CHEMISTRY MORHILL ACADEMY
CHAPTER 4 THERMOCHEMISTRY
Concept Map
Energy Changes in Chemical
4.1
Reactions
1. Energy changes occur in almost all
chemical reactions.
2. There are two kinds of chemical reactions
that undergo changes in heat. They are:
(a) Exothermic reactions
(b) Endothermic reactions
Exothermic Reaction
1. Chemical reaction that release heat into its
surroundings.
2. The total energy contained in the product
is less than that of the reactants.
3. Heat energy is released from the reactant
into the surroundings to increase.
4. The reaction mixture becomes hot, so
does the container that holds it.
5. The rise in temperature can be felt by
hand. A thermometer can be used to
measure the rise in temperature.
6. Example:
(a) Reaction between metal carbonates
with dilute acid:
Na2CO3(s) → 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(𝑙) +
+ 2HCl(aq) CO2(g)
(b) Neutralisation reaction between acid
and alkali:
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) +
H2O(𝑙)
(c) Reaction between water and reactive
metal oxide:
K2O(s) + H2O(𝑙) → 2KOH(aq)
(d) Reaction between alkali metals
(Group 1 element) and water:
2Na(s) + 2H2O(𝑙) → 2NaOH(aq) +
H2(g)
(e) Dilution of concentrated acid:
H2SO4(𝑙) → H2SO4(aq)
(f) Reaction between reactive metals
(Mg/Al/Zn/Fe) and diluted acid:
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) +
H2 (g)
(g) Combustion of fuel in excess oxygen:
∆ when chemical bonds in a compound are
C2H4(g) + 3O2 → 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(𝑙)
(h) Rusting of iron:
4Fe(OH)2(s) + O2(g) → 4Fe(OH)3(s)
+ 2H2O(𝑙)
(i) Action of water on anhydrous ∆𝐻 = Energy of the products – Energy of the
copper(II) sulphate: reactants
CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(𝑙) →CuSO4.5H2O(s) 5. If the energy content in the reactants
(j) Crystallisation of molten sodium exceed the energy content in the products,
thiosulphate: then ∆𝐻 is negative. Negative ∆𝐻 occurs in
Na2S2O3(𝑙) → Na2S2O3(s) exothermic reactions.
(k) Displacement reaction of metal drom Exothermic reaction ∆𝐻 negative
its salt solution: 6. Exothermic reactions have negative ∆𝐻
Zn(s) + CuCl2(aq) →ZnCl2(aq) + Cu(s) values because the reactants have lost
(l) Dissolving Group 1 hydroxides in (given off) energy to the surroundings. The
water: products contain less energy as compared
2Na(s) + 2H2O(𝑙) →2NaOH(aq)+H2(g) to the reactants.
Endothermic Reaction
1. An endothermic reaction is a chemical
reaction that absorbs heat from the
surroundings.
2. The total energy contained in the products
is more than that of the reactants.
3. Heat energy is absorbed by the reactants
form the surroundings, causing the
surroundings temperature to drop.
4. The reaction mixture becomes cold, so
does the container that holds it. 7. If the energy content of the reactants is
5. The reduction in temperature can be less than the energy content of the
detected by hand or by using a products, then ∆𝐻 positive. Positive ∆𝐻
thermometer. occurs in endothermic reactions.
6. Example:
Endothermic reaction ∆𝐻 positive
(a) Reaction between sodium hydrogen
8. Endothermic reactions have positive ∆𝐻
carbonate and dilute hydrochloric
values because the reactants have
acid:
absorbed energy from the surroundings.
NaHCO3(s) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) +
The products have higher energy content
H2O(𝑙) +
as compared to the reactants.
CO2(g)
(b) Dissolving ammonium salts in water:
NH4NO3(s) → NH4NO3(aq)
(c) Dissolving potassium salts like
potassium nitrate in water:
KNO3(s) → KNO3(aq)
(d) Decomposition of carbonate salts by
heat:
∆
CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)
(e) Decomposition of nitrate salts by heat
∆
2Cu(NO3)2(s) → 2CuO(s) + 4NO2(g) + 9. The information that can be obtained from
O2(g) an energy level diagram includes:
(f) Action of heat on hydrated copper(II) (a) Heat energy change value.
sulphate: (b) Energy content of the reactants which
∆
CuSO4.5H2O(s) → CuSO4(s) + is higher or lower than the energy
5H2O(𝑙) content of the products.
(g) Dissolving sodium thiosulphate (c) The reactions that occur will result in
crystals in water: a rise or a fall in temperature.
Na2S2O3(s) → Na2S2O3(aq) 10. The chemical equation that includes ∆𝐻 is
Energy Level Diagram called the thermochemical equation.
1. The energy level diagram is a graph that Example:
Zn(s) + Cu(NO3)2(aq) → Zn(NO3)2(aq) + Cu(s) ∆𝐻=-220 kJ
shows the energy change of a chemical
reaction. Relationship between energy change with the
2. The energy level diagram shows the formation and breaking of chemical bonds
energy content of the reactants and 1. When chemical reactions occur, heat
products of a reaction. energy might be absorbed or released.
3. The energy change that occurs in a 2. Heat energy is absorbed when chemical
reaction depends on the energy content bonds in a compound are broken.
within the reactants and its products. 3. On the other hand, heat energy is released
Energy change can be represented by the
symbol ∆𝐻 (Delta H). formed.
4. ∆𝐻 is the difference between the energy of 4. In an exothermic reaction, the energy that
the reactants and the energy of the is released from the formation of bonds
products.
Form 5 1
 CHEMISTRY MORHILL ACADEMY
exceeds the energy required to break the (a) when 1 mol of reactants react; or
bonds. (b) when 1 mol of products are formed.
4. The unit used to measure the heat of
reaction is joule(J).
5. The heat of reaction, ∆𝐻, that is marked
negative (-) shows an exothermic reaction.
6. The heat of reaction, ∆𝐻, that is marked
positive (+) shows and endothermic
reaction.
7. The heat of reaction is usually named
Endothermic reaction (∆𝐻 positive)
according to the type of reaction that
occurs.
8. Examined the displacement reaction
below.
Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
∆𝐻 = -190 kJ mol-1
The thermochemical equation above shows
that:
Exothermic reaction (∆𝐻 negative)  190 kJ of heat energy is released when 1 mol
5. In an endothermic reaction, the energy that of copper, Cu, is displaced from its salt
is needed to break the bonds exceeds the solution by zinc, Zn.
energy that is released during bond  The heat of displacement of copper by zinc
formation (negative ∆𝐻). (∆𝐻) is -190 kJ mol-1.
Application of exothermic and endothermic
Determining heat change
reactions.
1. Heat change is the amount of heat that is
1. Exothermic and endothermic reactions are
released or absorbed in a reaction.
applied in the making of hot and cold
2. The change of heat of a reaction depends
packs.
on the
2. Figure below briefly shows the principle
(a) mass of the substance used.
behind the making of hot and cold packs.
(b) temperature change (𝜃) that is the
Making of hot packs and cold packs
difference between the final
temperature (T2) and initial
 The hot or cold packs contain two plastic bags.
temperature (T1) of the reaction.
 The outer plastic bag is made of a strong thick
plastic and is filled with chemical powder. 𝜃 = T 2 – T1
 The inner plastic bag is made of weaker thin plastic (c) specific heat capacity (c) of a
that contains water.
substance is the heat that is needed
 When the beg is punched, the inner plastic bag will
break open. The water inside will then mix with and
to raise the temperature of 1 g of
substance by 1 OC.
dissolve the chemical powder, causing the solution
to become either very hot or cold. 3. Heat change in a reaction can be
determined by using the following formula.
Hot packs Cold packs Heat change
The chemicals that are The chemicals that are = solution mass × specific heat capacity ×
suitable for use to suitable for use to temperature change
produce an exothermic provide an endothermic = 𝑚𝑐𝜃
reaction when mixed with reaction when mixed with
4. The unit used to measure heat change is
water are: water are:
 Dry copper(II)  ammonium nitrate joule (J).
sulphate  potassium nitrate 5. The above formula can be used to
 Dry potassium  sodium thiosulphate calculate the heat change that occurs in a
chloride
 magnesium chloride
reaction by making four assumptions,
 calcium chloride namely:
 magnesium sulphate (a) The density of the aqueous solution
3. Hot packs are widely used by mountain that is used is the same as the
climber or explorer to areas with a cold density of water that is 1 g cm -3. 1 cm3
climate to warm their hands and feet. of aqueous solution is assumed to
4. Cold packs are widely used by athletes to have mass of 1 g.
help them reduce pain in swellings that Assumption:
results from sporting injuries. Density of aqueous solution
= density of water
4.2 Heat of Precipitation = 1 g cm-3
Heat of reaction
1. All reactions that occur are followed by Therefore,
heat energy changes. 1 cm3 of solution has a mass of 1 g.
(c) Chemicals in solid form are not
2. Energy changes in a chemical reaction are
assumed to absorb heat energy.
called the heat of reaction. The symbol for
Ignore the mass of chemicals in solid
the heat of reaction is ∆𝐻.
form.
3. The heat of reaction is defined as heat
(d) No heat is lost to the surroundings.
change
Form 5
Calculation on heat change
There are two types of question about heat
change calculations:
(a) involving volume of solution and
temperature change only
(b) involving a thermochemical equation
Calculation involving volume of solution and
temperature change only
Heat change occurring in a reaction that does
not involve thermochemical equation can be
calculated by the following guidelines:
Step 1: Write the formula of heat change if the volume
of solution and the temperature change are given in
the question.
Heat change = 𝑚𝑐𝜃
Where,
𝑚 = the total volume of solution is the mass (g) of the
solution
𝑐 = Specific heat capacity (4.2 J g-2 OC-1)
𝜃 = Temperature change (OC)
Step 2: Replace the values of 𝑚, 𝑐, and 𝜃 in the
formula. The answer that is obtained is written in the
unit of joule, J.
Example:
Heat change = 𝑥 J
Calculation involving thermochemical equations
1. If a substance mass (or the volume and
molarity of solution) is given, and you are
required to calculate heat change, the
following guidelines can be followed:
Step 1: First, calculate the number of moles.
(a) If a substance mass is given, use the following
formula to determine its number of moles:
mass
Number of moles =
mass molar
(b) If a solution’s volume and molarity (concentration)
are given, use the following formula to determine
the number of moles:
MV
Number of moles =
1000
Step 2: Multiply the number of moles that was
obtained with the ∆𝐻 value.
Heat change = Number of moles × ∆𝐻
2. If the heat change value is given and you
are required to calculate the mass of the
substance used, you can use the following
guidelines.
Step 1: First, calculate the number of moles. Because
the heat change value is given in the question, thus,
The number of moles is determined by using the
following formula:
heat change
Number of moles =
value ∆𝐻
Step 2: Multiply the number of moles that was
obtained with the substance molar mass.
Heat change = Number of moles × molar mass
3. If the heat of reaction (∆𝐻), volume and
concentration of solution are given and you
are required to calculate the temperature
change, you can use the following
guidelines:
Step 1: If the heat of reaction (∆𝐻), volume and
concentration of solution are given in the question, you
have to first determine the number of moles of solution
using the following formula:
MV
Number of moles =
1000
2
 CHEMISTRY MORHILL ACADEMY

3. The actual reaction that occurs is the Therefore, the heat of precipitation of silver
Step 2: Determine the heat change that occurs by combination of 1 mol of silver ion, Ag+ with chloride, ∆𝐻 = -67.2 kJ mol-1
adjusting the following formula:
1 mol of chloride ion, Cl-, to form 1 mol of Energy level diagram for the precipitation
heat change
Number of moles = silver chloride, AgCl. The ionic equation of silver chloride, AgCl
value ∆𝐻
that represents the reaction that occurs is:
Therefore,
Heat change = number of moles × ∆𝐻 value Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → AgCl(s)
4. The heat of precipitation of silver chloride
Step 3: Use the formula and adjust it to form a new can be defined as follows:
formula: The heat of precipitation of silver chloride
is the heat that is released when 1 mol of
Heat change = 𝑚𝑐𝜃 silver chloride is formed.
heat change
𝜃=
𝑚𝑐 5. The precipitation reaction of silver chloride,
AgCl, is an exothermic reaction because
Determining the heat of reaction
the temperature of the reaction mixture
1. The heat of reaction such as heat of
increases.
precipitation, heat of displacement, heat of
6. Example below shows the heat of
neutralisation, and heat of combustion can
precipitation (∆𝐻) of silver chloride can be
be determined if the following information
calculated.
is known:
(a) The substance mass
(b) Temperature change
(c) Specific heat capacity
(d) The number of moles of substance or
solution
(i) The number of moles of a fuel
such as alcohol liquid can be 4.3 Heat of Displacement
determined by using the formula 1. The heat of displacement is the heat that is
below: released when 1 mol of metal is displaced
mass
Number of moles = from its salt solution by a more
mass molar
25 cm3 of 1 mol dm-3 silver nitrate, AgNO3 electropositive metal.
(ii) The number of moles of a
solution is mixed with 25 cm3 of 1 mol dm-3 2. For example, 1 mol of copper, Cu, is
solution can be determined by
sodium chloride, NaCl solution. The displaced from a copper(II) sulphate,
using the formula:
temperature changes form 30 OC to 38 OC. CuSO4, solution by zinc, Zn, to release 210
MV
Number of moles = Calculate the heat of precipitation of silver kJ of heat.
1000
chloride, AgCl. Then draw an energy level Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
2. You can refer to the following guidelines to
diagram for the reaction above. ∆H=-210 kJ mol-1
make it easier to determine the heat of
[Specific heat energy of solution = 4.2 J g-1 Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
reaction (∆𝐻) of certain reactions.
Step 1: Calculate heat change using the formula:
O -1
C , Density of solution = 1 g cm-3] ∆H=-210 kJ mol-1
Solution 3. When 1 mol of copper is displaced from its
Heat change= 𝑚𝑐𝜃
solution by zinc, up to 210 kJ of heat is
Step 1: Calculate the heat change
Step 2: Calculate the number of moles of reactant(s) released. Therefore, the heat of
Heat change = 𝑚𝑐𝜃
which reacts, using either of the following formulae: displacement of copper by zinc is -210 kJ
mass
= 50 × 4.2 × 8
Number of moles = mol-1.
mass molar = 1 680 J
4. The heat of displacement of copper by zinc
or Step 2: Calculate the number of moles
can be defined as follows:
MV of reactants
Number of moles = The heat of displacement of copper by zinc is the
1000 MV
Number of moles of Ag+ ion = heat that is released when 1 mol of copper metal
If there are two types of solution present, calculate the 1000 is displaced by zinc.
number of moles for each one. 1 × 25
= 5. The displacement reaction of copper by
1000
Step 3: Write chemical equation or ionic equation for = 0.025 mol zinc is an exothermic reaction because the
the reaction that occurs. MV temperature of reaction increases.
Number of moles of Cl- ion =
1000 4.4 Heat of Neutralisation
Step 4: Link the number of moles of reactants with the 1 × 25
= 1. The heat of neutralisation is the heat that is
heat change which occurs. Calculate the heat of 1000
reaction, ∆𝐻 by using the following formula: = 0.025 mol released when 1 mol of hydrogen ion, H+,
Step 3: Write down the ionic equation neutralizes 1 mol of hydroxide ion, OH-, to
𝑚𝑐𝜃
Heat of reaction = Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → AgCl(s) form 1 mol of water, H2O.
number of moles
Step 4: Link the number of moles of 2. For example, 1 mol of dilute hydrochloric
Heat of precipitation reactants with the heat change, and acid, HCl, react with 1 mol of sodium
1. The heat of precipitation is the heat calculate the heat of reaction. hydroxide, NaOH, to release 57 kJ of heat.
change when 1 mol of precipitate is 0.025 mol of Ag+ ion reacts with 0.025 mol HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(𝑙)
formed. of Cl- ion to produce 1 680 J of heat. ∆𝐻 = -57 kJ mol-1
2. For example, the reaction between silver Therefore, 1 mol of Ag+ ion reacts with 1 H+(aq) + OH-(aq) → H2O(𝑙) ∆𝐻 = -57 kJ mol-1
nitrate AgNO3, solution and sodium mol of Cl- ion to produce 3. The neutralisation reaction between acid
chloride, NaCl, solution forms the white 1680 J
= and alkali is an exothermic reaction
precipitate silver chloride, AgCl. 0.025
because the heat that is released causes
AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) → AgCl(s) + = 67 200 J
the reaction temperature to increase.
NaNO3(aq) = 67.2 kJ

Form 5 3
 CHEMISTRY MORHILL ACADEMY

Comparison of the heat of neutralization for Reaction between a strong acid and a strong 3. About 393.5 kJ of heat is released when 1
reactions between monoprotic acid and alkali, alkali. mol of carbon C, burns completely in
and diprotic acid and alkali. 1. Strong acid such hydrochloric acid, HCl, excess oxygen, O2 to produce 1 mol of
Heat of dissociate completely in water to produce a carbon dioxide, CO2. This heat is known as
Chemical Ionic neutrali-
Case high concentration of hydrogen ions, H+. the heat of combustion of carbon.
equation equation sation,
∆H (kJ) HCl(aq) → H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) 4. The combustion reaction is an exothermic
HCl(aq) + H+(aq) + 1mol 1mol reaction because the heat that is released
NaOH(aq) → OH-(aq) → 2. Strong alkalis such as sodium hydroxide causes the reaction temperature to
A 57
NaCl(aq) + H2O(𝑙)
H2O(𝑙) solution contain a high concentration of increase.
HNO3(aq) + H+(aq) + hydroxide ions, OH-. 5. The heat of combustion of fuel such as
NaOH(aq) → OH-(aq) → NaOH(s) → Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) alcohol and hydrocarbons can be
B 57
NaNO3(aq) + H2O(𝑙)
H2O(𝑙) 1mol 1mol determined if the following information is
H2SO4(aq) + 2H+(aq) + 3. As such, the reaction between strong acids known – (Fuel mass, water volume and
2NaOH(aq) 2OH-(aq) and strong alkalis release a lot of heat. temperature increase)
C → → 2H2O(𝑙) 114
4. The heat of neutralisation between strong 6. The determination of the heat of
2Na2SO4(aq)
+ 2H2O(𝑙) acids and strong alkalis is a constant, that combustion is different from that of the
1. Hydrochloric acid, HCl, and nitric aicd, is -57 kJ mol-1. other heat reactions.
HNO3 are strong monoprotic acid
The general method of determining the heat of
(monobasic) acid. reaction
2. 1 mol of a strong monopotric acid Example: Determining the heat of neutralisation
produces 1 mol of hydrogen ion, H+, in an
aqueous solution.
HCl(aq) → H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
1mol 1mol
HNO3(aq) → H+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
1mol 1mol
3. The actual reaction that occurs in
neutralisation is between 1 mol of
Reaction between a weak acid and a strong
hydrogen ion, H+, with 1 mol of hydroxide
alkali
ion, OH-, to form 1 mol of water, H2O. Heat change = mc𝜃
1. Weak acid such as ethanoic acid, ↓
H+(aq) + OH-(aq) → H2O(𝑙)
CH3OOH, partially ionise in water to 𝑚𝑐θ
1mol 1mol 1mol Heat of neutralisation =
produce a low concentration of hydrogen no.of moles
4. As such, the heat of neutralisation for a The method of determining of the heat of
ions, H+.
reaction between alkali is the same. In combustion
CH3COOH(aq) ↔ CH3COO-(aq) + H+(aq) Example: Determining the heat of combustion if
case A and case B, the heat of
2. To produce hydrogen ions, H+, heat must ethanol
neutralisation is the same that is 57 kJ
be absorbed to break the bonds in the
mol-1.
ethanoic acid molecule. This enables the
5. Sulphuric acid, H2SO4, is a strong diprotic
ethanoic acid to fully ionise to produce free
(dibasic) acid.
moving hydrogen ions, H+.
6. 1 mol of a strong diprotic acid produces 2
3. As such, the heat of neutralisation between
mol of hydrogen ions, H+, in an aqueous
1 mol of weak acid and 1 mol of strong
solution.
alkali to produce 1 mol of water is lower
H2SO4 → 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
than 57 kJ.
1mol 2mol
CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) →
7. When sulphuric acid, H2SO4, reacts with
CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(𝑙)
sodium hydroxide, NaOH, the equation of
∆H= -55kJ mol-1
neutralisation reaction is:
H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) →
2Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(𝑙)
or
2H+(aq) + OH-(aq) → 2H2O(𝑙)
2mol 2mol 2mol
∆H= -114kJ mol-1 Alcohol heat up the water. The heat is absorbed by a
certain volume of water (cm3)
8. As such, the heat of neutralisation value ↓
for a reaction that involves diprotic acid is Heat change = mc𝜃
two times the heat of neutralisation value ↓
𝑚𝑐θ
for a reaction that involves monopotric Heat of combustion =
no.of moles of alcohol used
acid. 4.5 Heat of Combustion
9. In case C, the heat of neutralisation value 1. The heat of combustion is the heat that
is -57 x 2 = -144 kJ mol-1. The mass of alcohol (fuel) that is burned
released when 1 mol of substance burns can be obtained by weighing the mass of
completely in excess oxygen. lamp before and after the experiment.
Comparison of the heat of neutralisation for 2. For example, the heat of carbon, C is Alcohol mass = Initial lamp mass – final
reactions between strong acids and strong -393.5 kJ mol-1. This reaction can be lamp mass. Then, the number of moles
alkalis, and between weak acids and strong represented by the following of alcohol used can be calculated.
acids. thermochemical equation:
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g) ∆H= -393.5kJ mol-1

Form 5 4