat ● ↓ env. Temp > skeletal muscles contract (shivering)
❏ contains large blood vessels and nerve endings called Blood reservoir:
lamellated corpuscles ● Dermis contains 8-10% of total blood flow in resting
❏ anchors the dermis to underlying tissues and organs adult
Factors that influence skin color
❏ The color of skin is due to melanin, carotene, and
hemoglobin.

Protection:

References: ​Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. (2017). ​Principles of anatomy and physiology 15th Edition.​ John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
FN 121 Study Guide #2 Covering, Protection and Movement Alaba & Malubay | 11 of 12
 on the skin’s surface. Other nutrients such as Vitamin D is
PART INVOLVED FUNCTION
activated into Calcitrol through UV exposure and is
responsible for the absorption of calcium in food.
Keratin Protect tissues from
microbes, abrasion, heat and
chemicals

Lipids secreted by lamellar Prevent dehydration

granules

Sebum Contains bactericidal

chemicals

Melanin Protects against UV damage

Intraepidermal macrophages Identifies microbes

Macrophages in dermis Phagocytizes

bacteria/microbes

Cutaneous sensations:
❏ Tactile sensations – touch, pressure, vibration and
tickling
❏ Thermal sensations –warmth/coolness
**Pain – indication of tissue damage

Excretion and Absorption:

❏ Excretion- release of water along w/ small amts. of
salts, carbon dioxide, ammonia and urea
❏ Absorption- lipid-soluble materials and organic
solvents can be absorbed by the skin (ex. Medicated
pimple patches)

Synthesis of Vit. D:
❏ Needs activation through UV exposure
❏ Enzymes in liver/kidney produce calcitrol (need for
calcium absorption from food)
❏ Only a small amount is needed (10-15 mins. At least
2x a week)

SYNTHESIS:
Proper digestion and absorption of nutrients are
verifiable through observation on the covering, protection and
movement of the body. Certain illnesses such as liver
problems exhibit jaundice (having a yellowish hue on the skin
and on the whites of the eyes). Also, studying the covering and
protection of the body gives us information on how we can
maintain the natural protection of body to fight against
pathogens that may inhibit proper absorption of nutrients.

Nutrients from the food we eat are broken down and

synthesized into molecules that are used by the body. Proteins
as keratin protects tissues from harmful chemicals and
microbes, heat and abrasion. Elastin and collagen are
responsible for the skin’s extensibility and elasticity and
fibrinogen is a clotting material in cases of wounds. Lipids as
sebum contain bactericidal chemicals and prevent dehydration

References: ​Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. (2017). ​Principles of anatomy and physiology 15th Edition.​ John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
FN 121 Study Guide #2 Covering, Protection and Movement Alaba & Malubay | 12 of 12