I.

Title: Fundamental of Measurement

II. Introduction:
Metrology is a science of deals with the study of measurement. A unit of measurement is a definite amount of a physical
quantity.
French chemist Antoine Lavoisier, father of modern chemistry, took a part as a member of commission in uniform system
of units of weights and measurements, aim to have an international unit system.

System of Measurement

1.) Traditional
2.) Metric
3.) Natural

A. Traditional unit system

Traditional unit system are territorialize unit of measurement. Most of these units of measurement are derived from human
body parts (see figure 1, i.e. foot, hand, arms). Traditional unit system is usually term as imperial unit system.
Imperial units or the imperial system is a system of units, first defined in the British Weights and Measures Act of 1824. English
unit is an example as imperial units.

Figure 1 Vitruvian measurement

B. Metric unit system

Metric System, a decimal system of physical units based on a unit of length known as the meter (Greek metron,
“measure”). Introduced and adopted by law in France in 1791, a majority of countries subsequently adopted the metric system as
a common system of weights and measures. Scientists in all countries use the metric system in their work. The metric system is
decimal, in the sense that all multiples and submultiples of the base units are factors of powers of ten of the unit.
Derivation of metric units is based from scientific study and laboratory experiments. International Standard Organization
(ISO) uses metric system and called as SI unit system.

3 Bodies of an International Standard organization maintain SI unit system

1. International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM).

2. General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM).
3. International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM).
All derived units would use a common set of prefixes for each multiple. The following are prefixes;

Table 1. SI unit prefixes

Based and Derived units.

A. SI seven (7) base unit
Base units are fundamental unit within a system of measurement from which other units in the system are derived.
Table 2. SI base units
Units Symbols Measure Definition Historical
Origin/Justification
meter m. Length "The metre is the length of the 1
⁄10,000,000 of the distance from the Earth's
path travelled by light in vacuum equator to the North Pole measured on
during a time interval of 1/299 792 the circumference through Paris.
458 of a second."
17th CGPM (1983, Resolution 1, CR, 97)
kilogram kg. Mass One kilogram is equal to the mass The mass of one litre of water. A litre is
of the international prototype of one thousandth of a cubic metre.
the kilogram. A metal cylinder
platinum iridium.
3rd CGPM (1901, CR, 70)
second s Time The second is the duration of 9 The day is divided in 24 hours, each
192 631 770 periods of the hour divided in 60 minutes, each minute
radiation corresponding to the divided in 60 seconds.
transition between the two A second is 1⁄(24 × 60 × 60) of the day.
hyperfine levels of the ground
state of the caesium 133 atom."
ampere A Electric current "The ampere is that constant The original "International Ampere" was
current which, if maintained in defined electrochemically as the current
two straight parallel conductors of required to deposit 1.118 milligrams of
infinite length, and placed 1 metre silver per second from a solution of
apart in vacuum, would produce silver nitrate. Compared to the SI
between these conductors a force ampere, the difference is 0.015%.
equal to 2 × 10−7 Newton per
metre of length."
9th CGPM (1948)
Kelvin K Temperature "The Kelvin, unit of The Celsius scale: the Kelvin scale uses
thermodynamic temperature, is the the degree Celsius for its unit increment,
fraction 1/273.16 of the but is a thermodynamic scale (0 K is
thermodynamic temperature of the absolute zero).
triple point of water."
mole mol Amount of "The mole is the amount of Atomic weight or molecular weight
substance substance of a system which multiplied by the molar mass constant,
contains as many elementary 1 g/mol.
entities as there are atoms in 0.012
kilogram of carbon 12; its symbol
is “mol”.
candela cdl Luminous "The candela is the luminous The candlepower, which is based on the
intensity intensity, in a given direction, of a light emitted from a burning candle of
source that emits monochromatic standard properties.
radiation of frequency 540 × 1012
hertz and that has a radiant
intensity in that direction of 1/683
watt per steradian."
16th CGPM (1979, Resolution 3; CR, 100)

Derived units
Derived units are units of measurement formed by combining the base units of a system.
Table 3. Derive Units of SI system
Linear measurement

Distance is a scalar measure of the interval between two locations measured along
the actual path connecting them. Displacement is a vector measure of the interval between
two locations measured along the shortest path connecting them.

Conversion of units
Metric

1 meter = 1 million micron (um)

=1000 millimeter (mm)
=100 centimeter (cm)
=10 decimeter (dm)

English
1 inch = 1000 mil
1 span = 9 inches
1 Foot = 12 inches
1 yard = 3 feet
1 furlong = 660 ft.
1 fathom = 6 ft.
1 mile (statute) = 0.87 nautical mile
= 1760 yard

Metric to English

1 meter = 3.281 ft
1 mile (statute) = 1.609 km
1 inch = 2.54 cm

Definition of terms

a.) Weight- the quality of heaviness in things, determined by their mass or quantity of matter as acted
on by the force of gravity, that counteracts efforts to lift or move them
b.) Mass - amount of matter that a body contains, and a measure of the inertial property of that body,
that is, of its resistance to change of motion (see Inertia).
c.) Gravitation - the force of attraction between all objects that tends to pull them toward one another.
 d.) Steel yard - portable balance for weighing objects. The object is hung on a hook and a
counterweight is moved along a scaled arm to find the weight.

I. Unit of weight/mass and its conversion

Table 5 Weight unit conversion

SYM 1 gram-
Force BOL 1 dyne 1 Newton 1 pounds 1 poundal force 1 kilogram-force
(N) (lbf) (pdl) (gf) (kgf)
1 dyne 1 105 2.248x10ˉ6 7.233x10ˉ5 1.02x10ˉ³ 1.02x10ˉ⁶
1 Newton (N) 105 1 0.2248 7.233 102 0.102
5
1 pounds (lbf) 4.448x10 4.448 1 32.17 453.6 0.4536
1 poundal (pdl) 1.383x10 5
0.1383 3.108x10ˉ² 1 14.1 1.410x10ˉ²
1 gram-force (gf) 980.7 9.807x10ˉ² 2.205x10ˉ³ 7.093x10ˉ² 1 0.001
1 kilogram-
force (kgf) 9.807x105 9.807 2.205 70.93 1000 1
1 kgf. = 9.81 Newton 1 lbf. = 32.2 lbm ft/s2
9.81 kg. m/s2 1 lbf. = 32.2 poundal
2.21 lbf 1 kip = 1000 lbf
1 dyne = 1 g cm/s2

Table 6 mass unit conversion

1
Mass 1 gram kilogram 1 slug 1 ounce 1 pounds 1 ton
(g) (kg) (oz) ( lbs.)
1 gram (g) 1 0.001 6.852x10ˉ5 3.52x10ˉ² 2.205x10ˉ³ 1.102x10ˉ6
1 kilogram (kg) 1000 1 6.852x10ˉ² 35.27 2.205 1.102x10ˉ³
1 slug 1.46x10 4
14.59 1 514.8 32.17 1.609x10ˉ²
1 ounce (oz.) 28.35 0.028 1.943x10ˉ³ 1 6.250x10ˉ² 3.125x10ˉ5
1 pounds (lbs.) 453 0.454 3.108x10ˉ² 16 1 0.0005
1 ton 9.07x105 907.2 62.16 3.2x104 2000 1
F = Force = mass x acceleration
W = Weight = mass x gravitational acceleration
gc = Standard Gravity = 9.81 m/s2

W = m x gc

SI units English units

9.81
g m/s² 32.2 ft./s²
m kg. lbs.
W N lbf.
Title: Pressure Measurement
Definition of terms

1.) Absolute pressure -is zero referenced against a perfect vacuum, so it is equal to gauge pressure plus
atmospheric pressure.
2.) Gauge pressure -is zero referenced against ambient air pressure, so it is equal to absolute pressure minus
atmospheric pressure. Negative signs are usually omitted.
3.) Differential pressure -is the difference in pressure between two points.
4.) Vacuum- defined strictly, space that has all matter removed from it.

Formulas

P = Pa + Pg if Pg > Pa, Pg is above atmospheric

P= Pa - Pg if Pg < Pa, Pg is partial vacuum
P = ϱgh
whereas;
P = absolute pressure
Pa = Atmospheric pressure
Pg = Gauge pressure
ϱ = mass density
g = gravitational constant, 9.81 m/s2 in SI unit,
32.2 ft/s2 English unit.

Unit conversion

Pressure Units
pound-force
technical
per
Symbols pascal bar atmosphere atmosphere torr
square inch
(Pa) (bar) (at) (atm) (Torr)
(psi)
1 Pa ≡ 1 N/m2 10−5 1.0197×10−5 9.8692×10−6 7.5006×10−3 145.04×10−6
1 bar 100,000 ≡ 106 dyn/cm2 1.0197 0.98692 750.06 14.5037744
1 at 98,066.5 0.980665 ≡ 1 kgf/cm 2
0.96784 735.56 14.223
1 atm 101,325 1.01325 1.0332 ≡ 1 atm 760 14.696
≡ 1 Torr;
1 torr 133.322 1.3332×10−3 1.3595×10−3 1.3158×10−3 19.337×10−3
≈ 1 mmHg
1 psi 6.894×103 68.948×10−3 70.307×10−3 68.046×10−3 51.715 ≡ 1 lbf/in2

1 Pa = 1 N/m2 = 10−5 bar = 10.197×10−6 at = 9.8692×10−6 atm, etc

I. Topic: Temperature Measurement

II. Introduction

Temperature, in physics, property of systems that determines whether they are in thermal equilibrium. It is
the degree of heat as an inherent quality of objects expressed as hotness or coldness relative to something else
The concept of temperature stems from the idea of measuring relative hotness and coldness and from the
observation that the addition of heat to a body leads to an increase in temperature as long as no melting or
boiling occurs. In the case of two bodies at different temperatures, heat will flow from the hotter to the colder
until their temperatures are identical and thermal equilibrium is reached. Thus, temperatures and heat, although
interrelated, refer to different concepts, temperature being a property of a body and heat being an energy flow to
or from a body by virtue of a temperature difference.
Temperature changes have to be measured in terms of other property changes of a substance. Thus, the
conventional mercury thermometer measures the expansion of a mercury column in a glass capillary, the change
in length of the column being related to the temperature change. If heat is added to an ideal gas contained in a
constant-volume vessel, the pressure increases, and the temperature change can be determined from the pressure
change by Gay-Lussac's law, provided the temperature is expressed on the absolute scale.
Absolute temperature determines the cease of all things in motion which is the 0 kelvin in SI unit and
0ºR in English unit.

III. Temperature Scales

Table 7 Temperature Scale, Inventors, Boiling and Freezing point

Temperature Symbol Inventor Freezing point Boiling
Scale point IV.

Celsius ºC Anders Celsius 0ºC 100ºC

Swedish Astronomer
Fahrenheit ºF Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit 32ºF 212ºF
German physicist

Rankine ºR William J. M. Rankine 491.67ºR 672ºR

(absolute British engineer and physicist
Temperature in
English unit)

Kelvin K William Thomson, 1st Baron 273.15 K 373.15 K

(absolute Kelvin
Temperature in British mathematician and
SI unit) physicist
Temperature unit conversion

tºC = 5/9 (ºF – 32) Tk = 273.15 + ºC

tºF = 9/5 ºC + 32 TR = 460 + ºF

whereas;

tºC = temperature in degree Celsius T k = temperature in kelvin, absolute

tºF = temperature in degree Fahrenheit T R = temperature in Rankine, absolute

Flow measurement
II. Introduction:
In physics, fluid dynamics is a sub-discipline of fluid mechanics that deals with fluid flow—the natural
science of fluids (liquids and gases) in motion.
Fluid dynamics has a wide range of applications, including calculating forces and moments on aircraft,
determining the mass flow rate of petroleum through pipelines, predicting weather patterns, understanding
nebulae in interstellar space and reportedly modeling fission weapon detonation.

III. Type of Flow

a.) Laminar – is the type of flow of fluid in which the fluid particles move along straight parallel paths in
the layers or laminae, in which Re < 2000  low velocity.
b.) Turbulent – is the of flow of fluid in which the fluid particles move in a haphazard fashion in all
direction. Re > 4000  high velocity.
c.) Critical -(Between laminar and Turbulent) Re = 2000 to 4000

Figure 11 Laminar flow

 Figure 12
Turbulence flow

IV. Formulas related to flow

γDv
Re = γ = specific weight of fluid, N/m3
μg
μ = absolute viscosity, poise, Pa-s, gm/cm-s, slug/ft/s
D = internal diameter, m, ft.
V = velocity
g = gravitational acceleration, m/s2, fps2
Re= Reynolds number
Reynolds number is a number used to indicate the flow of fluid through a pipe or around an obstruction.

IV. Continuity Equation

-is an equation derived from the first law of thermodynamics for a steady flow, open system. It is used
to determine the mass flow rate and volume flow rate of fluid.

1.) Volume flow rate Q = Av

A = area, m2, ft.2
v = velocity , m/s2, ft./s2
Q = volume flow, m3, ft.3

2.) mass flow rate ρ = m/V ; ṁ/Q ṁ= ρ Av

Q = ṁ/ρ = Av;

V. Bernoulli’s Equation
- is an equation used to determine the head of fluid.
h + (P/ρg) + ( v2/2g) = constant
h1 + (P1/ρg) + ( v12/2g) = h + (P2/ρg) + ( v22/2g)

whereas;
h = height, m, ft. P = pressure, Pa, N/m2, psi. ρ = mass density, kg./m3, lbm./ft.3 v = velocity, m/s2, ft./s