CONTENTS

S.No: Page no:

1) Sentence structure: Subject, Verb, Object, etc
2) Direct and Indirect Objects
3) Parts of Speech
4) Adjectives or Adverbs
5) Articles, A, an / the
6) Use of Who, Which, and That
7) Use of Some and Any
8) Use of some important prepositions, In, On, At, Of, from etc
9) Use of Every and Each
10) Use of Either and Any
11) Use of None and Neither
12) - ing forms ( Gerunds )
13) Infinitives
14) Progressive infinitives, Perfect infinitives and Passive infinitives
Tenses
15) The Present Simple
16) The Present Continuous
17) The Present Perfect
18) The Present Perfect Continuous
19) Use of Just, Already, Yet
20) Use of For and Since
21) The Past Simple
22) The Past Continuous
23) The Past Perfect
24) The Past Perfect Continuous
25) Introduction to the Future
26) Will and Shall
27) be going to
28) Present tense for the future

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S.no: Page no:
29) Modal Verbs
30) Can and Could
31) May and Might
32) Shall and Should
33) Should and Ought
34) The Passive
35) Reported Speech
36) Changes in Reported Speech: Persons, Place and time
37) Reported speech: The tense change
38) Summary of the changes in tenses and adverbs
39) Reported questions
40) Reported requests, offers etc
41) Replace “ As soon as” with “ No sooner”
Conditionals
42) Conditionals 1
43) Conditionals 2
44) Conditionals 3
45) Language terminology
46) Pronunciation
47) Some Important idioms and phrases
48) How to make a good précis?
49) Comprehension
50) How to write an organized essay?
51) Past Pre- Entrance test question papers
52) Letters and Applications
53) Message for the students

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Dedicated to………………

My beloved mother. Allah Almighty may bless her with all

the best and beautiful that is on the earth and in the heaven.

Ali Raza Siyal

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 Acknowledgement

To me this book is very important for the students of all levels. There are many
bulky books of English Grammar including, Oxford Practice Grammar by John Eastwood,
Practical usage of English grammar for international students by Michael Swan, Exploring
the world of English grammar by Syed Saadat , English Grammar and Composition by
Prof: AftabAhmed, Wren and Martin and many others. It is too difficult for the students to
go through all of them in a short period of time. But this book “ The Standard English
Grammar” carries important things and this the gist of many foreign books .It was the need
of the hour to publish such a book that should be simple, compact an brief. Therefore, I
started to put my pen on the paper. Its result is the “book” that is in your hands.
I am highly thankful to all of my teachers who trained me, inspired me, stimulated
me, invigorated me in all spheres of my life. I would be pleased to mention a few names of
my beloved teachers, like, Professor M.K sangi, Professor G.H. Baloch, Prof: Asif Suhag(late)
Prof: Ismaeel Shah (late) Madam Arifa Ansari, Madam Nargis, Madam Shumaila memon,
Madam Sumaira umrani, Sir Yameen Khan Jamali, Sir Asadullah Memon, Sir Mazhar Gandhai
Sir Iqbal Meerani, Sir Buxal Chandio, Sir Ahmed Khan Panhwar, Sir Rasool Bux Chandio,
Sir Manzoor chandio (late) and all those teachers who taught me.I am fully optimist that the
students will be befitted from this book.This book serves the main purpose of the students.

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 PREFACE

The English Grammar is the dire need for the students of all disciplines. I
have taught at many institutions including, university of sindh Jamshoro, Army College
Thatta, GDC Karoondi, Govt: Girls Degree College Moro and at different centres. I have
observed one thing among the students, that they are worried about the English
Grammar. They always ask a common question that “ Sir Which is the best book for
English Grammar?” We give them reference of many books.
There is plethora of books available on English Grammar but those are too
lengthy to go through. In other words those cannot fulfill the student’s needs.
Unfortunately, most of the versions penned by local authors are hit by many mistakes,
concepts have been presented so vaguely that the readers remain at sea, thus is left
more baffled and perplexed.
In this book, strenuous efforts have been made to present the basic and
all the important things in a clear and simple language. I fervently hope this humble
Endeavour of mine would be a plentiful source for all those interested in knowing about
the English Grammar. A lot of hard work has been made at making the book free of
errors and mistakes, nevertheless there is always room for improvement. I would
appreciate and welcome if my readers send in their positive and constructive suggestions
for the improvement of this book.

Ali Raza Siyal

Lecturer in English

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1 SENTENCE STRUCTURE: Subject, Verb, Complement, Object, Adverbial etc.

A Sentence Structure:
The parts of a sentence are the subject, verb, object, complement and adverbial.
A statement begins with the subject and the verb. There are five main structures
which we can use to make a simple statement.

1: Subject Verb
Her legs are trembling
Ifi is laughing

2: Subject Verb Object

Ali needs a rest
He drives a car
The subject and object can be noun or pronoun. e.g: ( Ali , He , Car )

3: Subject Verb Complement

Ifi looks good
It was a big problem
The complement can be Noun ( e.g Ifi ) or a Noun phrase( e.g. a big problem)
The complement often comes after linking verb or be. It can come after the linking
verbs, like, appear, become, get, feel, look, seem, stay or sound.

4: Subject Verb Adverbial

The book is on the dice
Sir Sangi’s house is Near by
An adverbial can be a prepositional phrase ( e.g. On the dice) or an adverb ( e.g. Nearby )

5: Subject Verb Object Object

He is giving me a pen
David bought Melanie a present
We use two objects after verbs like give and bought.

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 B: Adverbials:
We can add adverbials to all the five main structures
1: Ifi is laughing happily.
2: Ali really needs a rest.
3: Off course Ifi looks good.
4: Fortunately Sir Sangi’s house is nearby.
5: David actually bought Melanie a present.

2 Direct and Indirect objects:

John gave his wife some flowers.
Here the verb gave has two objects, Wife is the indirect object, the person receiving
something. Some flowers is the direct object, the thing that someone gives.

John gave some flowers to his wife.

Here give has a direct object (some flowers) and a phrase with to.
To comes before wife, the person receiving some thing.
Here are some more examples of the two structures.

Indirect Object Direct Object

Ifi gave hameeda a pen
I’ll send my wife a gift
We bought all the children an ice-cream

Direct Object Phrase with to / for

Ifi gave the pen to Hameeda
I’ll send a gift to my wife
We bought ice-cream for all the children

To or For
We give something to someone, and we buy something for someone.

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3 Parts of Speech:
Most failing candidates commit grammatical mistakes while writing the answers.
Therefore sound knowledge of grammar is very important. It is to be understood
that the most crucial element of writing is to structure a sentence clearly.
Jumbled syntax fuddles the examiner and the writer’s point is not properly
conveyed which results in failure or securing very low score. To avoid such an
embarrassing situation, learning grammar is inevitable. Here is a list of parts of
speech in English to give you a brief yet comprehensive understanding.
Noun/Pronoun
As you probably remember from elementary school,
Noun:
is the name of a person, place or thing. It might be easier to remember as
something you can point or something you can have.
Exp: Chair, Town, and Happiness all are nouns.
Pronouns:
are words that take the place of nouns, and there are limited number of them.
Exp: He, She, It, We, They, are the ones that can be used as subjects of sentences.
Him, her, us and them are those that can be objects.
Exp: Ali loves her.
I teach them. etc
There are two primary uses of nouns and pronouns: they perform an action
(subjects) or have an action imposed upon them (objects).

Verb:
Two main types of verbs are important in English.
Linking Verbs Action Verbs
Linking verbs, also called “be” verbs, “ copular” verbs, “ Intensive” verbs.
Action verbs also called, “main” verbs, “ Extensive” verbs.
‘Be’ verbs focus on a state of being: am, are, is, was, were are the big five.
Other verbs are an “action” something you can perform, such as talk, sit, smile.
If you are trying to decide if a word is verb, ask yourself if you can stand up and do
it. If you can’t, it’s probably not a verb. Following are the examples of linking verb
and action verb.
 Perveen looks happy. ( L.v ) He dances well. ( A.v )
 He is a noble man. ( I.v ) He presents a presentation. ( A.v)

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Transitive Verb:
( Transitive means passing over), Therefore Transitive verb may be defined
as a verb in which an action passes over from subject to an object.
Professor Nelson teaches us.
 In the above sentence an action pass over from verb to an object. It is called
Transitive verb.
 Intransitive verb:
( Intransitive means not passing over) It is the type of verb in which an action
does not pass over from verb to an object.
 Ali smiles.
Intransitive verbs express state:
 She sleeps. (State)
Transitive verbs can carry two objects as:
 He gave me (indirect) a flower. (direct)
 I gave her ( indirect) a ring. ( direct)
Many verbs can be used transitively or intransitively as:
Transitively Intransitively
Ring the bell koonj. The bell rang loudly.
We speak the truth. He spoke quietly.
Intransitive verbs can be used as transitive verbs as,
The cat walks. Ali walks the cat.
Birds fly We fly our kites.

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Adjective:

An adjective modifies or describes a Noun / Pronoun.

It might be a word that explains colour, size or type. Any word you can put in
the blank here would be an adjective: the…………dog. It might be a big dog,
purple dog, electric dog, neighbour’s dog.
A special type of adjective is the article, of which there are only three.
a ,an, the. We shall study these articles later on.

Adverbs
Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives or another adverbs. or it can be said that
adverbs are busier than adjectives. They modify pretty much everything else in a
sentence: verbs (casually walked) adjectives ( incredibly Stupid) and other
adverbs(really well) or , adverbs answer the questions how? When? and Where?
Exp: How did you play?
Ans: I played well.
When do you go to moro?
Ans: I go to moro tomorrow.
Where?
Ans: Here there etc.

Preposition:
Prepositions can be difficult to find, so you should find a strategy to help reveal
them. Here again, a fill-in-the-blank can be very helpful, such as this sentence.
“ The Squirrel ran………..the tree”. Any word you can put in here is a preposition:
between , in , up , down , through. Prepositions usually are not by themselves
but function as part of an entire phrase. This phrase begins with the preposition
and continues through the object, which can be found by asking “What” about
the prepositions.
For example: looking the, “Squirrel” sentence and using the preposition up, I
would ask myself , “ The squirrel ran up. what?” The answer to my question is
“ The tree” so “ up the tree” is the prepositional phrase. That object in the
phrase must be a Noun or Pronoun.

Conjunction:
Conjunctions come in lots of different types. What they all have in common is
that they are connecting words: What they connect differs, for instance, the
coordinate conjunctions ( for, and, Nor, but, or, yet, so ) can connect single
ideas or complete sentences, things that on an equal level of importance.
“ She plays softball and basketball” would be an example. Adverbial
conjunctions ( such as however, therefore, consequently, Next ) serve as
traditional devices, words that explain a certain causal or time relationship
between ideas.

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 Example: She is not an English major; however, she knows grammar very well.
Finally, subordinate conjunctions ( Like, while, since, because) indicate that one
clause is less significant than another. “ Although he is taking French, Russian
literature is his major” is an example here.
 Wow, the hungry cat chased the mouse under the table and quickly ate it.
Wow= Interjection, Hungry = Adjective, Cat = Noun, Chased = Verb
Mouse = Noun, Under = Preposition , Table = Noun , And = Conjunction
Quickly = Adverb, Ate = Verb, it = Pronoun

Interjection:
Interjects are easier to learn than other parts of grammar because they are so
different . These are the words that express surprise or some other strong
emotions and are typically written with an exclamation mark (!) if alone:
Wow! Ouch! darn! are examples.
Learning the basics of grammar helps writers know where the best place
the various parts of speech. Knowing the labels for grammar, as well, helps
writers have cogent conversations with others about how to improve syntax.
Good communication is the key to good grades, good jobs and good potential.
Good grammar is the key to all.

4 Adjective or Adverb:
Introduction:
Ali: I like that song that Ifi sang.
Henry: Yes it’s a nice song. And she sang it nicely, too.
An adjective ( nice ) describes a noun (Song).
An adverb (nicely) describes a verb (sang).
Here are more examples of adjectives and adverbs.
 The man had a quiet voice. ( Adj)
 The man spoke quietly. ( Adv )
 She wears expensive clothes. (Adj)
 She dresses expensively. (Adv)
 They are well. (Adj)
 They play well. (Adv)
 The runners made a slow start. (Adj)
 They started the race slowly. (Adv)
 He is a fast baller. (Adj)
 He runs fast. (Adj)
Adverbs can be used with adjectives.
Exp: It was really hot in the sun.
Sir Ali checked their work very carefully.
Here are some more examples of adjectives and adverbs.

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 Linking Verb + Adjective Action Verb + Adverb
David was hungry. Paul ate hungrily.
The children seemed happy. They played happily.
The medicine tasted awful. Emma tasted the drink nervously.
The ending ly is the normal adverb ending. But a few adjectives also end
in ly.
Exp: Sheela was very friendly.
It was a lively party.
We had a lovely time.
Hard, Fast, Good, and Well.
Adjective Adverb
We did some hard work. We worked hard.
I come on fast train. The train went quite fast.
Nimi is a good violinist She played very well.
His test result is good. He did well in the test.
She had a bad night. She slept badly last night.
Note: Hard and hardly have different meanings.
Exp: I tried hard, but failed.
I have got hardly any money.
5 A / an and The:
Use:
When the story first mentions something, the noun has a or an.
But when the something is mentioned again, the noun has the.
Read the story about an American tourist in Britain and notice the use of a/an
and the.
A man from California was spending a month in Britain. One day he booked
into a hotel in Cheltenham, a nice old town in the west of England. Then he
went out to look around the place. But the man did not return to the hotel. He
disappeared leaving a suitcase behind. The suitcase was full of clothes.
It is very clear from the above passage that where we use a / an and the. It
should be noted the we use an only with the vowel sounds.
A / an only goes with a singular noun with plural or an un countable noun we
use some.
Example: He left a case. ( singular)
He left some cases. ( plural ).
The goes with both singular and plural nouns and with uncountable nouns.
Exp: He needed the case (singular and mentioned second time in the passage)
He needed the cases (plural)
He needed the luggage ( uncountable noun)

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 a / an The
Would you like to see a show?  Would you like to see the show?
( I don’t know which show) ( the show we already mentioned)
We use a/an + Noun or Someone/ Something. When we are saying which
one.
Exp: A man/ someone booked into a hotel.
 We use the + Noun or he/ she/ it when we know which one.
Exp: The man/ He did not return to the hotel.
The case / it contained clothes.
A phrase which describes something has a / an.
Exp: It was a lovely day.
It’s a big hotel.
This is a better photo.
We also use a/an to classify something, to say what kind of thing it is.
Exp: The play was a tragedy.
His disappearance was a mystery.
We use a / an to say what someone’s job is.
Exp: Ali is a lecturer.
I am a Judge.
My friend is a secretary.
She is an MPA.
He is an MNA.

 We also use a/an to express the general meaning.

Exp: A dog makes a wonderful pet.
An orange contains vitamin C.
The
 We use the when something is mentioned again in the paragraph
 As we have already discussed above.
Exp: Would you like to see the show?
The man did not return to the hotel.
 When there is only one of the things we are talking about, we use the
Exp: The sun was going down.
The government is unpopular.
A driver in the country would be nice.
Normally there is only one sun or one government in the context. We mean the
government of our country and the sun in our solar system.

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
We normally say; the country ( Side)
the earth, the government, the environment, the moon, the ozone layer,
the prime minister, the sea side, the sky, the sun, the weather.
 We also use the with Cinema, Theater , and Newspaper
Exp: Do you go to the Cinema?
I read about the accident in the newspaper.
Note that we say a/the police officer but the police.
Exp: A police officer came to the hotel.
Not A Police came to the hotel. ( X )
The police came to the hotel. ( one or more police officers)
 We use the with superlative.
Exp: It is the biggest hotel in the city.
This is the best photo.
 We use the with mountains and rivers.
Exp: The mount Everest, The K-2, The Indus River, The Ravi etc.
 We use the with religious books.
The Quran, The bible , etc.
 We use the with directions.
The East, The North, The South, The West
A/ An and one both refer to one thing. using one puts more emphasis on the
number.
Exp: Henry gave me a note. ( not a coin)
Henry gave me one note. ( not two)
 We use one ( not a/an) when we mean one of a larger number.
Exp: one question/ one of the questions in the exam was more difficult than
the others.
The team was not at full strength. One player/ one of the players was injured.
And we use some with plural or an uncountable noun.
Exp:
A + Singular Noun a note
Some + plural Noun some coins
Some + uncountable Noun some money

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6 Who, Which and That:

The relative pronouns Who, Which, and That go after the noun and at the
beginning of the relative clause.
 Who refers to the people.
 Ali is the man who loves to face the challenges.
 I don’t like people who are hypocrites.
 The little girl who sat next to me on the coach ate sweets the whole way.
 Salma is pretty annoyed with the person who stole her mobile phone.
 We can use that, but it is less usual.
Jack is the man that plays the guitar.
The woman that lived here before us is a romantic novelist.
 That and Which refers to things. That is more usual than Which
especially in conversation.
 The Car that won the race looked very old, didn’t it?
We have recaptured all the animals that escaped from the zoo.
The children saw the actual spacecraft that landed on the moon.
 Which can be little formal.
 There are several restaurants which do Sunday lunches.
Is zedco the company which was taken over last year?
 We do not use another pronoun like he or it with the relative pronoun.
 Not the man, who he owns that dog. ( X )
 Not the actual spacecraft that it landed on the moon. ( X )
 In all these sentences Who, Which, and that are subject of the relative
clause. They can be used as objects as well.
 This is the bus that I have been waiting for means.
 I have been waiting for the bus.
 Is this the article which you were interested in?
 That’s the man who I was looking about.

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7 Some / Any :

Basic Use:
Some and any go before a plural or uncountable noun.
There was a bowl and some toffees on the table, but there was not any milk.
We can also use some and any without a noun.
 She wanted some milk, but he could not find any.
We normally use some in positive sentences and any in negative sentences or
ones with negative meaning.

Positive:
 There is some milk in the Fridge. I need some stamps.
 I met some interesting people last night.  There are some in the Almare.
Negative:
 Asma hasn’t any milk. ( She has no milk)
I haven’t got any stamps. Have you got any ?
 I never met any interesting people nowadays.
 We won’t have any fun without you.
We can also use any with if.
 If you have any problems, you can discuss them with your friends.
 I can answer any questions. ( If there are any questions….)
In questions we can use either some or any, but any is more common.
We don’t know whether the answer will be yes or no.
 Have we got any butter?
 Will there be any food for the guests?
 Did you buy any clothes?
We normally use some in offers and requests to make the sound more positive.
 Would you like some coffee?
 Could you post some books for me?
We can use some in questions. When we think the answer might be yes.
 Did you buy some clothes? ( Perhaps I know you went out to buy)
We can use any in a positive sentence to mean “ it does not matter which one”.
 I’m free all day. Call any time you like.
 Any student will be able to tell you where the college library is.
 You can buy these maps at any petrol station. They all have them.

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8 Use of some important prepositions: In, On, At, Of, From

In The main use of in as preposition are:

1 To indicate Position:
The highest mountain in the world, in Asia, in Germany,
Living in London, the village in which I born, sitting in a arm chair etc
2 To indicate direction:
in this/that direction, in all directions.
3 ( often in replaced by into) to indicate direction of activity or change
to dip one’s pen into the ink, to put one’s hand into one’s pocket.
to throw something into the fire, to cut an apple in two(into halves)
4 To indicate time:
in the fifteenth century, in the reign of Queen Victoria,
in 2016, in the spring, summer etc,
in December, January etc, in the morning, in the day time,
in the beginning , in the end etc
5 meaning in the course of; within the space of (the time indicated)
in a few minutes, in a few day’s time
6 To indicate inclusion:
seven days in a week, the cleverest boy in the class
7 To indicate dress:
Dressed (clothed) in rags, the beautiful woman in the white
the man in the dark suit, in uniform
8 To indicate circumstances: etc
to go out in the rain, to be in the sunshine
a temperature of 40 in the shade, to lose one’s way in the dark etc
9 To indicate state or condition:
in good order, in poor health,
in dust air, in love
10 To indicate form shape:
A novel in the three parts, packed in bundles of ten,
in alphabetical order
11 To indicate method of expression:
To speak, write in English, a message in code,
written in ink( pencil), printed in two colours etc
12 To indicate occupation:
to be in the army, in the cabinet, to be in politics

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On The major use of on as a preposition are:

1 To mean supported by, attached to, or forming part of, using

against, in contact with a (surface)

A book on the table, the cot on the floor,

the pictures on the wall, the words written on the board,
sitting on the grass, wearing ring on the finger,

2 To indicate time:
on Sunday, on the first of June, on that occasion
on a cold wet day, on the death of her friend etc

3 To mean about concerning :

to write on international affairs, a lecturer on social problems

4 To indicate membership:
He is on the committee, the jury, the staff

5 To indicate direction:
To turn one’s back on someone, to a draw a knife on someone,
marching on the enemy’s capital

6 To indicate position at or near to:

A village on the coast, a house on the main road,
on both sides of the river, the man sitting on my right

7 in combination with verbs, to be learnt as units:

To congratulate someone on something,
to live on vegetables and fish etc

8 in combination with nouns to be learnt as units:

on business, on holiday, on purpose, on fire, on sale, on the
average. There can be many other use of on. But, at this stage these
are more than enough.

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At We use at with the (place):

sit at my desk, wait at the bus stop,

at the cross roads, wait at the traffic light,
at a place on a journey, Does this train stop at York?
 We also use at with the events:
at an event, at the party etc
 We use at with buildings:
I was at the cinema. ( watching film).
We were at the pub. ( having drink)
 some common phrases with at.
 at the station/ airport
 at home/ work/ school
 at the seaside
 at the top/ bottom of hill
 at the back of the room
 at the end of a corridor
 At with time:
 The film starts at eight thirty.
 At + clock time/ meal time
 at three o’clock
 at lunch time
 at that time
 at the moment
 at + two or three days
 at Easter, Christmas
 at the weekend

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Of The major uses of this preposition are:
1 To indicate measures, quantity, inclusion:
Three meters of cloth, Three tons of coal,
a piece of paper, some, a few, all of us
2 To indicate material or substance:
Built of bricks, made of steel, a house of stone
3 To indicate origin or authorship:
A man of humble origin, of royal family, of noble nature,
the works of John keat, the book of Robert Brown
4 To indicate cause:
To die of hunger, He died of fever, for fear of consequence
to be (proud, a shamed,afraid,tired) of something because of his
absence, for fear of consequence etc
5 To indicate, separation in space or time:
Eight kilometers south of leeds, within six months of her death
6 To indicate relief, not having, getting rid of:
To cure some one of a disease, to rid a whare house of rats,
to rob a man of his money, trees bare of leaves etc
7 To indicate a connection, reference or relation:
The cause of accident, the result of the debate, the second of July,
the owner of the flat, the legs of the chair, a doctor of education
to be sure (fond, guilty etc) of something
8 meaning “ from among the number of”
A friend of mine,
a cousin of his,
reading a poem of pope.

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From The important uses of this prepositon are:

1 To show a point of departure, a starting point, (inplace or time)

To fly from the france to london, the bus that leaves from stop eight,
from the 1st of January, from childhood, from beginning to end.

2 To indicate the point from which something is measured:

25 kilometers from village mehwal siyal to moro, a long way from here

3 To indicate the source, origin, giver or sender:

Quotations from paulo coelho, to draw water from a well,
to judge from appearance , painted from nature (life)
a letter from my beloved, a birthday present from my wife

4 To indicate the material used in process of manufacture:

steel is made from Iron, man is made from dust.

5 To indicate separation, removal, escape, avoidance etc

separation from one’s beloved , wife, family etc
release from jail, to prevent somebody from something ,
to take a knife away from child, to keep a secret from husband etc

6 To indicate reason, cause etc

to suffer from fatigue, cold, fever etc

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Prepositions after particular words and expressions:
It is not always easy to know which preposition should be used after a
particular Noun, Verb or adjective. Here are given some common
combinations, including number which cause difficulty to the students of
English. Here are some more and very brief notes about prepositions, for
more complete information about usage with particular word, consult a
good dictionary or the book of Michael Swan “Practical usage of English
grammar for international students”.
accuse: (Some body of something)
She accused me of touching her.
 afraid of:
Are you afraid of your wife?
agree with: ( a person’s opinion or policy )
I entirely agree with you.
angry with: ( a person for doing something)
I’m angry with her for lying to me.
arrive at:
What time do we arrive at our house?
bad at:
Ifi is bad at cooking, but she is good at singing.
depend / dependant on:
We should not depend on our parents.
die of / from
More people died of flue.
He died from his injuries.
divide into:
The book is divided into three parts.
 fight, struggle with:
I have spent last two weeks fighting with the tax office.
 impressed with / by:
I’m very impressed with/by your work.
 Lack of:
lack of time prevented me from writing.
 Sorry for:
I feel really sorry for her children.
 remind of:
She reminded me of awakening her.

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 9 Each and Every:
We use every and each before a singular Noun to talk about a whole group.
The police questioned every person/ each person in the building.
Here every person means “ all the people, everyone” And Each
person means all the people seen as individuals, one by one.
Every is normally used to talk about three or more, usually a large number.
There were cars parked along every street in the town.(all the streets)
Every guest watched as the president came in.
Each: can be used to talk about two or more people or things.
She had a child holding to each hand.
Each guest shook hands with him.
Each is more usual with smaller groups and can mean only two
furthermore, we prefer each, when we are thinking of people or things
separately one at a time.
Each person in turn went to see the Doctor.
On the other hand every is more common when we are thinking of people
or things to gether in a group.
He gave every patient the same medicine.
Note: If each and every are used as a subject in the sentence then singular
verb will be used.
Each flower smells sweet.
Everyone knows that earth is round.
10 Either and Any
Either is used to indicate each one out of two and Any each one out of
three or more.
Either of the two boys stole the books.
Any of the three boys stole the books.
Either of the two boys has written a story.
Any of the three boys has done this.
Note: When either and any are used as a subject, they will carry singular
verb, as in the above sentences.

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 11 None and Neither:
Neither means nobody out of two and none means nobody out of three or
more.
None of the three boys has gone out of the class.
Neither of the two boys has gone out of the class.
Note: None and Neither will carry singular verb when use subject.
For two For more than two
Neither None
Either Any
Each Every
12 -ing froms ( gerunds)
When (ing) forms are used more like a noun, they are often called
“gerunds”.

Dancing is loved by everybody.

-ing forms used like nouns as a subject, object or complement:

Smoking is bad for you. (Subject)

She hates packing. (Object)

My favourite activity is eating. (Complement)

We can use an –ing form after verbs.

I don’t enjoy travelling.

She’s completed washing the clothes.

He’s give up smoking.

The doctor suggested taking a long journey.

Note: There is different use of gerunds. For details see page 280 of
Michael Swan’s book “ Practical English Grammar ”.

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13 Infinitives:

In a simple way infinitives are defined as “ the verbs used with to”
 (to) write, (to) walk, (to) stand, etc are called simple infinitives.
There are infinitives which are without to. such infinitives come after modal
verbs.
Vicky should go.
Can you help me?
Catherine must dance now.
I would rather go alone.
Besides simple infinitives like (to) write, (to) play etc there are also
progressive infinitives (e.g. (to) be writing), perfect infinitives (e.g. (to) have
written) and passive infinitives ( e.g. (to) be written).

14 1: Progressive infinitives: (to) be…….ing

like other progressive forms/ tenses, the progressive infinitives show the
actions and events are /were/ will be continuing around the time we are talking
about.
It’s nice to be sitting here with you.
I noticed that she seemed to be smoking a lot.
This time tomorrow I’ll be sleeping with you.
2: Perfect infinitives:
Perfect infinitives have the same meaning as the perfect tenses.
It’s nice to have finished dinner. ( I have finished dinner)
I’m sorry not to have come on Thursday.
I mean to have telephoned, but I forgot.
3: Passive infinitives:
Passive infinitives also have the same kind of meaning as the other passive form
There’s lot of work to be done.
She ought to be told about it.
That window must be repaired before tonight.
There are many other kinds of infinitives as well. But, students should grip over
these things. That is sufficient information about the infinitives.

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 TENSES
15 The present Simple:
Use:
We use the present simple with the following:
 Thoughts and feelings:
 I think you are not good. I like your colour.
 States, things staying the same, facts and things that are universal
truth and staying same for a long time.
 Huma lives quite near to maria.
 The flat is clean.
 She owns the land.
 The Almare contains the clothes.
 Repeated actions:
 We come here every day to study.
We also use the present tense in phrases like.
I promise, I agree etc
We use the present tense in a negative questions with why to make
suggestions.
Suggestion: Why don’t you take lunch Alia?
We also use the present simple for future meaning.
PCS exam starts next week.
 Positive forms:
I/we/you/they study.
He/She/It/Alia studies.
 Negatives:
I/we/you/they don’t sleep.
He/She/It/Nusrat doesn’t sleep.
 Questions:
do I/we/you/they eat?
does He/She/It/Alishba dance?
We use do and don’t in negative except third person singular, where we
use does and does not. we don’t add s to the verb in negatives and
questions.
Not She does not takes and Not Does Ali eats?

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16 The present Continuous:
Use:
We use the present continuous tense to say that when we are in the
middle of an action.
Karima is waiting for the train. ( She is at the station Now)
Sapna is getting the lunch ready. ( She is in the kitchen Now)
Karima is waiting means that she is in the middle of a period of waiting.
The wet is not yet over.
 We can also use this tense when we are in the middle of an action. But,
we are not doing that work at the moment.
 They are working on an new assignment.
My students are working on a drama these days.
 We can also use the present continuous when things are changing over
a long period of time.
 The number of people in the town is increasing.
 The atmosphere is getting warmer.
 The present continuous is also used for future meaning.
 Ali is getting marriage with Alia next week.
 Asad is playing badminton with mazhar tomorrow.
 Positive form:
I/we/you/they are reading.
He/She/It/Ali is reading.
 Negative form:
I/we/you/they are not working.
He/She/It/ Name is not working.
 Question form:
am I looking?
are we/you/they looking?
is He/She/It/ Suhni looking?


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17 The Present Perfect:
Use:
The present perfect tense tell us about the past and present. Action
happening in the past but having result in the present.
 He has mended the clothes. ( They are ready now)
 The aeroplane has landed. ( Its on the ground now)
 Form:
I/we/you/they have taught.
He/She/It/Vicky has not taught.
 Negative:
I/we/you/they haven’t cooked.
He/She/It/Raza has cooked.
 Question:
Have I/we/you/they washed?
has He/She/It/Sapna washed?
Regular past participles end in ed, e.g. ( cooked, washed, landed, etc)
Irregular past participles don’t end in ed, e.g.( taught, made,drunk etc)
For a list of regular and irregular verbs see
page 383 of “Oxford practical Grammar”.
There are present perfect of be and have.
 The weather has been romantic.
 I’ve had a lovely time with you, my darling, thank you.

18 The Present Perfect Continuous:

Use:
We use the present perfect continuous for an action that is happening
over a period of time. Means the period lasts up to the present. As it is very clear.
From the given below sentence.
 He has been waiting here for an hour.
The above example shows that –he is still waiting.
We also use the present perfect continuous tense to talk about the
repeated action up to now.
 We have been playing the piano since we were five.
We can also use this tense to talk about an action which ends just before
the present.
 We have been bathing. That’s why our hair is wet.

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 Forms:
I/we/you/they have been laughing.
He/She/It/Ayesha has been laughing.
 Negative:
I/we/you/they haven’t been laughing.
He/She/It/Henry has not been laughing.
Question:
have /I/we/you/they been laughing?
has /he/she/it/sanam been laughing?
19 Just, Already, Yet:

Just means a short time ago.

We can use just with the present perfect tense.
Just is used before the past participle. Here are some exp: given below.
I have just arrived at my room.
She has just left for the college.
I’ve just heard about his death.

Already means “sooner than expected”.

Already also can be used with the present perfect tense.
It is also used before the past participle. Here are a few exp: given below.
He has already sold clothes.
 This means that he has sold the clothes very quickly.
We have already visited the Makli graveyard.

Yet:
We use yet when we are expecting something to happen.
yet can also be used with the present perfect tense. And yet come at the
end of the negative or question. As, given in the below example.
Haven’t you taken breakfast yet?
Has your course started yet?
Have you corrected your work yet?

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 20 For and Since

We use for to say how long this period/time is (for ten days)
Vicky has had that laptop for four days.
We use since to say when the period began.(Since Wednesday etc)
They have been at the cinema since Sunday.
Here are more examples of for and since.
I have felt really happy for whole the year.
She has been there for two hours.
I have lived in GDC Karoondi since 2013.
Suhni has been in the same college since 2014.
We can use the present perfect with for and since. As given in the above
examples.
Not Suhni lived in the college since 2014
We can also use for and since with the present perfect continuous.
I have been staying with Hafiz Abdul Bari for three weeks.
My wife has been washing clothes since ten’o clock.
He has been waiting for her for ages.
We have been preparing for CSS since last few years.
Here are some more examples of for and since.
They have known about it for three days.
Nusrat has been waiting since ten past six.
Melanie has been living here since last year.
We can also use for with other tenses.
I’m staying in London for a year.
We swam for quite a long time.
We can often leave out for ( but not from negative sentences)
I’ve had this bike (for) eight months.
She hasn’t seen me for a day or two.








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 21 The Past Simple
Use:
 We use the past simple for something that is finished/completed in the
past.
 They passed their exam last year.
I went to sukkur on Friday.
I bought this bike last year.
Positive form:
A regular past form ends in ed.
It happened very slowly.They blamed me in october.
I faced it bravely.Allah helped me.
Some verbs have an irregular past form.
Their bus came out of a side road.
Peon rang earlier. They won the game.
We use second form of the main verb in all persons except in the past
tense of be
 I/He/She/It/Alia was.
 I was ill last month.
You/we/they were.
Those grapes were nice.
Negative:
We use did in negative and questions. Because helping verb of the past
simple is did.
I/you/He/She/It/They did not meet me.
When we use did, the, the first form of the action verb is used. As in the
above given example.
Question:
did I/we/you/he/she/It/ they meet me?
We also use was and were in the negatives and questions.
Negative:
I/He/She/It/Ali was not fit and fine.
You/we/they were not fit and fine.
Question:
was I/He/She/It ?
were you/we/they?
The doors of my house were closed?
was your brother fine?

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 22 The Past Continuous:
The past continuous tense shows that when we were in the middle of an
action in the past.
The past continuous tense is the past tense of be+ an ing-form.
Positive form:
I/He/She/It/Alima was cooking.
You/we/they/ were cooking.
Negative form:
I/He/She/It/Khushi was not playing.
You/We/they were not playing.
Question form:
was I/He/She/It/Koonj playing?
were you/we/they playing?
We use the continuous with actions. we do not normally use state verbs
with the continuous.
She did not know where I was.
Not I wasn’t knowing.
 We often use the past continuous and simple together when one(shorter)
action comes in the middle of another (longer) one.
As, I was driving the bike when a dog appeared before me.
She was making tea when the phone rang.

23 The Past Perfect:

Use:
When we talk about thing before the past then we use the past perfect.
Paul was tired when he took the train to work yesterday because Sarah
and Paul had been to a party the evening before.
Sarah and Paul had been to a party the evening before. It is the situation
before the past.
Form:
The past perfect is had + a past participle.
He had enjoyed the programme.
They had not gone to the bed until late.
Negatives and questions can be made according to the same way as we
have formed in the previous tenses.
I had not composed a poem.
Had I composed a poem?

32
 We can use had in all the persons. Here are given some more examples
of the past perfect, which will help you out to understand this tense
easily.
My book was not there. I had left it at my room.
The competition was over. Cathy’s team had won.
The man looked familiar. I’d seen him somewhere before.
It was so late. Most of the shops had just closed.
I went to the police station, but they had already lodged an F.I.R.

24 The Past Perfect Continuous:

We use the past perfect continuous tense for an action which happened
over a period of time. Mean an action started before the past and lasted
up to the past time.
 I had been writing a book.
We had been working on an assignment.
Form:
The past perfect continuous is had been + an – ing – form.
He had not been paying attention to my lecture.
Had it been raining?
Here are more examples of the past perfect continuous.
I’d been looking for my beloved for ages.
Alishba felt tired because she had been working all day.
When the company went bankrupt, it had been losing money for months
Compare the past continuous and past perfect continuous.
 When cathy phoned, Ali was having a lunch. (She phoned during lunch)
When cathy phoned Ali had been having lunch.(She phoned after lunch)

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25 Introduction to the Future:
Read the following passage and identify the future situation.

I’m leaving this college in August. In September I am starting my new work in

London. So, I’ll be free for most of the summer. I am going to visit U.K and
USA in next month. I am also going to spend three weeks travelling around
the France. My friend Henry is coming with me. (He finishes the college same
time as me.) We are really looking forward to a picnic. We might go to Venice
too. Henry has friends in Toronto.
We know things happening in the present or in the past because they are
already done and are real. But, talking about the future is quite difficult.
There is no any single form in the future that we may use. There are many
different ways of talking about the future, depending how we see a future
event. It can be something that is sure to happen, but on the other hand it
may be just a plan or an intention, or it may be something that you think will
happen but you are not sure about it.
Verb forms used for the future
Here are some examples of verb forms used to express the future
Be going to=
I’, going to spend three weeks in France ( an intention)
Will =
I’ll be free for most of the summer ( Neutral future)
Present Continuous =
I’m starting work in September. (an arrangement)
Present Simple =
He finishes college at the same time. ( a time table)
Will be doing = I’ll be leaving in June.
There are more than one possible forms that could be used. As given again in
the below examples.
He’ll finish college in June.
He finishes college in June.
He is finishing college in June.
He’ll be finishing college in June.
Anyone can be used in the passage.

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 Will:
We use will as a Neutral future, but it is not “the future tense”.
It is the only one forms we can use.
Being Sure and unsure
When we are not sure about the future the we can use might or Could.
We might go to Canada.
It could snow soon.
When we are sure, we often use phrases like I’m sure, definitely, I except.
 I’m sure it will be right.
I except everyone will be going to attend the party.

26 Will and Shall:
We use will as a neutral meaning of the future. It is used to say what we
know or think about the future.
We also use will for decisions when we decide something or agree to do it.
I think, I’ll make sometime.
I’ll go and switch my computer on.
We also use will in offers an invitation.
Offer: I’ll peel the potatoes. Oh, thanks on.
Invitations: Will you come to lunch.
Promise: I’ll pay you back next week.
Form:
Will carry the first form of the main verb. And, in negatives it carries Not.
I’ll be late, if I don’t hurry.
She won’t have time for me.
The form is will or ‘ll. The negative is will not or won’t.
Shall
We can use shall for the future, but only in first person, after I or We.
I will be/shall be on trip in next week.
We will know / We shall know the results soon.
I will and I shall have the same meaning here, but shall is little formal. Both
I will and I shall can be shortened to I’ll which is pronounced /ϧil/
I’ll be on trip in August. ( I will or I shall)
Shall can be used for offers and suggestions.
Offer: Shall I pack up your books for you? oh, thanks
Suggestion: Shall we go out for walk? Oh, good idea.
We don’t use shall in American English. But British use shall & will in 1st person.

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 27 Be going to:
We use be going to to talk about something we have decided to do
( an intention)
Shalu is going to climb up the hill.
means shalu intends to climb up the hill.
Here are some more examples of be going to.
David is going to watch the next movie.
I am going to write a new book.
He is going to criticize my grammar book.
We can use I’m not going to for a refusal.
I’m sorry, but I’m not going to walk any more. (I am not willing to walk.)
The present continuous can have a very similar meaning to be going to.
We can use either form.
I am going to visit my friend at the weekend.
I’m visiting my friend at the weekend.
We can use be going to with the verb go (we are going to go out this evening)
but the present continuous is more usual.
 We are going out this evening.
Form:
We use the present tense of be + going to + a verb.
They are going to play a violin.
I am going to catch a fish.Cathy is going to call Ali.
We also use be going to for a prediction based on the present situation,
when we can see that something is going to happen.
The ladder is moving, so David is going to fall.
Here are some more examples:
My wife is going to have a baby in March.
Do you think it is going to rain?
28 Present Tense for the Future:
The present continuous is used for arrangements.
Are you doing any this evening?
Yes I am going to play match.
We also use the present continuous to talk about things happening Now.
Present: We are having a party at the moment.
Future: We are having a party tomorrow.

36
We use the present simple for a timetable.
 Henry: What time does your train leave tomorrow?
 Catherine: It gets to moro at ten twenty.
 We also use about to for the very near Future.
 It is about to rain.
 She is about to leave.
We also use be to for a future that officially arranged.
 Ali is to visit the new college.
 Abdul Bari is to visit Karoondi College.
Modal Verbs:
29 Can and Could:
 We use can when something is possible. And someone has ability to do
Something.
 I can qualify the PCS and CSS.
 We can use can for the future.
 If we earn money we can go to picnic next week.
 We also use can in conditionals (1).
 If we study we can achieve our aim.
 We also use can for permissions.
 Can I go to bath?
 Can also can be used for request.
 Can you help me please?
Could:
 We use could for the ability or opportunity in the past.
 Natasha could win.
 In those days I had car, so we could travel.
 When you don’t have ability, you can use negative. simply by adding Not
after can or could. Same case with questions. Put modal verbs in the beginning.
 We normally use could with the verbs of seeing etc and with the verbs of
thinking.
 I could see you at the distance.
 She could smell gas.
 I couldn’t understand the game that was played by Noshi for Ali.
 We can use could for asking the permission in the past.
 Yes, in 2013 you could drive. Could I come to you? Yes, why not.
 We also use could in the conditionals(2)
 If we worked hard, we could secure good score.

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 30 May and Might:
We use may and might to say something is possible.
 It might be a bomb.
 It may belong to Maria.
 We can use may and might for the present or future.
 It may/might be a bomb. ( Perhaps it is a bomb)
 I may/might go to the university tomorrow. (Perhaps I will go to the university)
 We can use a continuous form after may or might( be +an-ing-forms).
 Henry may/might be watching me. (perhaps he is watching me).
 My mother may/might be working late night. (Perhaps she will be working late)
 May is also used for permission.
 May I see your coat? Yes, please
 The negative forms are may not, might not. Something negative is possible.
 She might not finish her work tomorrow. (It is possible that she will not finish).
 He may not get the job.
 We also use might in the main clause of conditional(1)
 If maria jogs regularly, she might lose weight.
 Might is also used in the main clause of conditional (2)
 If they worked harder, they might do even better.

31 Shall and Should :

 We use shall I…? in offers and shall we……? in suggestions.
 Offer: Shall I wait for you? Oh, thanks.
 Suggestion: Shall we go to the park? Oh, good idea.
 We also use shall to ask for a suggestion.
 What shall we have for a lunch?
 We use either shall or should to ask for advice.
 I’m mentally disturbed, what shall/should I do?
 We use should to say what is right or the best thing to do.
 They should take breakfast on time.
 Ifi, you should not spend all money of your husband in buying expensive clothes

38
 32 Will and Would:

 We use will for a predictions:

 It’s too late and she is still working. She’ll be tired tomorrow.
 We are going to Nepal next week. That will be nice.
 We use would for a past predictions or a prediction about a possible situation.
 Past: At midnight, Ifi was still working. She would be tired the next day.
 Possible: How about going to Nepal next week? That would be nice.
 I wouldn’t enjoy that trip.
 We can use shall instead of will and should instead of would, only in the first
person, after I and we.
 I will/shall be 28 in October.
 We would/should like to meet your family.
 When we ask for something. We use would like.
 We would like to order for drink.
 We also use would like in offers and invitations.
 Would you like a free gift?
 Would you like to visit my room please?

33 Should and Ought to:

 There is no any difference in the meaning of should and ought. Difference lies
only in their usage. Should does not carry infinitive while
Ought carries infinitives with itself.
 We use should and ought to say what is the best thing or the right thing to do.
There is no difference in the meaning.
 You are not very well, Perhaps you should see a doctor.
 Haleema is very kind to me, I ought to write a letter to her.
 People shouldn’t / oughtn’t to break their promises.
 After should or ought to we can use a continuous form. (be + an-ing-form)
 It’s half past six already. I should be cooking tea.
 Why are you doing nothing? You ought to be working.

39
 34 Passive verb forms:
 A passive is a form of be + a passive participle.
 is composed, was worn etc
Pronouns changed to passive.

Active Passive
I me
We us
You You
He Him
She Her
It It
They them

summary of verb tenses

Present Simple tense

Active Passive
We make tea here. The tea is made here.
Present Continuous Tense
Active Passive
We are making tea. The tea is being made.
Present Perfect Tense
Active Passive
We have made tea. The tea has been made.
Past Simple tense
Active Passive
I published a book. A book was published.
Past Continuous tense
Active Passive
We were making bread. The bread was being made.
Past Perfect tense
Active Passive
We had baked the bread. The bread had been baked.

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Negatives and questions are formed in the same way as in the active sentences.
 The book is not published.
 The coat has not been worn for days.
 Has the coat been worn by anyone else?
 The future and modal verbs in the passive:
 We use be + a passive participle after
 will, be going to, can, must, have to, should, etc
 The room will be closed today.
 The dust should be thrown away.
 The machine has to be repaired.
 The news might be announced soon.
 Seats may not be reserved.
 How can the problem be solved?
 Active Passive
 Future:
 We will cook the bryani next The bryani will be cooked next.
 We are going to cook the bryani. The bryani is going to be cooked.
 She will compose a poem. A poem will be composed.
 Cathy is going to eat sweets. Sweets are going to be eaten.

 Active Passive
 Modal Verbs.
 We should bake the bread soon. The bread should be baked soon.
 We ought to bake the bread. The bread ought to be baked.
 He can win the competition. The competition can be won.
 What is the sentence about?
 Compare the following two entries.
 Ali Raza A book
 Lecturer in english at GDC Karoondi. based on 150 pages Ali has published.

 Now look at these two sentences.
 Active Passive
 Ali published a book. The book was published by Ali.
 The two sentences have the same meaning, but they are about different
 things. One sentence is about Ali and the other is about the book. Each
 sentence begins with the subject. The subject is the starting point of the
sentence, the thing we are talking about. The new information about the
 subject comes at the end of the sentence.
 We say Ali Raza published a book because we are talking about Ali, and the
 new information is that he published a book. When the subject is the person
or thing doing the action (the agent) we use an active verb.

41
 Active
 Ali Raza published a book.

Subject and agent

 The subject (Ali) is the agent.
 Here we say the book was published by Ali because we are talking about
the book, and the new information is that it was published by Ali Raza.
 When the subject is not the agent (is not doing an action), then we use a
passive verb.
 Passive:
 The book was published by Ali Raza

Subject Agent
 The subject (the book) is not the agent. It is the thing that the action is
directed at.
 The passive and by the police, in 2015 etc
 In a passive sentence, when we want to say who or what did the action, we
use by.
 On our way home, we were stopped by the police.
 The new college will be opened by the Queen Victoria.
 The book was written by Ali.
 We can give other details about the action. For example, we can use a phrase
saying when or where something happens.
 The book was published in 2015.
 The guests will be escorted to the airport.
 The food fairs are usually held at the university.
 Sometimes there is phrase after the verb.
 A new university is being built.
 All the documental records have been destroyed.
 The passive and the agent:
 In a passive sentences, we sometimes mention the agent(the person or thing
doing the action). We use by with the agent.
 The chairs must be cleaned by the peon.
 The medals were presented by Nelson Mandela.
 But we mention, the agent only if it is important for the meaning of the
sentence. sometimes we do not mention it .
1 We don’t mention agent if it does not add any new information.
 All our money were stolen.
 A man was arrested last night




42
 We don’t nedd to say that the money was stolen ( by a thief) or that the man
 was arrested by (the police).
2 We do not mention the agent if it is not important.
The streets are cleaned everyday.
Oil has been discovered at the North Pole.
Who discovered the oil is less important than the fact it is there.
3 It is sometimes difficult to say that who the agent is.
This kind of coat is considered very stylish these days.
A number of attempts have been made to find the lochness monster.
Empty subjects (they, people, etc)
Compare these two sentences:
Active Passive
They clean the classes everyday. The classes are cleaned everyday.
The new and important information is how often the classes are cleaned. We
are not interested in saying who cleans them. In the active sentence we can
use the “empty subject” they. We sometimes use a sentence with an empty
subject instead of the passive especially in conversation.
 We can also use empty subjects. People, you, one and someone.
 Active Passive
 People use this towel all the time. This towel is used all the time.
 You/one should check the results. The results should be checked.
 Someone took my pen. My pen was take.
 When do we use the passive?
 We use the passive in both speech and writing, but it is more common in
writing. We see it especially in text books and reports. We use it to describe
activities in industry, science and technology, and also for official rules.
 Mangoes are exported to france.
 The liquid is heated to boiling point.
 Payment can be made at any bank.
 Cars left here will be towed away.
 In these situation, it is often not important to say who is doing the action, or it
is difficult to say. The passive is also used in news reports.
 A number of political prisoners have been released.
 Table talks will be held in london next week.

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 Passive verbs with two objects.
Many verbs such as give, show, lend, can be followed by two objects, an
“indirect object” and a “ direct object”. These usually refer to a person
(indirect object) and a thing (direct object) Two structures are possible.
A Verb + in direct object + direct object
 She gave her sister the car.
 I had already shown the policeman sam’s photo.
B Verb + direct object + preposition + indirect object
 She gave the car to her sister.
 I had already shown sam’s photo to policeman.
 Both these structures can be made passive.
A Indirect object becomes subject of passive verb.
 Her sister was given the car.
 The policeman had already been shown sam’s photo.
B Direct object becomes subject of the passive verb.
 The car was given to her sister.
 Sam’s photo had already been shown to the policeman.
 Henry gave some flower to his wife.
 Henry gave his wife some flowers.
 If we use passive structure either some flowers or his wife can be the subject
 some flowers were given to Henry’s wife.
 Henry’s wife was given some flowers.
 The first sentence tell us about the flowers, and it tells who received them.
 The second sentence is about Henry’s wife and it tells us what she received.
 It is said that………..
 It is said that Rita is leaving her job. ( people say that Rita is leaving her job)
 We can use the structure.
 It + passive verb + clause with verbs of reporting.
 We use this structure when we cannot say or do not need to say who the
speaker is, for example in news reports.
 It is thought that Britain P.M is planning a new scheme for the youth.
 It was reported that president had suffered a heart attack.
 It has been agreed that changes to the old syllabus are necessary.
 Here are some verbs we can use in this structure: agree, allege, announce,
assure, believe, consider, decide, expect, explain, hope, know, report,
suggest, suppose, think, understand.



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  He is said to………
 We can also use subject + passive verb + to- infinitives.
 Rita is said to have left her job.
 This structure is also used in news reports.
 United were expected to win. ( people expected that they would win)
 The company is thought to be planning a new advertising campaign.
( Someone thinks that it is planning a new advertising campaign)
 The president was reported to have suffered a heart attack.
( Someone reported that he had suffered a heart attack)
 We can also use the following verbs in this structure:
believe, expect, find, know, report, say, think, understand

35 Direct speech and Reported speech:

A Direct speech:
Look at the below examples of direct speech.
 Paul: I’m tired
 Ifi and I are getting married next month,
 I know we’ll be happy together.
 They say, “we don’t go to university”.
 Ali said, “I have qualified C.C.E”
 The above examples are direct speech, because these are said directly by the
speaker. In direct speech, there are two parts of the sentence. i.e
 Reporting Verb Reported speech
 Ali said, “ I have qualified C.C.E”
 The reported speech part is put into quotation mark (“ ” ) when it will be
changed into indirect speech then quotation mark will be omitted.
B Reported speech/ Indirect speech:
In reported speech we don’t say exact words but we give the meaning of what
was said. These words can be shared by another person.

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 Paul says he’s tired.
Ali and Ifi have announced that they are getting married next month. Ali is
sure that they will be happy together.
In reported speech we often change the actual words, e.g
I’m tired he’s tired.
We’ll be happy They’ll be happy.
sometimes the verb tense changes, e.g. I want she wanted.
We discuss below how and when tense changes. Because in narration we
bring three changes in the sentence. i.e. 1: Pronoun 2: Tense 3: Adverb
In reporting we use verbs such as announce, answer, explain, promise, reply,
say, suggest, tell, warn.
 The most common of these are say and tell.
 When we report statements, we often use that, but we can sometimes leave it
out.
 You promised (that), you wouldn’t be late.
 Sapna was saying (that) there’s a problem.
 Tell or Say
 Tell:
 We use tell if we want to mention the hearer ( the person spoken to)
 Afi’s boss told him he could leave early.
 Not Afi’s boss told he could leave early.
 Daniel tells me he’s ready.
 Say:
 When we don’t mention the hearer, we use say
 Afi’s boss said he could leave early.
 Not Afi’s boss said him he could leave early.


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36 Changes in reported speech:
Changes from direct speech to reported speech depend on changes in the
situation. We may have to make changes when we are reporting something
another person has said, or when we report it in a different place or at a
different time. Here are given some typical changes.
Person: I he/she
we they
my his / her
Place: here there, at the flat etc
time: Now then, at the time.
today that day, on Monday
yesterday the day before, the previous
tomorrow the next/ following day
this week that week
an hour ago an hour before/ earlier
37 Reported speech: the tense change?
A When do we change the tense:
When the reporting verb is in the past tense, then there is a often tense
change. In other words after a past – tense verb ( e.g. said)
Nelson said, “ It really is cold today”.
Nelson said it was cold that day.
If the statement is still up to date when we report it, then we have a choice.
we can either leave the tense same or we can change it.
You said you like/liked an ice-cream.
David told me his father owns/owned a piece of land.
Miss cat said she is going /she was going to U.K in January(now it is February)

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 We can say that miss cat is going to U.K because it is still true that she will go
there.
 If the statement is no longer up-to-date then we certainly change the tense.
 David once told me that his father owned a piece of land. ( He may no longer
own Now)
 Miss cat said she was going to U.K in April. (Now it is may) Now cat’s trip is
over, so it is no longer true that she is going to U.K.
 Change of verbs if the reporting verb is in the past tense.
 Direct Speech Indirect Speech
 Present Simple Past Simple
 He said, “ I eat apples” He said that he ate apples.
 He said, “ I don’t eat apples”. He said that he did not eat apples.
 Present Continuous Past Continuous
 He said, “ I am eating apples”. He said that he was eating apples.
 Present Perfect Past Perfect
 He said, “ I have eaten apples”. He said that he had eaten apples.
 Present Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Continuous
 He said, “I have been eating apples He said that he had been eating apples
since morning”. since morning.
 Past Simple Past Perfect
 He said, “ I ate apples”. He said that he had eaten apples.
 He said, “ I did not eat apples”. He said that he had not eaten apples.
 Past Continuous Past Perfect Continuous
 He said, “ I was eating apples”. He said that he had been eating apples
since morning.

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 Note: In written English, Past tense usually do change to past perfect but
there are few exceptions:
Past simple, past continuous tense, in time clauses do not normally change.
 He said, “ I dropped it while I was running for the bus”.
 He said that he dropped it while he was running for the bus.
 He said, “ when we were living in Paris”.
 He said that when they were living in Paris.
 We shall not change of verb after word wish and rather.
 The children said, “ we wish we did not have to take examination”.
 The children said that they wished they did not have to take examination.
 She said, “ Ali wants to go alone but I’d rather he went with a group”.
 She said that Ali wanted to go alone but he’d rather he went with a group.
 We don’t change conditional sentence, having the verb were or had been,
they remain unchanged.
 Ali said,” If my children were older, I would emigrate”.
 Ali said that if his children were older, he would emigrate.
 might, ought, should, would, remain unchanged.
 Reported speech in Future Tense:
 Direct speech Indirect speech
 He said, “ I will/ shall be in Paris on He said that he would be in Paris on
Monday.. Monday.
 He said, “ I shall be 28 tomorrow”. He said that he would be 28 the
following day.
 He said, “ I shall be eating meat He said that he would be eating meat
tomorrow”. the next day.
 He said, “ I shall have eaten meat He said that he would have eaten
tomorrow”. meat next day.
 They said, “We shall have been eating They said that they would have been
meat since morning”. eating meat since morning.
 Modal verbs:
 Can Could
 may might
 will would
 must had to

49
 They said, “ we can sit over here”.
 They said they could sit over here.
 She said, “ I may go to my village again”.
 She said she might go to her village again.
 Tom said, “ I’ll help if you like”.
 Tom said he would help if I like.
 Cathy said, “ I shall cook”.
 Cathy said she should cook.
 Note:
 If reporting verb either is in present tense or in future tense, then the tense of
reported speech won’t be changed, but only pronoun and adverbs will be
changed.
 He says, “ I am feeling well now”.
 He says tha he is feeling well then.
 Shalu will say, “ I did not clean my room”.
 Shalu will say that she did not clean her room.
38 Summary of changes in tenses:

 Direct speech Indirect speech

 Is, am , are was, were
 Eat ate
 do not eat did not eat
 has, have had
 has been, have been had been
 can eat could eat
 will eat would eat
 shall eat should eat
 may eat might eat
 can have eaten could have eaten
 will have eaten would have eaten
 shall have eaten should have eaten
 may have eaten might have eaten

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 Changes in the Past tense
Direct speech Indirect speech
was, were had been
Ate had eaten
Did not eat had not eaten
had been had been
would, should eat would , should eat
might, could eat might, could eat
would have eaten would have eaten
should have eaten should have eaten
might have eaten might have eaten

Summary of changes in adverb

Direct speech Indirect speech
Today that day
Yesterday the previous days or the day before
Tomorrow the next day or the following day
The day before yesterday the two days before
The day after tomorrow the next day or the following day
Next year/week the following year/ week
A year ago a year before the previous year
This that
These Those
last night previous night
Now then
Thus So

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 39 Reported Questions:
There are two types of reported questions. One of them is called wh-questions.
Wh-questions start with words like where, Why, When, How, What, Which.
Second type of reported questions are yes/no questions. yes/no questions start
with the helping verbs like is, am, are, was, were, will, shall, have, has, can,
may, do, does, did, etc
In wh-questions, we change say to or said to into ask or asked. furthermore,
we don’t use question mark in indirect speech and that is also not used.
On the other hand, in Yes/No questions we use if/whether when we change
them into indirect speech. we don’t use question mark and that. We write them
in a simple way. Here below are given some examples.
 He said to me, “Where are you going?”
 He asked me where I was going. (Indirect)
 I said to him, “ do you go to college on foot?”
 I asked him if he went to college on foot. (Indirect)
 He said to me, “ Why do you weep?”
 He asked me why I wept. ( Indirect)
 He said to them, “ Can you help me?”
 He asked them if they could help him, ( Indirect)
 The officer said to the peon, “ may you dine with me?”
 The officer asked the peon if he might dine with him. ( Indirect)
 Word Order
 In a reported question the subject comes before the verb, as in the following
statements.
 Guy asked shalu when She started acting.
 Not Guy asked shalu when did she start acting.
 Someone was wondering if the taxi has arrived yet.
 Not Someone was wondering if has the taxi arrived yet.

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40 Reported requests, offers, etc.
Reported orders and requests:
 When we report a command ( an order ) or a request we use a reporting verb
 ( told, asked ) with the infinitive form of the verb in the original order or request
 Direct Speech Indirect Speech
 “ Stop talking” He told them to stop talking.
 “ Please shut the window”. She asked him to shut the window
 “ Don’t walk on the road”. He told her not to walk on the road.
 “Could you water the plants please”. She asked her to water the plants.
 “ Please move the car”. He told me to move the car.
 The negative is tell/ask someone not to do something.
 “ You must not leave the door unlocked”.
 He told me not to leave the door unlocked.
 We can also use the structure ask to do.
 Something
 “Can I see your ticket, please?”
 The inspector asked to see my ticket.
 It is also possible to report an order or request like this.
 The police man ordered.
 Ali Raza requested etc
 Reported offers, suggestions etc
 Direct Speech Indirect Speech
 “ We’ll pay for the damages”. We offered to pay for the damages.
 I’ll definitely finish it by the end of next You promised to finish it by the end of
week”. this week.
 We can also use object + to – infinitive after advise, invite, remind, and warn.
 “ I think you should take a taxi”. Mark advised us to take a taxi.
 “Don’t forget to ring me”. I reminded david to ring me.
 We can also use an-ing form after admit, apologize for, insist on & suggest.
 “ I really must have a rest”. Emma insisted on having a rest.
 “ Shall we go to restaurant”. Claire suggested going to a restaurant.

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41 Replace as soon as with no sooner:
Sometimes in different exams questions of “As soon as” are given, and is asked
to change it with “ No sooner”
 As soon as the cat appeared the rats ran away.
 In the above sentence, there are two clauses. The sentence is in the past tense.
we have to change it in the same tense. According to the rule, in the first clause
we shall put “ No sooner did” when “did” is placed then first form of the main
verb. In the second class we will put “ then ” in the very beginning. And the
remaining part will be left as it is .
 No sooner did the cat appear then the rats ran away.
 Here are given some more examples.
 As soon as we reached the station the train left.
 No sooner did we reach the station then the train left.
 As soon as I went out of my room it began to rain.
 No sooner did I go out of my room then it began to rain.
42 Conditionals:
 Conditionals (1)
 Type – 1
 Type – 1 conditionals is used to talk about the possible future actions.
 If we work hard, we’ll qualify CSS.
 This shows that there is possibility of qualifying CSS but there is conditional that
is hard work.
 If we work hard, we can qualify.
 It is upto us either we work hard or not.
 There are two clauses in the conditional sentences. i-e If clause & main clause
 In the “If clause” we use present simple and in the “main clause” We use the
future . Here are given some examples.
 If – Clause main Clause
 If Present simple ( Will)
 If we work hard, We’ll qualify CSS.
 If I miss the bus, there will be another one.
 If I don’t practice I won’t get better.
 my essay paper, marks.


54
 The verb in the if clause is present simple not the future( e.g. work, practice etc)
 Not if we will work hard, we will qualify (X)
 But we can use will in the if clause when we make a request.
 If you’ll wait a moment, I’ll find someone to help you. (Please wait a moment..)
 We can use the present continuous (e.g. are doing)
or the present perfect (e.g. have done) in the if clause.
 If I am expecting guest, the room will need a good clean.
 If you’ve finished with a washing machine, I’ll put it away.
 The main clause often has will but we can use other modal verbs. (e.g. can)
 If you haven’t got a book, you can’t read it, can you?
 If Maria jogs regularly, she might lose weight.
 If Ali is going to job interview, he should wear a tie and a coat.
 The if-clause usually comes first, but it can come after the main clause.
 If I hear any news, I’ll phone you.
 I’ll phone you if I hear any news.
 More uses of type – 1
 We can use type-1 conditionals in offers and suggestions.
 If you need a book, I can buy for you.
 If you feel like seeing the sights, we can take a bus tour.
 We can also use them in warnings and threats.
 If you drive fast, you will get an accident.
 If you smoke, you’ll make yourself ill.
 We sometimes use the present simple in both clauses.
 If you heat water, it boils.
 If she has any money, she spends it.
 If you press the switch, the TV comes on.
 This means that one thing always follows automatically from another pressing
the switch results in TV coming on.

55
43 Conditionals (2):
 Iqra: Would you like some cake, Shakeela?
 Shakeela: No thanks, If I ate cake, I’d get fat.
 Iqra: But it is delicious.
 Shakeela: It looks delicious. If I had you figure I’d eat the whole lot.
 I ate cake and I had your figure are imaginary or unreal situations. Means
Shakeela is not going to eat cake, and she has not got a figure like Iqra.
 It won’t be an extension to say that type(2) is used for unreal or imaginary
situations.
 Type 2: If I ate cake, I’d get fat.
 If clause Main clause
 Past simple would
 If I ate cake I’d get fat.
 If I had your figure I’d eat the whole lot.
 If we did not have our bike We’d find difficult to get about.
 If Rohaan got up earlier he wouldn’t always be late.
 Note the past simple (e.g. ate). We do not use would in the if-clause.
 Not if I’d eat cake..
 But we can use would in the if clause when we make a request. As we did in the
type (1).
 If Rohaan would like to come this way, the doctor will see you now.
(please come this way).
 We also use past continuous in the if clause (e.g. was doing)
 If Khushi was playing her piano, it would not be so quiet in this room.
 In a type-2 if clause we sometime use were instead of was, especially in the
if clause. If I were you.
 If Khushi were playing her piano, it would not be quiet in this room.
 If I were you, I’d ask a lawyer for some advice.
 The main clause often has would. We can also use could or might.
 If we had a laptop, we could work quicker.
 If Rachel worked harder, she might do even better at her studies.
 The if-clause comes first, but it can come after the main clause.
 If I knew, I’d tell you. / I’d tell you if I knew.

56
  Type-1 and Type-2
Type1If she works hard, she will get good marks.
Type2 If she worked hard, she would get good marks.
 The present simple tense (works) refers to a possible future action, something
which may or may not happen.
 If she works hard she can or can’t get good marks.
 The past tense (worked) refers to something unreal.
 If she worked hard, she would get good marks. But she did not work hard, and
she did not get good marks. But, she is imagining that she would.
 compare these two examples:
Type1If we take the car, we’ll have to pay for parking.
Type2 If we took the car, we’d have to pay for parking.
Here both sentences refer to possible future action. But in the type2 conditional,
the action is less probable. If we took the car may mean that we have decided not
to take it.
 We can use type2 conditionals in offers and suggestions.
 If you needed a book, I could get you that one.
 If you felt like seeing the sights, we could go to Kashmir.
Type2is less direct that type-1. The speaker is less sure that you want to see the sights.
44 Conditionals (3):
 We can use type 3 conditionals to talk about things in the past happening
differently from the way they really happened. This sometimes means criticizing
people or pointing out their mistakes.
 If Clause Main Clause
 Past Perfect would have
 If I had gone earlier, I would have seen her.
 If he had phoned her, he wouldn’t have been so annoyed.
 If you had not made that mistake, you would have passed your test.
 If Bibi had been more careful, She wouldn’t have fallen.


57
 Here are given a few more examples of type3.
 Razia: How was your camping holiday?
 Sakeena: Well, it would have been all right. if it hadn’t rained all the time.
 Naseema: If we’d gone two weeks earlier, we’d have had better weather.
 If it hadn’t rained and if we’d gone two weeks earlier are imaginary situations in
the past.
 It did rain, and they didn’t go two weeks earlier.
 Note the verb in the past perfect (e.g. had gone). we don’t use would in the
if clause.
 Not If I would have gone earlier, I would have seen her.
The main clause often has would have. We can also use could have or
might have.
 If I’d had my mobile yesterday, I could have called you.
 We just caught the train, I’d have come to see you.
 If you had rung me, I would have come to see you.
 Here are more examples of type-3.
 If you’d been a bit more careful, you would not have cut your hand.
 If Rozina had set his alarm clock, she would not have over slept.
 We can also use this structure to express regret about the past.
 If he had not fallen ill and missed the interview, he might have got the job.
 Compare the type-2 and type-3
Type2 If you arranged the timetable properly, the classes would run regularly.
( You did not arrange)
Type3 If you had arranged the timetable properly, the classes would have run regularly.
( You did not arrange)
 We can mix type2 and type3. As given in the following examples.
 If you had arranged the timetable properly, the classes would run regularly.
 If you hadn’t left all these dirty dishes, the plate would look a bit tidier.
 If Nargis was more sensible, she would have worn a suit to the interview.
 If I did not have all this work to do, I would have gone out for the day.

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 Review of conditionals
There are three main types of conditionals.
Type1 If……………… the present simple…………will/can/might etc.
Type2 If..................the past simple……………..would/could/might etc
Type3 If……………….the past perfect…………….would have/could have/might have.
45 Language Terminology:
Adverbial: A group of words that does the same job as an adverb.
Bare infinitive: The infinitive without to let me go.
Clause: A part of a sentence which contains a subject and a verb, usually joined
to the rest of the sentence by a conjunction.
Mary said that she was fit
The word clause is also sometimes used for structures containing participles or infinitives
( with no subject or conjunction)
Not knowing what to do
I telephoned Ali, I persuaded him to try a new method.
Complement: A part of the sentence that gives more information about the subject
(after be, seem and some other verbs), or, in some structures, about
the object. You are the right person to help. She looks very kind.
Copular Verb be, seem, feel and other verbs which link subject to a complement
which describes it.
My mother is brave.
She looks unhappy. etc
Declarative The question which has the same grammatical form as a statement.
question: That’s your girl friend?
Determiner: One of the group of words that are normally used at the beginning of
a noun phrases. Determiners include a/an, the, my, this, each, either,
several, more, both, all
Initial: At the beginning. Sometimes is an adverb that can go in initial position
in a sentence. Sometimes I wish, I had never been born.
Phrase: Two or more words that function together as a group. in the country,
the silly old woman, would have been repaired etc.
Phrasal verb: A verb that is made up of two parts: a ‘base’ verb followed by an
adverb particle, Fill up, run over, take in etc
Predicative: Adjectives placed after a verb like be, seem, look are in predicative
position. She looks happy. The house is enormous.

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Attributive: Adjectives placed before noun are in “attributive position”.
a pink shirt, my calm wife.
Prepositional A verb that has two parts a “base” verb and a preposition.
verb: Insist on, care for.

46 Pronunciation Practice:

1
[e] and [ae] bed/bad, met/mat, pet/pat, wreck/wrack
The fat man sat on the mat. When he was ready to catch them,
 the other men went back and then ran towards him.
2
[I] and [i:] sit/ seat , this/these, hit/heat, lip/leap, sick/seek, sin/seen
He hid the little pins in a tin and put this lid on it.
These three weary steeds are feeding in a field.
He was sitting beneath a green tree when he was bitten by a little kitten.
3 [s] and [S] save/shave, sort/short, sell/shell, sip/ship, gas/gash
As he was shaving, his hand slipped and he gave his chin a shoot gash.
4 [A:] and [a:] duck/dark, luck/lark, cut/cart, much/march, puck/park
The car was stuck in the mud in the car-park and was very hard to start.
5 [s] and [ts] wash/watch, mash/match, cash/catch, dishes/ditches
While watching a cricket match, he dropped his watch just as a player made a
clever catch.
6
[i] and [ei] brick/break, wit/weight, tick/take, sil/sail, lick/lake, lit/late

If you break this brick, pickup another and take it.

7 [D] and [>:] Pot/Port, Knotty/naughty, stock/stalk, moss/Morse
Your daughter has caught a cold and a shocking cough. She taught that she
ought to have a tonic so I’ve bought her a bottle.

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47 Idioms and Phrases
1 Achilles heel = Week spot
2 Keep abreast of = To advance, Not behind
3 In the air = To be spread quickly
4 All in all = supreme, powerful
5 Keep somebody at = To avoid much familiarity
arm’s length
6 With open arm = warmly welcome
7 An apple of discord = cause of contention
8 Add fuel to fire = To increase the rage
9 The apple of one’s = loving, delightful person
eye
10 Aladdin’s lamp = A lamp which gives everything to the owner that he
wishes
11 Animal spirit = Natural buoyancy
12 Alpha and omega = Beginning and the end
13 All and sundry = Everyone without difference
14 Against a rainy day = for evil times
15 The Augustan age = Period of refinement
16 To be at sixes and = Disagreed person
sevens
17 At logger heads = Quarreling each other
18 To be at daggers = Enmity between two
drawn
19 Backbone = chief support
20 To have a bee in = To be obsessed with an idea
one’s bonnet
21 To beat about the = To speak irrelevant
bush
22 To hit below the = fight unfairly
belt
23 keep body and soul = To keep alive
together
24 Bad blood = Angry and vindictive feeling
25 Be the order of the = fashion, general
day

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26 Bed of Roses = Enjoyable life
27 Burning question = Question demanding solution
28 To burn the candle = To consume one’s energy in double ways
at both ends
29 To break the ice = To speak when there is silence
30 Blood is thicker = Relatives are better than other
than water
31 A bull in a china = A clumsy person in a cared place
shop
32 To bury the = To maintain peace
hatchet
33 A blue stocking = A showy woman
34 By leaps and = very rapidly
bounds
35 To escape by the = To escape very narrowly
skin of one’s teeth
36 Beggars shouldn’t = Those who ask for favour should submit to the terms
be choosers imposed upon them
37 In cold blood = Deliberately
38 Blood and Iron = The force of arm
39 Under a cloud = In disgrace
41 To call a spade a = To be straight forward
spade
42 call in question = To throw a doubt upon
43 crocodile tears = Hypocritical tears
44 A cock and bull = An absurd tale
story
45 Keep one’s fingers = Crook the finger over one another to bring good luck
crossed
46 cry in wilderness = a cry which no one listens
47 A curtain lecture = A scolding given by wife to the husband
48 A cat and dog life = To be always quarreling
49 To make a cat’s = To use mere tool
paw of
50 Turn a deaf ear = unwillingness to listen
51 A Red letter day = An auspicious day
52 Cat and dog story = Always in quarrelling

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53 The sword of = immediate danger, dreaded
Damocles
54 Do yeoman’s = Do good service
service
55 Divide and Rule = Divide nation into parties and rule
56 A Rough Diamond = Unpolished
57 The under dog = Down trodden person
58 Eat humble pie = submit meekly
59 At the eleventh = At the latest possible time
hour
60 A bad egg = A worthless fellow
61 Feather in one’s = an honour
cap
62 A fish out of water = crazy person
63 French leave = To slip away unnoticed
64 A fool’s paradise = A state of happiness based on ficticious hopes
65 Make good = To accomplish
66 Hit the nail on the = To say right thing
head
67 A hard nut to crack = Difficult problem
68 A jack of all trades = A person who turns his hand to all business
69 An iron will = determined
70 Let the grass grow = to be inactive
under one’s feet
71 leave no stone = to adopt every possible method of inquiry
unturned
72 Read between lines = to see writers concealed meaning
73 Maiden speech = first speech
74 Nip in the bud = To destroy from the root
75 A man of letter = Knowledge able person
76 Null and void = of no effect
77 An oily tongue = a flattering
78 Pass away = To disappear
79 Red handed = In the every act of committing a crime
80 A broken reed = The support which will fail you

63
81 Small talk = light talk
82 A snake in the = A deceitful person
grass
83 Tooth and nail = with vigor, power
84 Turn over new leaf = To commence also cause of life
85 To turn the table = To reverse the position of two rival
86 Under the thumb = subservient of
of
87 A thorn in the flesh = a cause of central trouble
88 To fish in the = To make personal profit out of a disturbance
troubled water
89 under the sun = In the world
90 A utopian scheme = An imaginary, unreal
91 Ups and down = successive rise and falls
92 A wet blanket = Anything which checks odour, enthusiasm
93 A wild goose chase = A foolish, fruitless search
94 A white elephant = Burdensome, expensive or trouble
95 A wolf in the sheep = A dangerous person who pretends to be harmless
clothes
96 To lead a dog’s life = To be troubled all the time
97 A storm in a tea = A petty squabble
cup
98 Make a clean = To make a full confession
breast
99 To fight tooth and = Fight heroically till the end
nail
100 To husband one’s = To manage one’s means with frugality
resources
101 To bear the brunt = To endure the main force or shock
of
102 Gift the gab = fluent, Eloquence

103 In hot water = In some trouble, difficulty

104 To see the Thames = To achieve something amazing
on fire
105 To fall flat = To produce no effect, To fail in attracting some one’s
attention
106 Right hand man = Sincere friend

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107 To have finger in = To take part in a matter
the pie
108 To keep the wolf = Toward of starvation and insolvency
from the door
109 To mince the = To say exactly what you feel or think even if it may
matters offend others
110 A dead letter = something no longer in use
111 out of wood = Escape from difficulty or danger
112 To bring the house = To receive applause
down
113 To move heaven = To do everything possible to make something happen
and earth
114 A dog in the = Somebody who can’t have or doesnot want something
manager but who tries to prevent others from doing it
115 Do not hallo till = Be careful about showing premature, signs of
you are out of exultations
wood
116 To keep one’s = To hope that something will happen the way you want
finger crossed
117 With one’s tongue = without meaning what one says
in one’s cheek
118 Few and far = seldom, Never
between
119 A queer fish = A strange, crazy person
120 Cold comfort = cheap comfort
121 A close shave = Almost an accident
122 A Gordian knot = Solve a complicated or difficulty by quick and dramatic
123 To eat one’s words = To take back one’s words
124 A Freudian ship = An unintentional mistake by speaker which reveals
speakers true mentality
125 The milk of human = Kind feeling
kindness
126 To wash one’s dirty = To discuss family affairs in public
linen in public
127 Out and Out = Thoroughly
128 A rule of thumb = a rough rule which gives you idea of how to deal with
things
129 Penny wise and = Penurious about small expenses and extravagant
pound foolish about large one’s
130 Hum and thaw = To keep pausing because you don’t want to say

65
 anything bad
131 To bring grist to = An experience or source
the mill
132 Acid test = The decisive test that establishes worth or credibility
of something
133 To all intents and = In effect the same, although not actually the same
purposes
134 An arm chair critic = one who passes remarks on something without having
its practical experience
135 Across the board = Influencing everyone equally and proportionally
136 Argue the toss = Argue about something without any reason
137 At a pinch = In case it is absolutely necessary
138 In one fell swoop = with only one single effort or action
139 A babe in the = someone who is naïve and trusts others easily
woods
140 A back seat driver = someone who gives unwanted advice or criticism
when somebody else doing a job
141 Bag person/people = A homeless person
142 A banana republic = A small country with an unstable government
143 Be all at sea = Be in a state of confusion and bewildered
144 To be all greek to = Something which is un understandable
someone
145 To be at odds with = To be in disagreement with someone
146 To be in the red = To be in financial crunch
147 To be in black = To be in good financial condition

148 Be/come/ talk = To speak in a direct and truth full manner

straight from the
shoulders
149 To be worth one’s = To be efficient and capable
salt
150 The bees knees = something that is considered to have very good
qualities
151 A blue ribbon = The top position in a competition
152 Bring home bacon = The earn money to fulfill needs of a family
153 A bolt from the = Sudden unexpected event usually of catastrophic
blue nature
154 Bring someone to = make someone obedient

66
 heels
155 By and large = On the whole/ generally speaking
156 Chew the acid = To discuss a subject for the long time
157 A clean state = A clear history of some body’s character
158 Clear air = Remove suspicion or tension
159 A cold fish = One who shows no emotions
160 Kick one’s heel = To be compelled to wait doing nothing
161 Cut somebody = To ignore somebody completely
dead
162 Dead wood = A useless person or thing
163 Do away with = Get rid of something
164 Die in harness = Die while in service or on duty
165 Donkey’s years = For a very long time
166 End up in smoke = Come to nothing or fail
167 Elbow grease = Physical effort
168 Fabian tactics = Tactics employed to delay a process
169 A fast worker = Expert in flirting
170 A fair weather = selfish friend
friend
171 Fine words butter = Tall promises are not enough to clothe or feed a
no parships person to whom they are made
172 A flash in the pan = something which is very short lived
173 A flea in some = a sharp reproof
body’s ear
174 A fly in the = a nuisance or difficulty which spoils as a good event
ointment
175 Fly off the handle = To lose your temper
176 Forty winks = a short sleep
177 from pillar to post = from place to place
178 Zero hour = The time on which something important is due to
happen
179 writing on the wall = An ominously significant event
180 within an ace of = on the verge of, very close to
181 A white collar job = one who does an office job
182 Whistling the wind = Hallow promises

67
183 Up in the air = undecided or unsettled
184 Up in arms = protesting angrily
185 upset the applecart = To spoil the plan or an arrangement
186 Walk in air = To be extremely happy
187 Waste one’s breath = To talk in vain
188 Weather the storm = To experience a difficult situation without being too
badly effected by it.
189 Wear the pants = To be in authority
190 Whistle in dark = To attempt to or pretend to keep up your courage
when you are actually afraid.
191 under the table = secretly or often illegally, in the form of a bribe
192 Under one’s belt = A successful past experience
193 Under the counter = unwell, out of sorts
194 Turn up nose = To express contempt or disdain for something or
somebody
195 Tip of the ice berg = A small or superficial manifestation of a much larger
and often worse situation
196 Tighten one’s belt = To spend less money because you are in financial
crunch
197 Tie Knot = To get married
198 Throw up one’s = To cease to struggle and accept defeat
cards
199 Throw down the = To issue a challenge
gaunt let
200 Thick on the = In large numbers
ground
201 Thick and fast = In large numbers and with great frequency
202 Talk turkey = Talk honestly and bluntly
203 Talk shop = To talk about your work and other specialized activity
204 Take someone for = To cheat or deceive someone, kill someone
a ride
205 Take sth/someone = To become quickly successful and famous in an
by storm organization/place
206 Take exception to = Object
207 Swan song = A final appearance, performance or work as a farewell
to career or profession
208 Take a fancy to = like something or be attracted to it

68
209 stretch one’s legs = stand up and go for a walk in order to relieve muscular
stiffness or for exercise
210 A straw in the wind = A relatively minor thing or incident that gives an
indication of what is likely to happen
211 stand on ceremony = To behave in a formal manner or insist on formality
212 sow the dragon’s = To do thing which cause evil and mischief in future
teeth
213 slap on the back = congratulations
214 silver bullet = A magical solution
215 Show the white = To behave in cowardly way
feather
216 set the world on = Do something remarkable or successful
fire
217 see eye to eye ball = confront closely
218 Run riot = To act without control or restrain
219 A royal road = An easy way
220 Rock the boat = To disturb or a stable situation
221 Rest on one’s = Not try to make further efforts for more achievements
laurels and be content with what has already been achieved
222 Red tape = official procedure regarded as unnecessary
complicated and obstructive
223 A pyrrhic victory = A victory made at the cause of great loss
224 Pop the question = To ask someone to marry you
225 Pie in the sky = promise of good life in future that never arrives
226 A petticoat = The rule of women
government
227 A pain in the neck = someone who is very annoying or something that is
very difficult or problematic
228 On the rocks = Business is working properly and is expected to fail
229 On the rack = In very unpleasant situation and is hard to get out of it
230 On the hook = In some difficulty
231 On cloud nine = TO be extremely happy
232 An old hand = An experienced person
233 An old foggy = One who does not change his conservative thinking
234 No love lost = Used about two people, group or organization when
they dislike each other
235 A night owl = One who keeps on doing things till late and goes on

69
 bed late
236 The nanny state = Used when you disapprove because a government
controls the activities of its people and does not let
them do things freely
237 Make one’s mark = To achieve recognition or success in a particular field
238 Alone wolf = somebody who prefers to be alone
239 letter perfect = without any incorrect word or misspelling
240 leave in the lurch = To leave somebody in a difficult situation without
offering any help
241 Lead by the nose = To control someone completely, so that he does
whatever you want
242 A lame excuse = A weak justification or excuse for something
243 Labour of love = something demanding or difficult that is done only for
the sake of pleasure instead of money
244 Kick the bucket = Die/ Give up the ghost
245 Keep the ball = To continue or sustain an activity without a let up
rolling
246 Keep one’s nose to = Keep working hard without taking a break
the grind stone
247 Keep one’s head = Avoid financial trouble
above water
248 Keep in the dark = Don’t let somebody know about a situation
249 Keep one’s own = To keep one’s thoughts and intentions secret
counsel
250 Keep body and soul = To be able to sustain life
together
251 Keep at bay = Keep something unpleasant at distance to avoid harm
252 An ivory tower = A state in which someone is sheltered from harsh and
difficulties of life
253 In the teeth of = Inspite of ( some difficulty etc)
254 In the pink = In excellent condition of health
255 In the line of fire = In a very risky situation where one is likely to be
criticized
256 Ill at ease = Embarrassed, uneasy
257 A hot potato = A sensitive or controversial issue that is difficult to
deal with
258 Hold the balance = To control the key to maintaining an existing state of
equilibrium between two opposite forces
259 Hit the spot = To please ore satisfy extremely well

70
260 Hit the hay, Hit the = To go sleep/ forty winks
sack
261 High and dry = stranded
262 Heart and soul = with greatest devotion
263 Have an axe to = To be interested in serving one’s own purpose even if
grind it involves unfair means
264 Hang together = To be in good relation to each other
265 Hang in the = To be in a state of suspense about the out come
balance
266 Hand in glove = To be on very intimate terms
267 Halcyon days = Days of peace, prosperity and happiness
268 Grist to the mill = An experience or source that can be used for your
advantage in another situation
269 Grey matter = Intelligence
270 A good Samaritan = A selfless helper
271 Good for nothing = Useless
272 Go to the wall = To be ruined, especially financially
273 Go by the book = Proceed by rules
274 Go against the = Be contrary to someone’s natural inclinations, feelings
grain or wishes
275 A glutton for = somebody who deliberately takes on and enjoys
punishment difficulty, stress
276 Give way = To collapse or break under pressure
277 Give the game way = To reveal a secret
278 Get the sack = Be terminated from the job
279 Get the wind = To hear indirectly about something
280 Get under one’s = To irritate someone
skin
281 Fly off the handle = To lose your temper especially without any
justification
282 Give a Roland for = To give a blow for a blow
an oliver
283 A dark horse = An unexpected winner
284 Take a fancy to = have a great desire
285 spick and span = new and smart
286 Straight from = reliable information
horse’s mouth

71
287 Go to the dog = to lead a ruinous life
288 Call to mind = to remember
289 At large = free, at liberty
290 In a quandary = confused, perplexed at sixes and sevens
291 Poke/ stick your = Intrude, stick your oarin
nose into
292 Be stuck in a = Monotonous, humdrum, helium
groove
293 Crown over boast, kick up a fuss, below your own trumpet
294 A bee line = The shortest route, a straight direct course
295 Snake in the grass = deceitful, treacherous, double faced
296 Go in a tailspin = get mired in, get disoriented
297 Put on the back = defer, put on ice, take a rain check on
burner
298 on knife’s edge = In a difficult situation, mired, tangled
299 Bite the bullet = grasp the nettle, endure pain
300 A waters shed = turning point, pivotal moment
moment
301 put through the = put the screws on, question annoy
wringer
302 To stay put = keep one’s position
303 Having a cow = antsy, nervous, hot and bothered
304 On the anvil = undone, undeveloped, embryonic
305 On the button = on the dot, spot on, on the time
306 Be stick in a groove = monotonous, humdrum
307 Throw caution to = take a risk, adventure
the wind
308 Come off = succeeded
309 Turn down = Refuse
310 make out = see clearly
311 make up = invent ( a story )
312 Put off = post one
313 Turn up = Arrive
314 Bring in = Introduce
315 come about = Happen

72
316 fallen out = quarreled
317 fixed up = arranged
318 Gave up = Stopped
319 Gone away = disappeared
320 Go off = Explode
321 Held up = Delayed
322 Setup = established
323 workout = calculate
324 cut back = spend less
325 draw up = Write
326 fall behind = be slower than others
327 fell through = did not happen
328 fought off = managed to stop
329 get through = make contact
330 put forward = suggested
331 Ring back = Phone again
332 sort out = put right
333 stepped down = left the job
334 taking on = accepting
335 Take over = take control of
336 Turn down = becoming loss
337 knock down = completely to the ground
338 Broke down = stopping completely
339 Copy down = on the paper
340 set off = wearing off
341 drive off = departing, on journey
342 switch off, cut off, = disconnected
rang off
343 Switch on, turn on, = connected
leave on
344 Put on, try on = Wearing
345 carry on, hang on/ = continue
hold on, drive on

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346 washout, cross out, = away disappearing
blowout
347 Hand out, share = to different people
out
348 Read out, Call out = Aloud
349 going up, put up = increasing
350 eat up, fill up, = completely
count up, tear up

351 calls in on/ drops in = pays short visit

on
352 catch up with = reach the same place as
353 clamp down on = take strong action against
354 come up against = be stopped by
355 come up to/ live up = as good as she expected
to
356 crying out for = is great need of
357 cut back on = Reduce
358 cut down on = Reduce
359 do away with = Abolish
360 face up to = not avoid
361 Bag and baggage = completely, leaving no property behind
362 Good wine needs = aged thing needs no advertisement
no bush
363 To cudgel one’s = to make a painful effort to remember
brain
364 fall to the ground = to become nothing
365 To hang out the = to show willingness to come to terms, generally in
white flag taken of surrender
366 The game is not = the game isn’t worth even the cost of the candle that
worth the candle lights the players
367 Hold with the hare = to play a double and deceitful game
and run with the
hounds
368 Off hand = without preparation
369 To knock on the = Destroy
head
370 Lay the axe to the = to destroy completely

74
 root off
371 to let the cat out of = to disclose secrete
bag
372 To lose ground = to grow less popular
373 To lead by the nose = to dominate a person
374 To be at loss = to be unable to decide
375 Let down = to fail a friend
376 Make one’s mark = to distinguish oneself
377 The masses = the great body of common people
378 To make ducks and = to squander
drakes of
379 A mare’s nest = an unfounded theory
380 The old Adam = the evil nature within man
381 One for all or once = finally
and for all
382 Upset the apple = To spoil a plan or arrangement
cart
383 A turn coat = Somebody who abandons or betrays a group and joins
opposite side
384 Throw somebody = To surprise someone so much that he feels confused
for a loop and unsure of what to do
385 Point bland = to say or do something direct
386 make it hot for one = make it difficult
387 make a common = cooperate with
cause with
388 Lend an ear = listen attentively
389 Hope against hope = very little hope
390 Hang fire = to remain in suspense
391 Spick and span = new and smart
392 Suit one’s book = to suit one’s plan
393 sail under false = try to deceive
colours
394 play upon words = to cut jokes

75
 48 English Précis & Composition
How to Write A Good Précis?
While writing out a précis three aims are to be kept in view: Firstly, the general
argument is to be clearly conveyed. Secondly, all salient points are to be included.
Thirdly, the diction is to be concise yet adequate and independent of the original. The
following rules, however, should be followed:
Dos
a) Read through the whole passage you are asked to make a précis of or find out the
central through, that is, the general argument contained in it. If not already given,
calculate approximately the number of words in the passage set.
b) Read the passage thoroughly (slowly and carefully) twice, thrice, or four times, if
necessary, so that clear grasp of the whole passage could be obtained.
c) Mark the salient points (leading ideas) appearing in the passage or make marginal
notes, leaving out all unimportant ones or note them down separately on the margin.
This requires considerable practice.
d) Give a suitable heading of your précis.
e) Prepare a rough copy with the help of marks or marginal notes. Arrange them, if
necessary in what you think to be the best logical order. But it is better to keep the
same order of thought as in the original.
f) Write your précis in the third person, indirect form and appropriate tense. The tense
of the précis should be the same as that of the passage.
g) It is better to give designations of officials and not their names and titles. At times,
the official designation is not mentioned and you have to use the personal name.
Whatever, designation you employ, you must stick to it throughout the précis.
h) If necessary, divide the précis into paragraphs and to show where these begin,
indent your writing clearly.
i) Revise your rough copy, abridge it and if need be, improve its language. The précis
should in itself be a piece of good English.
j) Read once again the original passage to see that all the important points have been
incorporated in your précis.
k) Then write out the précis in its final revised form. Hand writing counts here also
everywhere else.

76
Don’ts
a) Do not express your own opinion, wish, remark or criticism.
b) Do not insert any question in your précis. Its significance, if essential, may be
expressed by a statement.
c) Do not convey the ideas in the précis by incomplete sentence.
d) Do not use telegraphic abbreviations.
e) Do not be jerky. This suggests that most probably, you have not understood the
sense of passage properly..
f) Do not retain one or reject the other if two ideas are equally important. Either retain
both or give that combined significance.
g) Do not forget that a standard précis will bring good marks in the examination.
ORIGINAL PASSGE
Our instinctive apparatus consists of two parts- the one tending to further our own life
and that of our descendants, the other tending to thwart the lives of supposed rivals.
The first includes the joy of life, and love and art, which is psychologically an offshoot
of love. The second includes competition, patriotism and war. Conventional morality
does everything to suppress the first and encourage the second. True mortality would
be the exact opposite. Our dealings with those whom we love may be safety left to
instinct; it is our dealings with those whom we hate that ought to be brought under the
domination of reason. In the modern world, those whom we effectively hate are
distant groups, especially foreign nations. We conceive them abstractly, and deceive
ourselves into the belief that acts which are really embodiments of hatred are done
from love of justice or some such lofty motive. Only a large measure of scepticism can
tear away the veils which hide this truth from us. Having achieved that, we could begin
to build a new morality, not based on envy and restriction, but on the wish for a full life
and the realization that other human beings are a help and not a hindrance when once
the madness of envy has been cured. This is no impossibly austere morality yet its
adoption would turn our earth into a paradise.

THE NEW MORALITY

Two parts of our instinctive part are to safeguard our selfish interests and to harm our
enemies. The first contains joy love and art and the second patriotism and war.
Conventional morality suppresses the first and encourages the second. True morality
consists in being reasonable rather than harbouring hatred for others. We wrongly call
our bad behaviour justice. We must realize this truth. Sympathy and understanding
should replace every and hatred. Only this new morality can make life pleasant.

77
 49 COMPREHENSION

1) Read the passage fast in order to form a general idea of its theme and its main ideas.
2) Next read the passage more slowly with two aims in mind: (a) To confirm if your fist
impression was correct, and (b) to underline the key ideas.
3) Now read the question based on the passage, and write the numbers of questions
against the lines that contain the answers to them.
4) Finally, write down the answers and try to avoid reproducing parts of the given
passage; use your own words.
5) All answers to questions on comprehension should be clear and concise, expressed
in simple English that follows the rules of grammar and syntax and idiom.
6) Except in the case of meanings of words and phrases, all such answers should be
written in complete sentences.
7) Unless otherwise directed, you should base your answers entirely on what is said in
passage set.

SAMPLE
Education is the instruction of the intellect in the laws of nature, under which name I
include not merely things and their forces, but men and their ways; and the fashioning
of the affections and of the will into an earnest and loving desire to move in harmony
with those laws. For me, education means neither more nor less than this. Anything
which professes to call itself education must be tired by this standard, and if it fails to
stand the test, I will not call it education, whatever be the force of authority, or of
numbers, upon the other side.
It is important to remember that, in strictness, there is no such thing as
uneducated man. Take an extreme case. Suppose that an adult man, in the full vigour
of his faculties, could be suddenly placed in the world, as Adam is said to have been,
and then left uneducated? Not five minutes. Nature would begin to reach him, through
the eyes, the ear, the touch, the properties of objects. Pain and pleasure would be at
his elbow, telling him to do this and avoid that; and by slow degrees the man would be
thorough, real, and adequate to his circumstances, though there would be no extras
and very few accomplishments.
Questions:
1) What does education mean?
2) In what sense is there no such thing as an uneducated man?
3) What would a man learn from nature, if he suddenly found himself in this world, like
Adam, without any prior knowledge?

78
Answers:
1) Education means the instruction of the human mind in the laws of nature, including
the world of nature as well as of man. It would guide human feelings and will to
work in harmony with those laws.
2) There is no such thing as an uneducated man, because man takes very little time to
learn important lessons from his interaction with things around him. He is constantly
learning by trial and error, and cannot be called uneducated.
3) Nature would teach a man, through his sense, what would give pleasure and what
would give pain, so that he would learn what to do and what to avoid. Thus he would
slowly receive an education that would be quite adequate to these circumstances,
even if narrow in perspective.
SAMPLE 2
There is something humbling to human pride in rustic life. It grates against
the heart to think of the tone in which we unconsciously permit ourselves to address
him. We see in him humanity in all we respect in our species is what has been created
by art; the gaudy dress, the glittering equipage, or even the cultivated intellect. The
mere and naked material of nature we eye with indifference, or trample on with
disdain. Poor child of tool, from the grey dawn to the setting sun, one long task! No
idea elicited, no thought awakened beyond those that suffice to make him the
machine of others, the serf of the hard soil. And then too, mark how we frown upon his
scanty holidays, how we hedge in his mirth, and turn hilarity into crime! We make the
whole of the gay world, wherein we walk and take our pleasure to him a place of
snares and perils. If he leaves his labour for an instant, how many temptations spring
up to him! and yet we have no mercy for his errors: the jail, the transport-ship, the
gallows. These are our sole lecture-books, and our only method of expostulation.
Questions:
1) Why do we despise a rustic?
2) Is the life a rustic a bed of roses?
3) How do we punish him for his errors?
Answers
1) We despise a rustic because he is too simple, in dress, in manners, and in mind. He is
uncultivated, unrefined, and untouched by the usual marks of civilization. Besides, we
look down upon him also because he works with his hands rather than with his mind.
2) The life of a rustic is very busy and very hard. He has no time for relaxation and
recreation. Only toil and labour are supposed to be his lot.
3) When a rustic strays from his labours to taste awhile the joy of life, we punish him
inhumanly by sending him to jail or exile, or by executing him.

79
 50 How to write an organized Essay in exam?
One of the toughest tasks in written part is to get through the Essay. Students
put their efforts in writing essay, and English grammar and composition. However, they
secure very less marks in the English paper. Some ditches, false practices and our
mindset make it herculean task. Without delay let us ponder on the issue and hope
things will get easier after that.
Language Barrier:
Feeling weak in English, we make relentless efforts to learn it when we don’t have
good language. We cannot compose even a single correct line. Therefore, it is
prerequisite to learn English, learn how to write correct language grammatical mistakes
and spelling mistakes intolerable while attempting Essay.
Ill practice:
One cannot attempt a good Essay unless one keeps on practicing on writing Essay.
One should write on daily basis. Because writing and speaking are two different things.
If, one can speak fluently it doesn’t mean that one can also write properly. Write an
organized Essay practice is necessary. Students can’t write Essay, paragraph etc due to
ill practice.
Misunderstanding the topic:
Most candidates, in haste, often don’t comprehend the topic, hence, ultimately
and up a failure. Understanding topic is crucial to achieve good score in the English
paper.
Time (Mis) management:
In the English paper time management is very important. When there is a simple
topic then the students write more than enough. They waste their much more time in
writing essay. Resultantly, they cannot manage the time. For the paper. An hour should
not be wasted on 10 or 20 marks.
Road to Essay writing:
Sans practicing right things, you can’t ensure successful culmination. Follow the
following path to get through.
1) Stick to the basics, parts of speech, tenses, punctuation, sentence structure,
vocabulary, paragraph writing and all other basic components of English should be
learnt. This can be done by reading simple grammar book.
2) There are few common rules of writing essay that should be learnt rigorously.
3) Practicing paragraphs and short essays will give you command over essay writing
and putting firm foundation for full length essay.

80
4) Going through past papers and by following current trends, shortlist some topics
and collect relevant material. How much will be sufficient can be gauged by developing
detailed outline of each topic.
Material can be gathered from two sources: one, books, magazines, newspapers,
journals etc. Two; from official documents like quarterly reports of international
agencies like WB, IMF, ABD, UN, USAID, etc treaties, agreements, etc They are
significant in order to strengthen your discourse skills.
5) Practice essay at least two months before the actual exam. In this way, you will feel
less pressure in actual examination.
Let’s elaborate few topics to understand this:
“ Freedom of speech should have limitations”
1) Introduction
2) Media in Pakistan: Perfect match for the quote
3) Freedom of speech, if unbridled can be dangerous; elaborations and illustrations
from Pakistan
4) Government policies and freedom of media in Pakistan
5) Challenges to freedom of speech in Pakistan
6) Ways and means to ensure freedom of speech with responsibility
7) Conclusion
 OUTLINE:
Outline is the skeleton of essay. It should be very comprehensive and elaborated.
 Language:
Write short sentences. Use simple vocabulary. Avoid informal writing and
contractions give statistics with reference. Quote properly analyze with reason.
 Introduction:
General structure of introduction should be Topic sentence (addressing the topic
directly) Supporting sentence (6-8 sentences comprising explanations, examples,
statistics, quotations etc, in support of topic sentence i-e statement of essay)

81
 Thesis statement: ( gist of essay in 1 or 2 sentences)
Suppose, essay topic is “ Good governance in Pakistan”. A sample introduction for
the topic is as under.
Good governance in Pakistan has become an unrealized dream (Topic sentence)
History is evident of the fact that nation did not vanish due to poverty or hunger, but
because of mat- administration and bad governance. Pakistan has been home to many
serious troubles including terrorism, corruption, energy crisis, water crisis, rising
poverty and uncontrolled urbanization. But if causes are traced there is only one
answer and that is absence of good governance. If recent events are traced back, it will
be unveiled that Pakistan must have not fallen prey to such serious problems had there
been better governance system. But quite unfortunately, governance kept
deteriorating and so did the system. There must be realization among the giants of
administration and governance that why there is always need of judiciary to correct
their ills? Why at the end of every disaster foreign aid becomes the sole resort? Why
after every security failure foreign, hand is blamed? The answer is same that when
system of governance is absent the vacuum is filled by those who have no role to play
in it. ( Supporting sentence)
The following paragraphs should highlight main ingredients of good governance
followed by the evidence on absence of good governance in Pakistan. Leading to the
end.
There will be analysis of current situation along with solutions to ensure good
government. ( Thesis statement )
Body:
Follow the sequence of outline. Write paragraph for each major point in outline.
Conclusion:
Thesis statement
Supporting sentence
Topic sentence
Conclusion
Write relevant and practice to get perfection. More prepared you are, lesser are the
chances of failure. Remember that before mentioned views and techniques are not
absolute. Essay is all about presenting arguments in convincing way. Write less but
write quality. Fluency, Coherence, brevity and reason will make you win.

82
51 Past Pre-Entrance test question papers:
MCAT- 1999
 Find the mistake amongst the underlined words/phrases:
1: Their are fifty people sitting in their drawing room.
A B C D

 Which of the 4 choices is the correct “ Indirect narration” of the

“Direct Quotation”?
2: The manager says, “ My friends’ son visits us every year”
A) The manager says that his friend’s son visited him last year.
B) The manager says that his friend’s son visit them every year.
C) The manager says that his friend’s son visits them every year.
D) The manager says that his friend’s son visited us every year.

 Identify the most appropriate answer from the following four sentences
3: Akram was more smarter than all of his three brothers.
A) Akram was smarter than all of his three brothers.
B) Akram was more smarter than all the three brother’s.
C) Akram was smarter of all his brothers.
D) Akram was smarter than any of his other three brothers.

 Identify the correct option of fill in the blank spaces:

4: When the right time came, I__________________
A) Paid in same coin, B) Paid him back in his own coin
C) paid back his coins D) Paid his coins back to him

 Pick the right choice of the active/passive voice:

5: Place the order now:
A) Let the order be placed B) You should place the order now
C) The order has be placed now D) Let the order be being placed
now

83
 ENGLISH – 2000

1: The postman______the post by the time I left for school this morning.
A) Had delivered already
B) Had already delivered
C) Delivered
D) Would delivered

2: The United Nations_______ its head quarter in New York City.

A) Have
B) Has
C) Would have
D) Had

3: He is unfit for this job owing to his weak eyesight.

A) He is unfit because he owns eyesight.
B) His poor power of seeing makes him unsuitable for the job.
C) His Eyesight makes him unfit for the job.
D) He cans not the job with the eyesight

4: My daughter was driving car.

A) The car is driven by my daughter.
B) The car was driven by my daughter.
C) The car was being driven by my daughter.
D) The car is being driven by my daughter.

5: He said, “………………………….”
A) Didn’t speak B) Didn’t spoke
C) Don’t speak D) Don’t spoke

84
 ENGLISH-2003
 Fill in the blanks with appropriate words given below:
1: She had an accident two years ago and she………………..driven since.
A) Had not
B) Has not been
C) Has not
D) Have not

2: He……………the lottery a few months ago, and he……….the same person since.
A) Won, had not been
B) Won, has not been
C) Win, has not been
D) Win, had not been

 Put an appropriate article in the sentence given below:

3: He has performed…………………….excellent job since he has been working here.
A) A
B) An
C) The
D) Very

 Find out the synonyms of the following words:

4: Flee means
A) An insect B) A fly
C) Capture D) Escape

5: Wander
A) Foolish B) Surprise
C) Roam D) Desire

85
 NTS- ENGLISH
 Complete the sentences by choosing the most appropriate word from the given
lettered choices A to D
1: Though brilliantly presented, the report was………since the information on which
it was based was erroneous.
A) Informative
B) Erudite
C) Laudable
D) Worthless

2: ...................in the color of water from blue to green seemed to be caused by high
or low…………..of salt.
A) changes……….delivery
B) clarity…………deposits
C) measures………density
D) variations ……. Concentrations

 Choose the Antonym to the given word:

3: Amazing
A) Miraculous
B) Stupendous
C) Astounding
D) Common

4: Jubilant
A) Exulting
B) Triumphant
C) Dejected
D) Rejected

86
 Choose the word most similar in meaning to the capitalized ones synonym
5: Transitory
A) Hesitant
B) seen through
C) short lived
D) high blown

6: Elegant
A) Graceful
B) Disgraceful
C) Ugly
D) Elevated

 Put an appropriate word

7: She always……………her pet dog with herself.
A) Took
B) Takes
C) Taken
D) has taken

8: Come in ! I…………………a cup of tea.

A) Is
B) am having
C) Have
D) Had

9: Who……………..that terrible noise.

A) is making
B) is producing
C) Develops
D) Developing

87
 Questions from Combined papers
1. 1. There is no use ........ going there at this time.

A At

B In

C On

D Off

2. He complains ....... headache.

[A] Of

[B] Off

[C] From

[D] About

3. They went to Agra ..... bus.

[A] Of

[B] In

[C] By

[D] From

4. I am writing this essay.......blue ink .

[A] In

[B] With

[C] From

88
5. She has three children......her first husband.

[A] Of

[B] In

[C] By

[D] From

6. He congratulated you......your promotion.

[A] In

[B] On

[C] Of

[D] For

7. She jumped......the river.

[A] On

[B] In

[C] Into

[D] To

8. The jug is fill.....milk.

[A] of [B] with

[C] in [D] upon

89
9. My wife is good....... French.

[A] In

[B] On

[C] With

[D] At

10. I am fond ....... reading novel

[A] Of

[B] By

[C] On

[D] With

11. She is gifted ...... common sense

[A] On

[B] By

[C] With

[D] Over

12. Sheela burst........the room when Mohini was writing a letter

[A] On
[B] In
[C] Of

[D] Out

90
13. The players have gone ........ the playground

[A] In

[B] Over

[C] With

[D] To

14. He has not met his mother .......... long

[A] For

[B] With

[C] Since

[D] By

15. The land was divided ........ the two sisters

[A] Among

[B] Between

[C] With

[D] For

16. The terrorist shot the policeman .......... his gun

[A] By
[B] For
[C] With
[D] In

91
17. Compare Newton .......... Karl Marx

[A] To

[B] With

[C] Over

[D] In

18. Rohaan was appointed ........... the post of section officer

[A] To

[B] On

[C] With

[D] For

19. My Mother-in-law is blind ........... one eye.

[A] From

[B] In

[C] On

[D] Of

20. He prevented me ...... going to the school

[A] From

[B] For

[C] With

[D] On

92
21. Knowledge is like a deep well fed by _________ springs, and your mind is a
little bucket that you drop in it.
[A] External
[B] Perennial
[C] Immortal
[D] Lovely

22. The unruly behaviour of children _________ their parents

[A] Aggrieved
[B] Impeached
[C] Incensed
[D] Tempered

23. He suggests that the meeting _______ postponed

[A] Is
[B] Be
[C] Must
[D] Would be

The landscape was truly_____, so arid that even the Hardest Plant could not
24.
Survive
[A] Lurid
[B] Parched
[C] Verdant
[D] Variegated

25. His statement was so________ that everyone was left in doubt
[A] Equitable
[B] Innocuous
[C] Dogmatic
[D] Equivocal

93
26. I certainly do not______ your driving your car over the speed limit
[A] Approve in
[B] Approve with
[C] Approve of
[D] Approve for

27. The Eagle swooped and ______ a sleeping lizard

[A] Carried down
[B] Carried up
[C] Carried off
[D] Carried in

28. A young officer was _______ the task of taking prisoners to the rear
[A] Charged by
[B] Charged in
[C] Charged for
[D] Charged with

29. It seemed he was going to _____ him but he controlled himself

[A] Lash out at
[B] Lash out in
[C] Lash out to
[D] Lash out on

30. I am not going to _____ this book at any cost

[A] Part from
[B] Part up
[C] Part for
[D] Part with

94
52 Letters and Applications
Letter
Guidelines for writing a covering letter.
1. Address your letter to a specific individual. Use his/her name wherever possible.
2. Establish good communication at the very beginning. Say how you learnt about
a vacancy. Give a reference.
3. Give a brief statement emphasizing your qualification for his position.
4. Use directly from the job advertisement to describe what you can do.
5. Emphasizing what can you do for an employer rather than what he/she can do
for you.
6. Highlight the parts of the enclosed resume that specifically pertains to the job
offered.
7. Indicate the dates you are available for interviewing.
8. Write neatly and good page layout.
9. Sign each letter.
10. Follow up with telephone call.
Don’t…………………
I. Don’t use awkward salutations, to whom it may concern.
II. Don’t begin each sentence and paragraph with ‘I’
III. Don’t fill the page, write three or four paragraph.
IV. Don’t use over used expressions. Don’t fill the letter with impressive sounding
difficult words.
V. Don’t change your writing style in the same letter.
VI. Don’t send photocopies of letters.

95
 SAMPLE COVER LETTER
90-F Mohalla
Resham Gali
Moro
October,20,2016
Mr. Shah Rukh Siyal
National Motor Ltd
Jail Road Moro
Dear Mr.Siyal
Mrs. Muskan Jat, your office manager, mentioned that you require an assistant in
your head office. The enclosed resume will show you that office work has been my
occupation and my recreation.
A successful dealership like yours depends on reputation. I have had good customer
relations during the time I worked at Abdullah Motors my car sales experience has
made me familiar with variety of parts and engines.
May I call you after 2:30pm on Thursday October,22 to setup a time and date for an
interview? If this is not a convenient time, please call me any day after 2:30pm on
0306-3297387. Thank you for your consider attain.
Yours sincerely
Pirah Siyal

96
FOLLOW-UP LETTER:
Other important step in the job hunting process is the follow up letter sent after the
interview. A follow-up letter will get your name before the interviewer one more time;
It is your chance to further influence the decision. A good follow-up letter should
contain the following.
 A thank you for the interview comment.
 A statement that reaffirms your interests in the position and your value as an
employee in the position.
 A statement that you will be available for furthers interviews at their
convenience.

SAMPLE FOLLOW-UP LETTER

May 15,2015
Ms.Ifrat Siyal
Manager
Al-Asar travel agency,
Railway Phatak Jamshoro.
Dear Ms.Ifrat Ali
Thank you for your time and courtesy yesterday. I enjoyed meeting you and all your
employees at the travel agency. The tour you gave me answered all the questions I had.
I was especially impressed with the efficiency exhibited throughout your office.
My enthusiasm for gaining the position of part time assistant is even greater. Now that I
have seen the possibilities I believe that my ability, coupled with the positive attitudes
and talents of the present staff, could lead to an increase in overall sales.
I have already begun considering a number of ideas for improvement, which I would try
if hired. If you have any further questions, I will continue to be available for additional
interviewing at your convenience.
Yours Sincerely
Marvi Memon
Flat No.17, saima plaza
Kali Mori
Hyderabad

SAMPLE OF FORMAL LETTER

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 House# 110
Govt. Girls Degree College
Sukkur
6th July, 2016

Mr. Abdul Bari Indhar

Director of Colleges
Sukkur Region, Sukkur.
Dear Mr. Indhar,
Will you please excuse my son Akbar’s absence from your office yesterday? He had a
temperature and I thought it advisable to keep him at home. He seems to be quite
recovered now.

Yours Sincerely
Ali Raza Siyal

Sample Leave Extension Application

Mr. Ashraf Ali
Chief Executive
Arain Corporation
Shah Market
Hyderabad

Dear sir,

I am on leave for medical emergency after a road accident. The recovery of leg injury is
slow and doctor suggested one more week of rest. I am already on one month leave and
now requesting leave extension for one more week.

Furthermore I am feeling better and hopefully join the office on 05-10-2016. Please
consider my request of leave extension I will be thankful to you.

Sincerely yours,
Yasir Zafar
Operation Manager

AN APPLICATION FOR TWO DAYS LEAVE

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To,

The Principal
Govt: Degree College Moro
SUBJECT REQUEST FOR TWO DAYS LEAVE.

R/Sir,

It is submitted that I am not feeling well since last two days. Doctor has
advised me to keep fully bed rest. So, I cannot come to college for two days from
10-10-2016 to 11-10-2016.

Therefore, you are requested to grant me two days leave.

Yours obediently

Dated: 10-10-2016 _____________

Class XII PM Roll No_____

An application to D.C requesting him to maintain law and order situation in

your District

To,
The Deputy commissioner
Distt: Naushahro feroze
Subject: Request for maintaining law and order situation
R/Sir,
It is submitted that in our District, District Naushahro feroze crimes have
reached at its peak. Corruption thefts, Robbery have become order of the day. There is
no implementation of any law, law and order situation is worsening.
Therefore, you are requested to take legal actions against the criminals and
maintain law and order situation in our District.

Yours Sincerely
Ali Raza Siyal
Qamarabad
Dated: 22-10-2016 Naushahro Feroze

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 My dear friends and students, life is limited and short. It begins and
ends. No one remains more after his/her death. If, remains his/her good deeds. I
suggest you; don’t take anything as an end. But get everything as beginning face
challenges, hardships, and storms. Be like a mountain. Never think that you are junior,
younger, poor, weak, but think that your journey will start its practical episode. You
stand informed, enlightened, empowered, inspired, stimulated, invigorated, and
exhilarated to the fullest of your capabilities, capacities, and qualities.
The day will come when you will launch yourself in rough and tumble of life, frazzle
and dazzle of life! So get its preparation from now onwards. Never waste even a single
moment of yours life. Lost time will never return.
As far as us, we have tried to give you almost all we had; we have give you our
best; our honest most, our sincerest! We have tried to train you in terms of
knowledge, skill, ability, attitude, personality development, motivation, inspiration,
faith, hope and trust. Now it’s your turn to turn the tables and to share with others
and to improve ameliorate your society. Now it’s up to you to share with those who
are in your surroundings, around you and less educated.
May life or may not one more time bring us together under one ceiling, life may or
may not afford us chance of re-union, but for now I must assure you that you will
always find me as willing to serve you as ever! I find myself in you, I live through your
person, I actualize myself through your effort, and you are my most cherished dream,
my most fervent desire, and my most sought-after obsession. My dear students/
friends, you are I and I are you.
Wish you best of luck for your coming time.

Ali Raza Siyal

( Lecturer English )
GDC Karoondi
0306-3297387

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